SACRED SHAPES

An inquiry into the mysticism of religious

and occult geometric figures

URMI CHANDA-VAZ
PG Diploma in Mysticism, 2014-15
Department of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai
e: [email protected]

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INDEX

1. Introduction …....................................................................................................... 3

2. Symmetry in nature and the beginnings of geometry ….......................................... 6

3. Geometrical concepts in the Vedas …...................................................................... 9

4. Sacred geometry …................................................................................................ 11

• Temples
• Churches
• Mosques

5. Mystical shapes in Hinduism and Tantric Buddhism …............................................. 15

• Yantras
• Mandalas
• Chakras
• Cosmograms
• Astronomical symbols
• The Swastika

6. Sacred shapes of the Far East …............................................................................. 27

• Confucianism
• Taoism
• Feng Shui
• Reiki

7. Geometric symbolism in Pagan traditions …......................….................................. 34

• Shamanism
• Wicca
• Native Americans
• Aborigines of Australia
• Miscellaneous

8. The symbols of Judaism and Christianity …............................................................. 39

9. Symbols of secret societies ….................................................................................. 41

• Rosicrucians
• Free Masons

10. Conclusion …......................................................................................................... 45

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Imagine the wonder of the prehistoric man when he first observed symmetries in nature. Nature was
as beautiful as it was big, and rightfully inspired awe. From the hexagonal cell of a beehive to the
aligned movement of celestial bodies, nature offered wondrous examples of perfect geometry.
Science has long established that symmetry has a biological significance and that it affects humans'
perception of health and beauty1. It therefore stands to reason that when man began to worship
nature, it included the veneration and imitation of its geometrical aspects. This is evident from the
earliest engravings on seals2 and cave paintings3 in different parts of the world how geometrical
shapes have been a part of man's artistic and eventually, religious journey.
Coleman asserts that “... art and religion... – though not interchangeable or identical – frequently
parallel each other or converge4.”

With a crossover of precepts from art to religion, geometry gains a special place in religious art and
symbolism. Nearly all religions and cults of the world have some form of symbolism that is geometric.
Simple points, circles and triangles become more than just shapes. They become aids of ritual and
then of meditation within a religious framework. Now, where there is a question of religion, there is a
question of faith; and where there is a question of faith, there is an element of mysticism. Before we
probe into the mystical aspects of sacred shapes, let us consider a few definitions of mysticism so as to
define the scope of this paper.

Definitions of Mysticism
Such is the nature of a mystical event, that it evades definition. While the history of mystics and their
experiences has long been recorded, an academic inquiry into the subject of mysticism started not
very long ago. Since then, scholars have offered varying explanations of the subject, trying to define
the indefinable.

1 A.C. Sparavigna, The Symmetries of the Icons on Ancient Seals, (International Journal of Sciences, 2013, vol.2, Issue 8),
p. 2
2 Ibid., pp. 14-20
3 David S. Whitley, Handbook of Rock Art Research, (Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), p. 720
4 Earle Jerome Coleman, Creativity and Spirituality: Bonds between Art and Religion, (SUNY Press, 1998), p. 1

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At a very fundamental level, mysticism can be understood as an ineffable process of man's union with
God. We take a look at some definitions as offered by stalwarts in this field of study.

The Oxford English Dictionary offers the two following definitions:

- Belief that union with or absorption into the Deity or the absolute, or the spiritual apprehension of
knowledge inaccessible to the intellect, may be attained through contemplation and self-surrender.
- Vague or ill-defined religious or spiritual belief, especially as associated with a belief in the occult.

Evelyn Underhill, one of mysticism's foremost scholars disagrees vehemently, especially with the
OED's second definition. In her famous book, Mysticism, she says:
Mysticism is not an opinion: It is not a philosophy. It has nothing in common with the pursuit of occult
knowledge. . . . It is the name of that organic process which involves the perfect consummation of the
Love of God: the achievement here and now of the immortal heritage of man. Or, if you like it better—
for this means exactly the same thing—it is the art of establishing his conscious relation with the
Absolute.

In his book, Hindu Mysticism, S N Dasgupta offers a multidimensional view of Mysticism:

Mysticism means a spiritual grasp of the aims and problems of life in a much more real and ultimate
manner than is possible to mere reason. A developing life of mysticism means a gradual ascent in the
scale of spiritual values, experience and spiritual ideals. As such, it is many-sided in its development,
and as rich and complete as life itself.

William James, in an attempt to reign in loose use of the terms 'mystical' and 'mysticism', tried to
define it on the basis of four parameters viz. Ineffability, Noetic Quality, Transiency and Passivity.

There are numerous other definitions by numerous other writers, but there is no clear consensus on
what mysticism really is. However, for the purpose of this paper, we may zero in on a few of
characteristics of mysticism, borrowing from Underhill's list5.
5 Evelyn Underhill, Mysticism, (One World, 2nd edition, 1999), p. 51

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 1. Mysticism as an active and practical principle: Some mystics and scholars have described
mysticism as something that is begotten by the grace of God. However, some others agree that
the mystic way of life needs a practitioner to be active. In the context of this paper, the creator
and/or user of a sacred geometrical shape is actively using an element to help further his
spiritual cause.

2. Transcendental and spiritual aims of the mystic: Whether he draws Zen-like lines on sand or
creates elaborate temples based on mandalas, the aim of the mystic is always spiritual and
transcendental.

3. Association with the occult: Even if ill-conceived, mysticism continues to be associated with
occult practices. While geometrical shapes by themselves may not be directly responsible for
mystical experiences, this paper shall explore them as tools used as part of ritual and spiritual
practices in the cultic context.

Further, this paper will explore and review the various forms of sacred geometry and geometrical
patterns in religious and occult art used as a means of spiritual progression. The inspirations and
myths behind these figures, the supposed powers accorded by them and other such mystical aspects
will be examined. The idea is to understand the universal mystical ideas associated with geometrical
figures within multiple religious frameworks.

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 2. SYMMETRY IN NATURE AND THE BEGINNINGS OF GEOMETRY

Once chaos gave way to creation, life and matter aligned themselves into grand patterns. Everywhere
you look in nature, symmetry makes itself evident. From the smallest crystals to the largest trees, from
delicate snowflakes to massive animals, the ordering principle of nature is manifest. Simple repetitions
and consistent spaces give rise to symmetrical designs. While there are cases of seeming randomness
in nature too, these are exceptions rather than rules. The larger picture is always methodical and
hence awe-inspiring.
In its simplest forms, symmetry can be classified in terms of
rotation and reflection6. These are called point symmetries,
where a simple element rotated around a point forms a
symmetrical design. Many flowers display this kind of
symmetry. Yet another element, when duplicated and placed
as its reflection forms the second kind of symmetry. A
butterfly's wings are a perfect example in this case. Radial
symmetry is another kind of point symmetry, and the
structures are finite. Replications may occur in two or three
dimensions, as in the case of snowflakes or dandelions.
Another kind of symmetry is that of self similarity. In this kind,
the basic structure remains the same despite regular amounts
and periods of growth. Tree rings, shells and horns are
Petals of flowers and wings of butterflies
are some of the commonest examples of examples of this kind of spiral symmetries.
natural symmetry. [Image source: flowers-
kid.com]

In the animal world, the dominant type of symmetry is dorsiventral. Mobile

creatures are usually created in a left-right mirror image of themselves.
Most insects, birds, mammals and even humans are created in such
symmetries. Fractals and helixes are some more natural examples of
symmetry. A snowflake's perfect
symmetry has long intrigued
6 David Wade, Symmetry: The Ordering Principle, (Wooden Books, 2006), p 4 man. [Image source:
clipartpanda.com]
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Another common symmetrical manifestation in nature is that of the sphere. A sphere is one of
nature's primary ordering mediums. From the smallest droplet of water to fruits and eggs to galactic
bodies, a sphere is seen everywhere. While the smallest spherical bodies assume this shape due to
surface tension, the larger bodies owe their shape to the power of gravity 7. In fact, the sphere was
considered so sacred in the ancient times that the Greek philosopher Xenophanes 8 replaced the whole
pantheon on Greek gods with 'the sphere' and declared it a divine entity. With man coming across
such instances in nature all the time, it was natural that he would study and revere the principles of
symmetry and consequently, geometry.

The observation of symmetry gave birth to the discipline of geometry and its first reflections were
religious rather than scientific. How some of the earliest cultures were inspired by and adopted these
shapes in their religious practices will be dealt with in the following sections. For now, we turn our
attention to the earliest references to geometry, particularly sacred geometry.

Blombos cave rock art in sub-Saharan Africa [Image source: www.ancienthistorylists.com]

The earliest instances of geometrical reflection occur in cave paintings or etchings. Simple geometrical
patterns have been found depicted in the cave art of cultures across the world, right back to the
Palaeolothic age. Holme9 says that these paintings 'may very likely have served as a magic vehicle for
gaining control over nature, for casting a spell on the game thus ensuring a successful hunt. But a
purpose of recording events, enumerating items, describe motion and spatial relationships may also

7 Ibid. p 12
8 Jonathan Barne, The Presocratic Philosophers, (Routledge, 2002), p 76
9 Audun Holme, Geometry: Our Cultural Heritage, (Springer Science & Business Media, 2010), p 4

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have been present. One could say that such documents contain elements of protogeometry.' Later
prehistoric ages such as the Neolithic and Chalcolithic ages also showed man's awareness and use of
geometrical patterns in ceramic art and terracotta artifacts.

Cut to civilization in ancient Egypt, Indus Valley, Mesopotamia and Greece. Egypt's massive pyramids
and the sophisticated town plans of Harappa are known to all. Also known are the very geometrical
cuneiform, Sumerian and the yet undeciphered Harappan scripts. However, it is to the Greeks that
geometry owes its special status to. Indeed, geometry was considered among the four sacred ancient
arts and the sign over Plato's academy declared: 'Let none ignorant of geometry enter here 10'!

10 Miranda Lundy, Sacred Geometry, (Wooden Books, 2012), p 1

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 3. GEOMETRICAL CONCEPTS IN THE VEDIC CONTEXT

Like all glorious things, India's geometric

legacy starts with the Vedas. While
rudimentary geometrical shapes were
found in prehistoric caves all over the
country, it is only in Vedic literature that a
concretisation of concepts take place.

According to Mookerjee11, “In its search

Diagram of a falcon-shaped Vedic fire altar. Jain, Western India. 18th
century. Gouache on paper. © Peter Blohm [Image source: for fundamentals, Indian art has always
indianminiaturepaintings.co.uk]
tried to integrate forms into geometrical
and architectural patterns, the archetypes. … A wide variety of geometrical shapes dominates the
whole range of Indian symbolism, particularly in Vedic and Tantric diagrams and formulae, in which
the motifs have reached the goal of absolute 'geometrical purity'.” Very interestingly, he further notes
how even the most sacred syllable Om (split into the syllables a-u-m) presupposes geometrical
patterns corresponding to a straight line, a semi-circle and a point.

In the Shulba Sutras culminated the whole of geometrical knowledge – especially constructional
geometry – of the time. The Sanskrit root word 'shulb' means 'to measure' and 'shulba' refers to the
measuring cord. However, the term used for measuring in the text itself is rajju and not shulb12. The
Shulba Sutras – composed roughly between the 8h and 5th centuries BCE13 – are part of a larger
compendium of texts called the Srauta Sutras, which are considered appendices to the Vedas . The
four major Shulba Sutras were named Baudhayana, Apastambha, Manava and Katyayana presumably
after their respective authors14.

11 Ajit Mookerjee, 'Tradition in Indian Art', Art, Culture and Spirituality – ed. By Swami Atmaramananda & Dr. M
Sivaramakrishna, (Advaita Ashrama Publicaitons, 1997), p 211
12 I S Bhanu Murthy, A Modern Introduction to Ancient Indian Mathematics, (New Age International', 1993), p 155
13 T A Saraswati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medieval India, (Motilal Banarsidass Pub., 1979), p 14
14 John F Price, Applied Geometry of the Sulba Sutras – an essay in Geometry at Work, ed. by Catherine A Gorini,
(Cambridge University Press, 2000), p 46

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These Shulba Sutras deal mainly with the measurements and construction of the fire altar – the
central precept of the Vedic system. It instructs on how to create squares, rectangles, parallelograms
and trapeziums. A number of theorems pertaining to the construction of squares is also given in the
Sutras and are comparable to Pythagoras' ideas.

While these points of precision geometry are awe-inspiring indeed from

the mathematical point of view, it was the origin and inclusion of these
ideas in the sacrificial context that is truly mystical. Price 15 notes the
versatile ways in which Sanskrit words can be interpreted; hence
geometrical terms take on religio-mystical connotations. He cites the

A design of a Vedic sacrificial

example of the word citi, which means a raised platform in literal terms,
altar shows clear geometrical but is also closely connected to the word cit. Further, the word vedi
shapes like circles, squares and
arcs in use. [Image source: translates to the area on which the citi is built, but the word could also
dam.brown.edu]
stand for one who knows the Vedas. Another word purusa, according to
Price, can be seen either as a unit of measurement or as “the uninvolved witnessing quality of
intelligence, the unified self-referral state of intelligence at the basis of all creativity.” These and many
other words in the Shulba Sutras imply a deeper, more mystical meaning behind these constructions.

Other mystical aspects of geometry in Vedic sacrifices are not so covert. The falcon-shaped altar, for
example, is defined in the Sutras as one that would help transport man's soul to heaven 16, and the
circular altar is meant to destroy one's enemies17. Other shapes mentioned in the Shatapatha
Brahmana are that of a bucket and a heron18. Kramrisch points out how most of these structures were
based of the basic square and circle and how they had ritual significance and seeming mystical
properties. She says: “The circle and curve belong to life in its growth and movement. The square is
the mark of order, of finality to the expanding life, its form; and of perfection beyond life and death 19.”

15 Price, Op Cit. p 47
16 George Gheverghese Joseph, The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, (Princeton University
Press, 2011), p 337
17 Albert Borgmann, Holding On to Reality: The Nature of Information at the Turn of the Millennium, (University of
Chicago Press, 2007), p 65
18 Herman Wayne Tull, The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual, (SUNY Press, 1989),
p 96
19 Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple: Volume 1, (Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1976), p 22

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 4. SACRED GEOMETRY

Sacred geometry is the ancient belief that shapes and mathematical designs lie behind all creation.
The concept is common to most religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity, as
also other pagan faiths and cults. One of the earliest and most famous examples of geometrical
structures of seemingly ritual significance is the Stonehenge in England. The Pyramids of Egypt have
also been objects of awe for the modern onlooker. The principles of sacred geometry were also
observed in primitive societies which built sacred groves effusing divinity.

From Pythagoras, Plato and Plutarch to Jung and modern day researchers, the sacredness of geometry
has been repeatedly asserted. Once man recognised the importance of geometry in the outer and
inner realms, he started applying its principles in the objects and structures he created. The
fundamental shapes of a circle, a square and a triangle became the bases for architecture, especially
religious architecture. It is in this context that the concept of sacred geometry formally emerged.

In the Eastern architectural traditions, sacred

geometry is manifest in the idea of mandalas.
Generally speaking, a mandala “refers to
something that is round or circular, such as a
ring or circle, further a region, terrestrial
division, domain, assembly or a group20.”
However, in the context of architecture and
vāstu, the vāstupuruṣa mandala is of
importance and it has been defined by
Kramrisch (1976) as: The Vāstupuruṣa
mandala, the diagram of the temple is a
Yantra (upon which the temple is built). It has
Illustration 1: Vastupurusa mandala [Image source: boloji.com]
been explained as:

20 Gudrun Bühnemann et al., Maṇḍalas and Yantras in the Hindu Tradition, (DK Printworld (P) Ltd, Delhi, 2003), p 13

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The site is represented as a human being or ‘vastu purusha’ with his face down and his body occupied
by various deities with different qualities21. This figure forms the plan of many South East Asian
religious structures. The Jagannath temple at Puri, Odisha is one of the several hundred examples of
sacred monuments built on the vāstupuruṣa mandala, in accordance with Vāstu Shastra. Vāstu
Shastra elaborates upon the science & art of architecture and is part of the corpus of Śilpa texts of
ancient India, which describe in detail various arts and crafts. Ancient temples and pagodas in
Cambodia are also built on these principles.

In the West and Islamic nations too, sacred geometry is evident in religious architecture. Just as the
Hindu temple is envisaged as the body of God, the Church is considered to be the body of Christ 22. The
symbolism of squares, circles and triangles is profound in Church architecture, which can be explained
as follows:

“The plan of the building, based on a dialogue between

circles and squares summarizes the relationship between
God and man. The circle stands for Heaven, the sacred, the
spiritual world. The square, on the other hand, represents
the cosmos, material things, the terrestrial condition23.”

The Byzantine school followed these principles rigorously for

centuries in church construction, but with Romanesque
architecture, the paradigms shifted to non-geometric forms.
However, the geometric symbolism remains strongly
The north transept rose – a stained glass embedded in Christian thought to this day as is seen in
window – of Chartres Cathedral. [Image
source: Wikimedia Commons] symbols such as the Triquetra and the Star of David.

21 Jayadevi Venugopal, Vastu Purusha Mandala- A Human Ecological Framework For Designing Living Environments,
(Paper for the International Conference on Advances in Architecture and Civil engineering- June 2012), p 4, accessed
from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/52887/1/vpm_framework_jayadevi.pdf
22 Louis Bouyer, The Church if God: Body of Christ and Temple of the Spirit, (Ignatius Press, 2011), p 320
23 Camilian Demetrescu, Symbols In Sacred Architecture And Iconography, (Sacred Architecture: Journal of the Institute
for Sacred Architecture, Vol: Winter 2000), pp 29-30, accessed from
http://www.sacredarchitecture.org/images/uploads/volumesPDFs/Issue_3_2000.pdf

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Geometrical patterns and motifs can be seen in a lot of stain glass art as well as tile work in church
precincts throughout the world.

Islamic religious art has a high dependence on geometric patterns because of the religion's prohibition
on representational imagery. Calligraphy and arabesque/vegetal patterns are other popular motifs in
Islamic art. However, it is sacred geometry that holds a central place.
The ideals are beautifully encapsulated in the following words by Rehman24:

“In the grand tradition of Islamic architecture... buildings are conceived as a whole or single unit. The
various components and volumes are balanced in both vertical and horizontal planes. Therefore, the
architecture not only participates in the rhythms and forces of nature but also in her binding harmony
and unity.

“... From the philosophical point of view, architectural monuments were designed on the basis of pure
geometry. These structures carry body and soul. The body was designed using sacred geometry and
the soul was created with the help of light, ventilation, sound effects, landscape, color, texture, and
symbolism, used in both the interior and exterior.”

The culture of mathematics in the Islamic world

manifested in precision architecture, which also
reflected their spiritual ideals of unity. These often
complex geometric patterns on the walls of
mosques and mausoleums help “directing
attention to the Centre, which is everywhere and
nowhere, untying the knots of the soul, and
preventing subjectivism25”.
Tile pattern at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. [Image
source: Wikimedia Commons]

24 Abdul Rehman, The Grand Tradition of Islamic Architecture, (Understanding Islamic Architecture , edited by Attilio
Petruccioli, Khalil K. Pirani, Psychology Press, 2002), p 28
25 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality, (SUNY Press, 1990), p 48

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These geometric patterns comprise of simple patterns like the circle, polygon or star which are
combined, repeated and interlaced to form complex designs. While individually, the shapes may not
be ascribed meaning, when combined they gave the Islamic artist the scope to portray abstract
spiritual ideas about the self, God and His creation. Geometric motifs represent the infinity of creation
that extends beyond the concrete spaces. Mistakes in rendering these motifs are sometimes
apparently intentional, where the Muslim artist humbly submits that only God is capable of
perfection.

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 4. MYSTICAL SHAPES IN HINDUISM AND TANTRIC BUDDHISM

Hinduism and the Vajrayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism are suffused with religious symbolism,
many of which are thoroughly geometric in nature. In the lesser known left-hand path of Tantra,
geometric shapes take on deeply spiritual meanings and are accorded great importance in ritual and
sadhana. While mantras are auditory manifestations of energy, yantras and mandalas form their visual
counterparts. Chakras, on the other hand, are conceived as energy centres of the body. In the
following section, these three concepts will be elaborated upon, along with some illustrations and
enumeration of their supposed mystical powers.

(i) Yantras
A yantra is literally a device that is identified with
and used to invoke particular deities. To define it, a
yantra “designates an instrument, machine,
mechanical device or appliance (especially one
used in warfare), and also a magic diagram. It is
derived from the verbal root yam, 'to control', and
tra, a Sanskrit substantive for tool.”

Shiva-Shakti yantra [Image source: Scholars have classified26 yantras according to their
yantrablessings.com]
functions. Some of them are:
1. Rakshayantra – A yantra meant for protection
2. Devatayantra – A yantra used for actualising divinities
3. Dhyanayantra – A yantra used as a tool for meditation
4. Pujayantra – A yantra employed in regular Tantric worship of a deity
5. Sthapanayantra – A yantra used for establishing a foundation

Yantras are usually small in size and can be two or three dimensional. They can be drawn on surfaces
such as paper, floors and walls, etched on or moulded with metals such as gold, silver or copper.
26 Gudrun Bühnemann et al., Maṇḍalas and Yantras in the Hindu Tradition, (DK Printworld (P) Ltd, Delhi, 2003), pp 32-33

15
 Yantras are of various kinds, i.e. belonging to different
deities like Kali, Shiva, Ganesha, Lakshmi, etc., or can be
architectural, numerical or astrological in nature.

Yantras are purely geometrical abstractions of deities,

which help the tantric meditate upon its energy. At once,
they 'denote cosmos, infinity, time, space, or the play of
polarities'27. A good example of the unison of polar
opposites within a yantra is the Shiva-Shakti yantra as
Shri Yantra [Image source: successimg.com]
denoted on page 13. The upward and downward-pointing
triangles represent Shiva and Shakti respectively.

Similarly, every element of a yantra diagram is laden with symbolism and meaning. Constructed from
the inside out, most yantras comprise of elementary geometric forms which are, 'the point, line, circle,
triangle, square and the lotus symbol; all of these forms are juxtaposed, combined, intersected and
repeated in various ways to produce the desired objective. 28' Zimmer neatly classifies these elements
of a yantra, with the quintessential example of the Shri Yantra. He says:

“Typical of the whole class are the elements of the Shri Yantra: (1) a square outer frame, composed of
straight lines broken according to a regular pattern, (2) an inclosed arrangement of concentric circles
and stylised lotus petals, (3) a concentric composition of [nine] interpenetrating triangles. 29”

In addition to Zimmer's list, many yantras incorporate a bindu or a bija mantra of the deity in the
centre. But we shall focus on the geometrical parts and their meanings. The symbolism of the
component parts of a yantra, as detailed in the following section, are common to mandalas and
chakras as well. These basic geometrical shapes form the basis of these sacred figures.

27 Ajit Mookerjee and Madhu Khanna, The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual, (Thames and Hudson, 2003), p 54
28 Ibid. p 51
29 Heinrich Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, (Motilal Banarsidas Publishers P. Ltd., 1990), p 143

16
 The point or bindu: The bindu or the central point of a yantra is variously
understood to be the mathematical zero point of beginning, void, ether, space or
consciousness. Whether visible or invisible, it is the point from which everything
emanates and into which everything dissolves.

The line: A line, which though a component of other geometric shapes, has a
symbolism of its own. 'The straight line signifies growth and development and
like time, consists of an infinite number of points, each discreetly in space. Pure
linear patterns are drawn lyrically to illustrate sound vibrations, or geometrically
in a criss-cross manner, to form a certain order of the divisions of space,
measures of time and the base lines of the universe.30'

The circle: Either a single circle or concentric circles occur very often in Yantras
and mandalas. They are normally beset within a square or a triangle. A circle
with its continuous nature may represent the revolution of planets, totality,
manifestation or ether.

The triangle or trikona: The triangle is the perhaps the most pervasive and
potent shapes not just in Tantrism but in symbolism across cultures. As noted
above, the upward-pointing triangle stands for Shiva and the downward-
pointing triangle for Shakti in the Tantric context. The downward triangle is a
representation of the yoni and hence fertility. The triangle is also said to stand
for the three gunas viz. Sattva, Rajas and Tamas; the three states of jagrat
(wakefulness), swapna (dream) and sushupti (deep sleep); or even the three
worlds. In the Buddhist context31, the downward-pointing triangle is identified
with Dharmodaya and the upward-pointing one with Nevar, the god of dance
and music.

30 Ajit Mookerjee and Madhu Khanna, The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual, (Thames and Hudson, 2003), p 55
31 Gudrun Bühnemann et al., Maṇḍalas and Yantras in the Hindu Tradition, (DK Printworld (P) Ltd, Delhi, 2003), pp 39-40

17
 The square: The square forms the outer periphery for most yantras and
represents solidity. It is also associated with the four cardinal directions or
sometimes the four Vedas. This square is usually 'gated' on four sides, which
serve as symbolic entry points for the practitioner.

The pentacle: Though an uncommon shape in yantras, the pentacle occurs in

some instances like the Guhyakali yantra. The five-pointed star is extremely
relevant in Judeo-Christian religions. In the context of Tantrism, it is mostly
associated with Shiva and Kali, five being a number favoured by the dark
goddess.

The hexagon: This is a more popular shape in the realm of yantras, as it

represents the intersection of two equilateral triangles. The merging of the
triangles thereby stands for the cosmic union of the male and female principles.
In Buddhism, the two triangles represent the ideas of prajnya (insight) and
upaya (means) and their union is called evam.

The lotus: While the lotus is not a geometrical pattern, it is another very
important component of yantras, mandalas and chakras. The lotus is
ubiquitously recognised as a symbol of purity, transcendence and fertility in
Southeast Asian culture and is therefore a repeatedly occurring motif in its
symbolism. The lotus in such drawings may have petals anywhere between two
and thousand, although the four, five, six, eight and sixteen petalled versions
are popular. The meaning of the lotus symbol changes with the changing number of petals, but the
underlying idea is the symmetry and sacredness of the symbol.

Each geometrical component of a yantra, mandala or chakra is laden with deeply esoteric meanings.
Together, they form potent power diagrams that help harness energies from deities and the cosmos.
These symbols are found not just in sacred architecture, but are also used as talismans for protection
and luck. Geometrical shapes, are thus, essential to sacred art in Hindu and Buddhist traditions.

18
(ii) Mandalas

Monks creating a Tibetan sand mandala [Image source:

blog.blantonmuseum.org]

The word mandala simply means 'circle' but the common meaning ascribed to it is a geometrical
diagram with circular and square patterns and divine icons. Mandalas represent the cosmos and its
many lords and creations. Mandalas are of equal import in Hinduism and Buddhism, but they've been
raised to the level of complex art in the latter tradition. The sand mandalas of Tibetan Buddhism are
very well-known and require days of skillful activity to create (see figure above).

Like the yantra, the mandala is also a visual aid for contemplation and meditation. However, like the
linear yantras which are mostly simple line drawings, mandalas include elaborate designs, colours and
multitudinous figures. Generally, they are also larger than yantras. In combination, such details allow
for hundreds of mandala patterns, but the basic figure is made up of squares and circles.

Pott defines mandala as 'a cosmic configuration in the centre of which is an image or symbolic
substitute of a prominent god surrounded by those of a number of deities of lower rank ordered
hierarchically both among themselves and in relation to the chief figures, which configuration may be

19
used as an aid to meditation and in ritual as a receptacle for the gods 32.'

Mandalas have been classified into different types by H. Brunner with reference to the Siddhanta
School of Shaivism but Bühnemann33 opines that these categories are quite universal. These include:

1. Seat mandalas: These are not of clear structure and are just created as sacred spaces for
deities, people or objects to be 'seated' on during a ritual.
2. Power mandalas: These large mandalas created temporarily with powders of different colours
are used as supports for the worship of deities.
3. Distributive diagrams: These mandalas have square grids within them in which either divine or
demonic forces are invoked to accept food offerings or bali.

Within the different schools of Buddhism and Hinduism, there are more classifications of mandalas
like healing & teaching mandalas, garbha dhatu & vajra dhatu mandalas and so on. But these are
philosophical classifications and hence do not warrant detail in this paper. Brunner's classification is
structural and helps us focus on the geometrical components of a mandala. The primary geometrical
components of a mandala are the circle and the square and their ramifications have been mentioned
above. A combination of such elements also creates chakras, which is the next topic.

(iii) Chakras

The concept of chakras is a highly mystical one, for it evades definition. Etymologically, chakras simply
mean wheels or circular shapes in Sanskrit, but they have a highly esoteric meaning in the contexts of
Yoga and Tantra. They've been called psychic centres of the subtle body and figuratively visualised as
lotuses34. Some definitions of Chakras are as follows:

Merriam Webster Dictionary: Any of several points of physical or spiritual energy in the human body
according to yoga philosophy.
32 P H Pott, Yoga and Yantra: Their Interrelation and Their Significance for Indian Archeology, (M. Nijhoff, 1946)
33 Gudrun Bühnemann et al., Maṇḍalas and Yantras in the Hindu Tradition, (DK Printworld (P) Ltd, Delhi, 2003), pp 19-20
34 Ajit Mookerjee and Madhu Khanna, The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual, (Thames and Hudson, 2003), p 153

20
Oxford English Dictionary: (In Indian thought) each of seven centres of spiritual power in the human
body.

C W Leadbeater (1927) suggests that a 'Chakra refers

to the ancient Hindu concept of seven vortices of
energy located on the spine from the tailbone to the
crown of the head. These centers define the physical
and spiritual contact points in the human body. In yoga
they are bridges to higher consciousness symbolizing
the journey from the material world to the divine.'

And of the four possible meanings Roy35 offers of the

word Chakra, based on Sanskrit, one is of particular
interest to us. He says that the term chakras may be
used 'to denote yantras or mystic diagrams, variously
known as trikoṇa-cakra, aṣṭakoṇa-cakra, etc.'

While there are slight variations in the names and

A graphic depiction of chakras. [Image source: number of chakras, the most common version is that
www.reikido-france.com]
of the seven chakras viz. The Muladhara, the
Svadhishtana, the Manipura, the Anahata, the
Vishuddha, the Ajna and the Sahasrara36. The imagery and symbolism of each of these chakras is
complex and multi-layered. They have their respective positions, reigning deities, bija mantras,
associated tattvas, ruling organs and so on, but we shall restrict ourselves to describing their visual or
yantra forms – especially from the geometrical point of view. The universal symbolism of their
component parts have been discussed above. However, chakra-specific meanings will be briefly
mentioned on the basis of Johari's37 interpretations.

35 N N Bhattacharyya, History of the Tantric Religion, (Second Revised ed., Manohar publishers, 1999, New Delhi). pp.
385–86
36 Harish Johari, Chakras: Energy Centers of Transformation, (Inner Traditions, USA, 1987), pp. 47-93
37 Johari, Op Cit. , pp. 47-93

21
 The Muladhara Chakra: Located at the base of the spine, this is the first
chakra, tracing from the bottom to the top of the human body. The basic
shape of the tattva is square and it is represented with a triangle in the
centre, a square around it, followed by a circle and four lotus petals on the
outermost periphery. The triangle represents the seat of the Kundalini
serpent, the square represents the earth element, while the circle with the
four lotus petals represents the ganglions that are formed at the four
important nerve endings.

The Svadhishtana Chakra: The Swadhishtana Chakra is located near the

genitals or the hypogastric plexus. Since its tattva is water, it is primarily
designed in circular patterns. An innermost crescent is bordered by a circle,
while six lotus petals form its outermost boundary. The circle and crescent
stand for water, and the six petals stand for the six important nerve endings.

The Manipura Chakra: The third of the series – the Manipura Chakra – is a
simple pattern with an inverted triangle at the centre, surrounded by a circle
and then 10 lotus petals. It is situated in the solar plexus near the navel. The
downward-pointing triangle represents its tattva of fire and the downward
movement of energy, whereas the circle with ten lotus petals ten
important nerve endings or the ten pranas or the ten Braddha Rudras
(Rudras/ Shivas).

The Anahata Chakra: The Anahata is the heart chakra and as the name
suggests, it is located at the cardiac plexus. The yantra comprises a hexagram
or a six-pointed star, made by the intersection of two equilateral triangles. The
star is encircled and has 12 lotus petals around it. The hexagram represents
the element of air or the harmony between Shiva and Shakti. The 12 lotus
petals stand for the expansion of energy in all directions.

22
 The Vishuddha Chakra: The fifth chakra is the Vishuddha, which is also called
the throat chakra, based on its location. Its tattva or element is akasha, which
is represented by a circle enclosed within an inverted triangle. Outside are 16
lotus petals, which represent the maximum number of channels through
which the energy flows.

The Ajna Chakra: The Ajna Chakra is located near the pineal gland or between
the eyes. It is represented by a two-petaled white lotus. The circle on which
the petals are, may sometimes have an inverted triangle in it or simply a linga.
The petals stand for the habernulae of the pineal gland and the inverted
triangle and linga stand for the Ardhanarishwara, which is the presiding deity
of the chakra.

The Sahasrahara Chakra: The topmost and most mystical of chakras is the
Sahasrahara chakra. It is the thousand-petaled lotus, which rests on the top
of the cranium. Its yantra form is visualised as a moon/circle, above which is
an umbrella of a thousand lotus petals in various colours. The petals are a
representation of the ultimate spiritual power and infinity.

Apart from Yantras, Mandalas and Chakras, Hindu and Buddhist cultures have numerous other
symbols that are geometrical in character. Cosmological figures, astrological diagrams or other simple
symbols denoting prosperity or protection are used. Some of them have been considered next.

Cosmograms

The world as the ancient man saw it has been depicted in cosmograms across cultures. A cosmogram
has been defined by Singh 38 as 'a magico-spatial design, which combines macro-, meso- and micro-
cosmos at an order and level of unity. This way it serves to explain and experience the integral

38 Rana P. B. Singh, Cosmic Order and Cultural Astronomy: Sacred Cities of India, (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009),
pp 152-153

23
 relationship between man and the Cosmos, and the central point represents the life breath of the
earth.... it defines cardinality, centrality and circulation.'

The Hindu view of the Universe has been described 39

in the epics and Puranas, for example at the
beginning of the Mahabharata war, when Sanjaya
describes the cosmos and Bharatavarsha's place in it.
The Bhagavata Purana also describes this cosmology.
The Universe is the Brahmanda or Cosmic Egg, which
itself reflects a universal notion of creation within a
geometrical shape. Within it lie the four worlds or
varshas, of which Bharatavarsha is one. The other
The four Dvipas surrounding Mt. Meru like a lotus three dvipas are Uttara Kuru, Ketumala, Bhadrashva
[Image source: circumlocatious.blogspot.in]
and they all surround Mount Meru like a lotus (see
figure alongside). These islands having mountain
ranges and rivers are surrounded by seven concentric alternating rings of seas and islands. These
bodies, from inside to the outside, are as follows:

1. Jambu Dvipa
2. Sea of salt
3. Plaksha Dvipa
4. Sea of sugarcane juice
5. Shalmali Dvipa
6. Sea of wine
7. Kusha Dvipa
8. Sea of ghee
9. Krauncha Dvipa
10. Sea of yoghurt A Hindu cosmogram with Mt. Meru at the centre and seven concentric
rings of seas and islands. [Image source: manimandala.com]

39 Diana L Eck, India: A Sacred Geography, (Harmony Books, 2012), pp 106-124

24
 11. Shaka Dvipa
12. Sea of milk
13. Pushkara Dvipa
14. Sea of pure water

The final frontier is marked by the Lokaloka mountains. There are

detailed descriptions of each of these islands and seas, but we shall
restrict ourselves to the geometric symbolism of such cosmograms. With
Mount Meru as its axis mundi, the seven concentric rings are really a
cross section of the Brahmanda40. This flat surface is called the
Bhumandala. The sacred lotus petals make an appearance here too and
have a number of numerological symbols associated with them like the
four cardinal directions and the four varnas.

A vertical view of the universe in Jaina cosmology, which shares many

concepts with its Hindu counterpart, may better explain the idea. The
A vertical conception of the
Jaina universe [Image source: Bhumandala belongs to the middle section or the Madhya Loka of this
Louise Croff Blake 2013]
diagram, while multiple levels of heavens and hells take up the top and
bottom parts. The Jaina version of Jambudvipa (bottom left) is similar to the Hindu cosmogram, and so
is the Buddhist one (bottom right).

(L) Jain Cosmogram [image source: National museum, New Delhi] and (R)
Burmese Buddhist Cosmogram [Image source: skyscript.co.uk]
40 Eck, Op Cit. p 121

25
Astronomical motifs

Close on the heels of the ancient man's conjectures about

the earth, came his reflections about the skies. Planetary
and other celestial bodies came to be included in
cosmograms. In due course, astronomy and astrology
developed into full-blown streams of knowledge, with their
accompanying compendium of visual arts. In the context of
astrological diagrams in tantra, Mookerjee and Khanna say:
Astrological computations, like most Tantric diagrams, are
also marked by mathematical proportions: grid patterns of
Symbols of the Navagraha or nine planets flat colours have a mosaic-like simultaneity; kinetic curves
according to Hindu astrology. [Image source:
www.divinehandicrafts.com] encircling solar and lunar orbs create powerful gestalt
sensations. Planetary signs abound: the sun as a red solar disc; the moon as an opalescent crescent;
Mars represented as a vermilion triangle; Mercury as a sap-green droplet; a yellow straight line
represents Jupiter; a blue five-pointed star denotes Venus; and Saturn is represented as purple, the
densest of all colours.41”

These shapes depicting planets testify for the mystical aspects of geometry. Lines, circles and curves
come together to create diagrams that help man not just understand but also harness higher powers.

The Swastika
The Swastika is another ubiquitous geometrical symbol, which, despite its
Hindu origins, occurs in cultures around the world. The four central lines
making a plus sign and its four extensions have been variously interpreted. But
its most common interpretation is that the Swastike stands for the four cardinal
directions, or a solar wheel 42. This sacred symbol can be seen in a variety of
The right-pointing
religious and ritual contexts. Swastika. [Image
source: Wikimedia
commons]
41 Mookerjee and Khanna, Op Cit., p 73
42 Gautam Chatterjee, Sacred Hindu Symbols, (Abhinav Publications, 2001), p 39

26
 6. SACRED SHAPES OF THE FAR EAST

In our journey of mystical geometrical shapes, we now turn to the Far East. Between China, Japan,
Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia and the other nations in that geographical region, a
great many systems of religion are followed. Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism and other minor
faith systems are also observed here, they have been dealt with in other sections of this paper. The
focus of this section shall be Confucianism, Taoism/ Daoism and Shintoism. We shall also examine
some symbols from Reiki – a major spiritual system that originated in Japan, and Feng Shui – a Chinese
philosophical system.

(i) Confucianism
Also known as Ruism, Confucianism is an ancient and very important religion of China. It is more
correctly a philosophical and ethical system of teachings propounded by the Chinese philosopher
Confucius in the 4th century BCE. Confucianism faced many ups and down through the centuries, but a
percentage of the people of China a neighbouring nations have held on to and preserved this ancient
system to this day. Since Confucianism is a humanistic, secular system, it doesn't have many religious
symbols associated with it. However, ritualism is an important aspect of this system and some symbols
have come to be associated with it.

The most recognizable symbol is the Yin & Yang symbol. It is, in fact, so
popular and universal, that it has come to be associated with all things Far
East. Confucius' own teachings make no reference to the concepts of yin
and yang43, but they are incorporated in the ideology in the later period.
The yin-yang is a symbol of complementary opposition and represents the
inherent polarities of nature. Light-dark, male-female, active-passive are
The Yin-Yang symbol
[Image source: some examples of the contrary elements that co-exists in nature 44. Each
fractalenlightenment.com]
polarity contains an element of the other polarity and hence the two are

43 Chan Sin Yee, The Confusian Conception of Gender in the Twenty-First Centuty in Confucianism for the Modern World –
edited by Daniel A. Bell, Hahm Chaibong, (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p 314
44 Micah Issitt, Carlyn Main, Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs, (ABC-
CLIO, 2014), pp 251-253

27
not mutually exclusive. This symbol is an expression of perfect harmony and balance between them.
The circle is a perfect shape to denote wholeness and perpetuity and hence encompasses the whole
universe. In this symbol, it is split into two comma or fish-like shapes in the colours black and white. A
smaller dot or circle of one colour sits within the larger section of the other. The white shape
represents the active principle of yang, while the black half represents the passive female principle of
ying. The coming together of these principles within a circle also stands for union and procreation.

(ii) Taoism
Taoism (aka Daoism) is yet another central system of philosophy and faith of Chinese origin. Based on
the teachings of Lao Tzu and his book, Tao Te Ching, this system is all about following “the path” of
ethics, morality and spirituality. This religion has been highly influential in China over the ages and has
a rich cultural context. Because of its multiple dimensions, Taoism has a variety of symbols associated
with it – many of them geometrical in nature. The foremost of them is the yin-yang, as Taoism is
largely based on the yin-yang philosophy. It has been discussed above as it is also associated with
Confucianism. The other popular symbols in Taoism are as under.

• Wu Ji: The Taoist cosmological view of creation suggests that everything is

born out of the primeval void. This void is called Wu Ji (or Wu Chi) and is
depicted by an empty circle because it is beyond human comprehension 45.
The first stirrings in the Wu Chi causes the yin-yang to manifest and from
there creation stems.

• Pa kua/ Bagua: The Pa-kua or Bagua incorporates within itself the yin-yang
symbol. Surrounding it are eight trigrams which represent the eight forces of
nature viz. Heaven/Sky (Qián), Lake/Marsh (Duì), Fire (Li), Thunder (Zhèn),
Wind (Xùn), Water (Kǎn), Mountain (Gèn) and Earth (Kūn) and the eight
directions as well. It is interesting to note in this connection the way these
Pa-Gua or Bagua
[Image source: elements are depicted with simple line strokes as illustrated below. A
www.shao-linslc.com]
combination of long and short strokes are used to denote each.
45 Mantak Chia, Cosmic Fusion: The Inner Alchemy of the Eight Forces, (Inner Traditions / Bear & Co, 2007), p 17

28
 There is a deeper philosophy behind the Bagua, which
talks about many combinations between these elements
but we shall restrict our description to the shape for this
paper. The yin-yang symbolism has been explained
above. Further, the trigrams of the Bagua are made up

of either three whole or broken lines. Pas46

interprets these lines as having started out as simple
statistical marks – 'records of divination results' –
with one line marking one reading, two lines
marking two and so on. He adds: “'Lucky' results
(odd numbers) were expressed by a single line;
'unlucky' results (even numbers) were symbolised by
Wu Ji to Yin-Yang to the rest of creation [Image source:
a double line. … In a Later stage of development, internalartsinternational.com]

other meanings were superimposed on them. From

simple graphics, they received philosophic (cosmic), social, and psychological dimensions.” The
diagram above explains the connection between the Wu Ji, Yin-Yang and the trigrams

• Taijitu Shuo: Taijitu Shuo translates to the 'Diagram of Supreme Polarity'.

This diagram explains Taoist cosmology and is yet again connected to the
yin-yang theory. This cosmologram is an elaborate version of the one
above. As can be seen, from the Wu Ji, emerge the two modes of of
unstable yin (Yin Qi) and yang (Yang Qi). The interplay and alternation of
the two form the five basic elements of Fire, Water, Wood, Metal and
Earth, from which everything else in the world is created 47. Since the
geometrical components of this diagram have already been discussed
above separately, we move on to the next symbol.

46 Julian F Pas, The A-Z of Taoism, (Scarecrow Press, 2006), p 119 The Taijuto Shuo [Image
source: www2.kenyon.edu]
29
 • Hetu and Luoshu: In the thread of cosmic and elemental symbols of Taoism, one must also
consider the two mystical diagrams of Hetu and Luoshu. Legend has it that these two cosmic
diagrams emerged from the Yellow and Luo rivers on the backs of a dragon-horse and a
tortoise respectively . Hetu was revealed to Fu Xi, a legendary Chinese hero, and Luoshu was
revealed to Emperor Yu48. The black and white dots essentially stand for yin and yang and the
two diagrams are considered sacred in astronomical and metaphysical contexts. Possessing
these symbols supposedly accords superior spiritual powers to its possessor 49.

L-R: Luoshu and Hetu [Image source: baguascience.org]

(iii) Feng Shui

Feng Shui is a renowned Chinese way of harmonising spaces. The odd frog with a coin in its mouth or
a laughing Buddha or decorative miniature bamboo is found in many homes and offices the world
over. There has been a modern revival interest in the method, but its origins can be traced back to
many centuries before Common Era. It is part of the last of the Five arts of Chinese Metaphysics ( Wu
Shu) that are medicine, divination, astrology, mountain and appraisal by appearance (physiognomy) 50.
Borrowing from the Taoist concept of balanced elements, Feng Shui aims to maintain a synchronous
relationship of energies in living spaces. The words Feng Shui literally mean 'wind – water', and the
system believes in the two systems of qi and the environment and a harmony between them.
Ideologically rich, Feng Shui is rife with symbols, many of them geometric. Some of them are as under.

47 William Theodore De Bary - edited by, Sources of East Asian Tradition: Premodern Asia, Volume 1, (Columbia University
Press, 2008), pp 337-342
48 Shawn Eichman, Taoism and the Arts of China, (University of California Press, 2000), p 139
49 Fabrizio Pregadio, The Encyclopedia of Taoism, (Routledge, 2013), p 138
50 Larry Sang, Feng Shui Facts and Myths, (American Feng Shui Institute, 2004), p 10

30
 • Luo Pan Compass: While it's more a tool than a symbol, the
Luopan compass is among the essentials of Feng Shui. Part of the
paraphernalia of the eponymous Compass School, the Luopan
compass encompasses a vast number of symbols. As can be seen
in the diagram alongside, the compass depicts the yin-yang, the
Bagua trigrams, the elements and so on. Also called the
Geomancer's Compass, this complex tool, in its modern avataar,
can have upto 36 tiers, which are read on the basis of the 'eight
The Luopan compass [Image source: trigrams, heavenly stems, earthly branches and sexagenary
math.nus.edu.sg]
cycles'51. The tool is used for readings, directions, orientations,
types of water courses, etc.

• The Thee Stars (Fu, Lu Shou, Kai):

The three symbols of Fu, Lu and Shou are
also very common in Chinese culture and
are used abundantly for luck. These
three figures are also called the 'three
The three stars - Lu, Fu and Shou - are geometric representations of
stars' and are geometric representations three gods of luck, prosperity and longevity respectively. [Image
source: forum.geomancy.net]
of three gods of Prosperity, Luck and
Longevity52. These three attributes of a
good life are culturally very significant for
the Chinese and are also popular in their
calligraphic form. Three ancillary
geometrical symbols of happiness (Xi),
wealth (Cai), and double happiness Three ancillary symbols of happiness, wealth and 'double happiness'
(Shuang Xi) are also popular among the are also popular.

Chinese.

51 Michael Y. MAK, Albert T. SO, Scientific Feng Shui for the Built Environment: Theories and Applications (City University of
HK Press, 2015), p 55
52 Ronald G. Knapp, China's Living Houses: Folk Beliefs, Symbols, and Household Ornamentation, (University of Hawaii
Press, 1999), p 141

31
 • The Mystic/ Endless Knot: Derived from the Hindu symbol called
Shrivatsa (a mark found on Vishnu's chest, literally meaning, beloved of
Lakshmi), the Mystic Knot is one of the 8 auspicious treasures of Buddhism 53.
Also known as the Endless Knot, this symbol is considered especially popular
in Feng Shui practices. The symbol is often hung in houses as it represents a
long life full of happiness and fortune. Knots are common symbols and occur
in different forms in different cultures.

(iv) Reiki

Although Reiki is a relatively new system, it is rich in symbolism and is deeply mystical. Developed by
Mikao Usui, a Japanese Buddhist, in 1922, Reiki aims at healing, stress reduction and well being. The
word Reiki is a combination of the roots, rei meaning 'God's wisdom/ higher power' and 'ki' meaning
life force energy. This alternative healing practice has been adopted across the globe with thousands
of believers and practitioners. Symbols have a great importance in Reiki, some of them more
definitively more geometrical than the others. Some of them have been examined below.

Some geometrical symbols associated with Reiki. [Image source:

Pinterest]
53 Robert Beer, The Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols, (Serindia Publications, Inc., 2003), p 11

32
 • Cho Ku Rei: The Cho Ku Rei is the primary symbol of power, which helps the Reiki
energy to flow efficiently. It is represented with a simple clockwise or anticlockwise
spiral with an inverted 'L' running through its centre. The spiral may stand for
emergence and creativity54. The two other primary symbols are called Se Hei Ki (the
symbol of harmony/emotion) and Hon Sha Ze Sho Nen (the symbol of distance
healing), but they are non-geometrical. These three are the original triad of Reiki
symbols but many more have been developed and adopted by practitioners today.
Many are free form but most of them are geometrical as can be seen on the
previous page (32). These miscellaneous symbols will not be considered here.

• Dai Ko Myo: The Dai Ko Myo symbol is very similar to the Cho Ku Rei, in its use
of a spiral. The difference is a parallel stroke towards the end of the spiral instead
of the vertical line. There are two kinds of Dai Ko Myo symbols, one representing
a traditional master and one representing a contemporary master. This symbol
is the latter. The symbol means the Light of the Buddha/awakened heart55.

• Raku: Raku is the symbol of completion and resembles a lightening bolt. It is

drawn from the top to the bottom with sharp zig zaging lines. The symbol marks
the end of the attunement ritual whereby the masters severs his or her energy
from that of the student's56, and therefore grounding.

• Antahkarana: Another very interesting symbol from non-traditional sources

used in Reiki is that of the Antahkarana. Normally used in the first level of Reiki,
the symbol comprises a cube with and 'L' or '7' marked on all its surfaces. The
symbol is considered to be on Tibetan origin and is thought to amplify Reiki and
other healing energies57.

54 Jeannie Kidwell & Gianna Settin, Reiki: The Mystery Teachings, (Dog Ear Publishing, 2012), p 73
55 Ibid
56 Phylameana Lila Desy, The Everything Reiki Book: Channel Your Positive Energy to Reduce Stress, Promote Healing, and
Enhance Your Quality of Life, (Everything Books, 2004), p 208
57 Diane Stein, Essential Reiki: A Complete Guide to an Ancient Healing Art, (Potter/TenSpeed/Harmony, 2011), p 103

33
 7. GEOMETRIC SYMBOLISM IN PAGAN TRADITIONS

The word 'Pagan' has suffered negative connotations, no thanks to other mainstream religions, but it
is religion in its most primal sense. 'Pagan' has been defined by the Oxford dictionary as follows:

– A person holding religious beliefs other than those of the main world religions.
– A member of a modern religious movement which seeks to incorporate beliefs or practices
from outside the main world religions, especially nature worship.

According to the BBC, 'Paganism encompasses a diverse community with some groups concentrating
on specific traditions, practices or elements such as ecology, witchcraft, Celtic traditions or certain
gods. Wiccans, Druids, Shamans, Sacred Ecologists, Odinists and Heathens all make up parts of the
Pagan community.'

These communities, cults and sects preserve and reflect the way our ancestors related to the world
and recognised its sacredness. They keep ancient traditions alive through art and stories. Every culture
has a history of nature worship and no matter what 'refined' religion they practice now, there are
traces of paganism in their collective consciousness. This manifests most in the knowing and
unknowing use of symbols that represent elements of nature. Most of these symbols use geometric
shapes which convey an awareness of nature's fundamentals. Many mainstream religions have also
incorporated these symbols in their own art. This section describes and discusses some such symbols.

• Pentagram and the elements: The pentagram or five-pointed

star is easily the symbol most identified with Pagan religions. It is
mostly understood to represent a harmonious relation between the
elements58. Like the linear pentagram, the five elements, namely air,
water, earth, fire and spirit, are also depicted with simple

IllThe pentagram and the five geometrical forms. The pentacle (pentagram within a circle) is a
elements [Image source:
4vector.com]
derivation of this symbol and signifies protection.

58 Sabina Magliocco, Neo-pagan Sacred Art and Altars: Making Things Whole, (Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2001), p 39

34
 • Triple moon: The moon in its various phases plays a very significant
role in the magico-religious rites of pagans. Thus, the triple moon symbol is
very important as it depicts the three phases of the moon – waxing, full and
waning, and thereby the potent times for rituals. Using three simple shapes
viz. a circle and two crescents facing in two opposite directions, a
fundamental natural phenomenon is described. It is also the sign of the
Goddess or three goddesses59. In another variation, just two opposing
crescent moons are used to depict the Goddess.

• Horned god: Drawing from the same geometrical elements are the
triple moon symbol is the symbol of the horned god. A crescent sits atop a
circle resembling a pair of horns on a face and thus a horned god 60. Horned
gods are symbols of masculine power and male virility in nature and several
horned gods can be found in pagan cultures the world over.

• Triskele: Also called the triskelion, this three-pronged symbol

comprising three spirals joined at the centre. They may or may not be
encased within a circle. These are found in ancient Celtic cultures and have
been adopted in the Judeo-Christian traditions as well. It may represent the
Trinity, the three-fold aspects of nature or any tripartite concept61.

• Triquetra: The triquetra is another symbol for the triumvirate.

Associated mostly with Wicca and the Goddess, this symbol was adopted
by the Church in the medieval period to signify the Trinity 62. The symbol is
used three connected semi-circles or three interlocking circles in a triangle.

59 Joanne Pearson, A Popular Dictionary of Paganism, (Routledge, 2013), p 147

60 Micah Issitt and Carlyn Main, Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs,
(ABC-CLIO, 2014), p 481
61 Kristoffer Hughes, The Book of Celtic Magic: Transformative Teachings from the Cauldron of Awen, (Llewellyn
Worldwide, 2014)
62 Andrew M. Denny, What Itching Ears Don't Want to Hear: A Revelation of Jesus Christ for the End Time Generation,
(iUniverse, 2012), p 151

35
 • Tree of Life: In different shamanistic cultures, the Tree of Life is a
recurring symbol. It is depicted differently in each of these contexts, with
some of them being naturalistic. But one of the elemental portrayals –
Sephirot in the Jewish tradition – is geometrical with 10 circles joined by
crisscrossing lines. Each of these circles stands for an attribute like beauty,
mercy, victory, wisdom and so on. However, in general, the Tree of Life.
represents the connection between the physical world and the spirit world.
It is also known as World Tree, Cosmic Tree, World Axis, Great Tree, etc 63.

• Flower of Life: Closely connected to the Tree of Life, is the symbol of

the Flower of Life. In fact, the Tree of Life is said to be derived from it. This
symbol of several intersecting circles within one big circle also occurs across
cultures. Because it is ancient and universal, it has been included in the
section of pagan symbols. The flower-like pattern has six-fold symmetry
and is representative of life that binds all creation64.

• Spiral of Creation: The Spiral of Creation is a primitive symbol that has

been seen right from the prehistoric times in cave art. It represents the
beginning of creation from nothingness or the primal void 65. It stands for
the interrelation between space and time, and may also represent
dissolution or implosion of the Universe when perceived outside-in.

• Circled Cross: Another universal symbol of primitive societies and

shamanistic cultures is the circled cross. This basic geometrical symbol
represents the Shaman's universe66. It is also a symbol of the sun or the
earth with four cardinal directions, four elements and other four-fold sets.
In ancient American societies, this symbol appears as a pecked cross.

63 Christina Pratt, An Encyclopedia of Shamanism Volume 2, (The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007), p 433
64 Brad Olsen, Modern Esoteric: Beyond Our Senses, (CCC Publishing, 2014), p 252
65 Pratt, Op Cit.
66 Pratt, Ibid.

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 • Awen: Central to Druidism is the concept and symbol of Awen. It has
both auditory and visual representations. As a sound, it comprises of the
syllables ah-uh-en, much like the Hindu Om (a-u-m). Graphically, it
comprises three converging lines with three dots, encased within a circle or
three concentric circles. It is said to mean the 'flowing spirit' – the all
pervading life force67. It is also interpreted as the rays of the sun.

• Valknut: Three-fold symbols appear again and again in Pagan cultures,

reinstating nature's three-fold manifestations. The Valknut, like the
Triquetra, is a symbol of three interlocking geometrical shapes. The three
triangles appear in the Celtic context and are especially associated with
Odin and warrior martyrs. But it has older Pagan connections where the
triangles are identified with the Goddess as grandmother, mother, and
daughter68.

• Days and nights: Use of simple geometrical forms like circles and lines
are also abundantly found among Native Americans. The symbol alongside
signifies the cycle of days and nights with a basic monochrome colour code.
Many other symbols using elementary circles, triangles and squares are
used to convey aspects of nature and culture.

• Kahuna symbol of power: The Hunas were the natives tribes of Hawaii
and like all other pagan made use of several geometrical shapes. This is the
Huna symbol of power and is thought to radiate energy. It encompasses a
dot in the centre, a circle around it, followed by a unusual 7-pointed star,
three concentric circles and eight lines radiating from the centre to the
circumference, forming a grid-like pattern.

67 Peter Jennings, Pagan Paths: A Guide to Wicca, Druidry, Asatru Shamanism and Other Pagan Practices, (Random House,
2008), p 87
68 Lynda C. Welch, Goddess of the North: A Comprehensive Exploration of the Norse Godesses, from Antiquity to the
Modern Age, (Weiser Books, 2001), p 225

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There are hundreds of pagan and shamanistic cultures the world over and thousands of symbols in
each cult. Documenting them all is outside the scope of this paper. Hence, only a handful of symbols
have been chosen to represent a larger tradition. From these symbols it is easy to infer how geometry
and geometrical forms have made their influence felt on all primitive societies. Every pagan religion,
whether Wicca, Druidism, or Shamanism, has used such symbolism to convey deeper truths about
nature, man, and the relationship between the two. As paganism gave way to organised urban forms
of religion, different symbols were created. However, the influence and ancient collective memory of
these traditions seeped in. This will become evident when the mysticism of symbols from Judea-
Christian religions are explored.

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 8. THE SYMBOLS OF JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY

Judaism is one of the oldest religions of the world and derived from it are the other Abrahamic faiths
of Christianity and Islam. Since imagery is forbidden in Islam, there are few if any symbols associated
with it. Islamic 'symbols' have been discussed above. However, the Judea-Christian tradition is the
richest with symbols, many of which have pagan origins. As seen in the last section, sacred pagan art
often constitutes geometrical motifs. These influences are seen in symbols of Judaism and Christianity
as well as will be seen below.

• Star of David: The star is a supremely important symbol in Judaism. The

six-pointed star is variously called the 'Star of David', 'Shield of David', and
'Magen David'. In fact, the star motif occurs in pretty much all cultures of the
world, including Tantrism. In fact, it has been said that this symbol is derived
from the Islamic 'Seal of Soloman'69. In Judaism, this geometrical symbol is
made of two intersecting equilateral triangles, that form six smaller triangles of
the star's edges. The symbol has highly esoteric and magical associations, and
like the yin-yang, is said to represent equilibrium. The six points are purported
to stand for the male and female principles and the four cardinal directions 70.
The symbol is sacred to Christians and Kabbalists too.

• Soloman's Knot: The Soloman's Knot is another ancient symbol that is seen
often in Messianic religions. 'Knot' is really a misnomer, for the symbol is simply
made up of two interlinked loops, which interweave over and under each other.
Like the Buddhist mystical knot, this symbol too can stand for infinity and
eternity as it doesn't have a beginning or an end. It occurs as a decorative motif
in a lot of pavements, churches and other structures.

69 Paul Wexler, The Non-Jewish Origins of the Sephardic Jews, (SUNY Press, 2012), p 188
70 Isitt & Maine, Op cit., p 243

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 • Sefer Yetzirah: The Sefer Yetzirah is the name of an old Jewish esoteric text
that that connections with Kabbalah. It is the 'Book of Formation' that talks
about cosmology and how the universe came to be formed. The text is also
important as it first introduced the written alphabet and is symbolised in a 12-
pointed star. The central triangle has the three mother letters, the middle
seven-pointed star has the seven double (two syllables) letters, while the
outermost star encases the 12 simple sounds – all comprising the Hebrew
alphabet.

• The Cross: The cross is an ubiquitous symbol that occurs in different forms in all sects of
Christianity. The cross, as everyone knows, is the symbol of Jesus' Crucifixion. The Latin cross with the
long vertical line and a shorter horizontal line crossing it towards the top is the most popular version
of the cross. However, there are many other variations - as many as 400 – of the cross as can be seen
in the collection above. Some other popular ones include the Greek cross, the Tau cross, the Maltese
cross, and the Patriarchal cross. The inverted cross of St. Peter – also associated with Satanism – must
also be made mention of. The cross appears most commonly in churches and cemeteries, but also in
ornamentation and ritual objects. According to Steffler, “The cross is seen as a sign of complete
resolution between the vertical life force and the horizontal death or “rest” force. Perhaps more
importantly, it represents life's polarities: the spiritual or otherworldly (vertical) and the physical or
worldly (horizontal).71”
71 Alva William Steffler, Symbols of the Christian Faith, (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2002), p 27

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 9. SYMBOLS OF SECRET SOCIETIES

In Medieval Europe, the Renaissance brought about a shift in the way people looked at religion. The
religious violence perpetrated by the Church caused thinkers to turn to a form of spiritualism that
resonated with ancient pagan cultures. In the face of Christian aggression, the Middle Ages gave rise
to a number of secret societies who indulged in different kinds of mystical and esoteric practices.
Some of the most notable among these were the Rosicrucians, the Templars, Free Masons and the
Hermetics. These societies had the participation of some of the greatest men of the time – covertly, of
course – and spawned a great many interesting theories and philosophies about nature and human
existence. Much of their inspiration came from ancient religions and cults. Nature worship and
alchemy were some of the underlying principles followed by these societies. Their secrecy implied
many symbols – not just visual but linguistic too. In this section some symbols will be explored.

Rosicrucianism

Rosicrucianism was founded by Christian Rozenkreuz in late Medieval Germany as a philosophical

secret society. Their theology was based on ancient truths that was to be confined to the
brotherhood. Its doctrines can be found in two main texts - Fama Fraternitatis RC (The Fame of the
Brotherhood of RC) and the Confessio Fraternitatis (The Confession of the Brotherhood of RC) – and
their aim was the 'Universal reformation of mankind'.72 The Rosicrucian society made use of a great
many geometrical symbols as can be seen in their literature and structures. Their belief in the the
mystical powers of geometric shapes is apparent.

• The Rose Cross: Also known as the Rosy/ Rozy Cross, this is the
primary symbol of the Rosicrucians. It is a essentially a Christian cross but
with many more elements within it. In its fundamental form, at the
centre of a six-squared cross is a red five-petalled rose. The six squares
represent the cube, which in turn represents the truth 73. The rose

72 Frances A Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, (Routledge, 2013)

73 Paul Foster Case, True and Invisible Rosicrucian Order, (Weiser Books, 1989), p 133

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 represents the Microcosm or the man, because the five-petaled flower
really is a Pentagram74. The Rose Cross itself is also thought to represent
the human body, an unfolding of consciousness, a union of the rose
female and the cross male, and silence/secrecy.

• Symbols of creation: The Rosicrucian idea of creation is

simplistically depicted with a diagram consisting several circles. The two
concentric circles in the middle are split in black and white, suggesting
night and day and the six smaller circles represent the six planets. The
motif is essentially pagan and can be recognised as such. There is a
complex version of the creation diagram too with many more elements.

Another diagram of the cosmos appears in Rosicrucian societies. The

obscure text, Fama, lays down several rules pertaining to the Rosicrucian
temple. It details how the temple should be built, what its features and
decorations should be. One of the intriguing patterns described in it is a
geometrical diagram “Divided according to the seven sides into triangles,
with a triangle in the bright centre75” to be made on the ceiling of the
vault. It has been variously interpreted and portrayed but is generally
taken to represent the cosmos with symbols of planets within it.

Freemasonry

The United Grand Lodge of England defines Freemasonry as follows: “Freemasonry is one of the
world’s oldest and largest non-religious, non-political, fraternal and charitable organisations. It
teaches self-knowledge through participation in a progression of ceremonies. … Freemasonry instils in
its members a moral and ethical approach to life: its values are based on integrity, kindness, honesty
and fairness.”

74 Ibid.
75 Paul Foster Case, True and Invisible Rosicrucian Order, (Weiser Books, 1989), p 126

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Freemasonry, then, is supposedly a perfectly secular, charitable organisation which was established in
the early 18th cent. CE. But over the centuries, it has been accused of and associated with occult
practices, especially Satan worship. It has been understandably misunderstood as this 'science of
morality, (was) veiled in allegory, and illustrated by symbols' 76. The prolific symbolism of the
Freemasons makes for interesting study, but we shall consider only those with geometrical patterns.

• Freemasons symbol: Perhaps the greatest ode to geometry has been

paid by the Freemasons in adopting the square, the compass and the
letter G as their symbol. This enduring symbols includes the tools of
a real mason, the craft that inspired this society. The square
represents truthfulness and morality, while the compass stands for
virtue, restraint, skill and knowledge, while the letter G stands for
God – the Grand Architect. Astronomically, the square and the
compass are also thought to represent the earth and heaven and in
this representation, they are seen as unified 77. Other masonic
implements that are revered as symbols among Freemasons include a
plumb, a level, a gavel, a trowel, a gauge and an apron. Soloman's
pillars are also very important Masonic symbols.

• The All-Seeing Eye: Like all secret societies of the time, the
Freemasons also borrowed heavily from symbols of ancient religions.
The popular All-Seeing Eye symbol of the Freemasons is derived from
Hebrew Egyptian lore as is easily deduced from the pyramid and the
eye, which resembles the Eye of Horus. It is the symbol of divine
watchfulness, reminding the fraternity to forever keep up their
morals. While the eye was God's symbol, the triangular pyramid

76 Albert Gallatin Mackey, The Symbolism of Freemasonry: Illustrating and Explaining Its Science and Philosophy, Its
Legends, Myths, and Symbols, (Clay and Maynard, 1869), p 10
77 John K. Young & Barb Karg, The Everything Freemasons Book: Unlock the Secrets of This Ancient And Mysterious
Society!, (Adams Media, 2006), p 192

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 represents equilibrium, as it does in all cultures78.

The symbol is often inscribed with the Latin phrases Annuit cœptis
and Novus ordo seclorum meaning 'Providence favours our
undertakings' and 'New order of the Ages'. The symbol is very
popular owing to America's adoption of it and representation in
dollar bills.

• The Eastern Star: The universally-sacred five-pointed star finds

place in the Masonic context too. The Eastern Star, as it is called, has
been adopted by an order related to the Freemasons. Called the
Order of the Eastern Star, it was formed in 1850 by Rob Morris in the
US. The group's logo comprises a five-pointed star with a pentagon
inside it. The five points represent five heroines from the Bible viz.
Adah, Ruth, Esther, Martha and Electa. When not inverted, the five-
pointed star is also known as the pentalpha and thought to represent
a man with outstretched hands in the Masonic context79.

• Point within a circle: One of the most mysterious and elementary

Masonic symbols is the point within a circle. It is bound by two
vertical parallel lines on either side. There are many interpretations of
this basic geometrical symbol. It is the representation of the
manifestation of internal and external vital force. The book of Sacred
Law is sometimes depicted as sitting atop the circle, and helps a
Freemason maintain sight of the principles in the spiritual process. It
is also purported that this is an astrological sign, with the lines
representing the summer and winter solstices80.

78 Mackey, Op Cit. p 194

79 Christopher Hodapp, Freemasons For Dummies, (John Wiley & Sons, 2011), p 62
80 Christopher Hodapp, Freemason Symbols and Ceremonies For Dummies, (John Wiley & Sons, 2010)

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 10. CONCLUSION
The subject of symbolism is so vast that lifetimes can be spent researching and understanding them.
Every culture of the human society has developed its system of symbols through which it
communicates big and small ideas. Symbolism is everywhere. Words, gestures, expressions, signs,
visual imagery – symbols are all pervading. It is the larger connotation of a symbol that makes it so
powerful. What is implied is almost always more than what is said.

It is this power of suggestivity that takes symbols to the realm of mysticism. From all the symbols
surveyed in this paper, one thing emerges clearly. Long before man created divine icons in his own
image, he created divine symbols. Drawing of shapes comes naturally to man. A child scrawling a circle
on sand or a person doodling different shapes during a boring lecture are impulsive actions. There is
something primal about shapes that reflect man's connection with the cosmos. We are created in
shapes; we are connected through them. Simple, elementary shapes reflect the truth of nature and
existence. A line to join or a line to divide. The circles of the sun and the moon. Circle of wholeness or
circles to exclude. The triangular yoni or the triangular form of fundamental mathematical principles.
Shapes encompass the universe.

Shapes are also bridges. They have been used to connect man to the divine and his higher self. Shapes
were used to represent elements – the same elements that made up God, the earth and man. From
cave paintings to Vedic fire altars, from Jewish cosmograms to the healing symbols of Reiki, all symbols
aim to imitate and encapsulate divine power. Through the use of these symbols in daily life, in rituals,
as charms, one hopes to stay in touch with the One.

While there may be vast apparent differences in the symbols of different cultures, there are also a
startling number of similarities between them. The paper offers many examples of common, recurring
geometrical shapes. This underlines the esoteric nature of shapes. It is no coincidence that the earliest
geometricians were also known philosophers and mystics. It is also not surprising that the simple
drawing or colouring of mandalas is considered a valid meditational practice. Geometric shapes that
help us see the divine in the ordinary are, therefore, as mystical as they are mathematical. They
warrant investigation from the mysticism point of view too, as this paper has attempted to do.

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