CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN THE

BODY HUMAN BODY

1. Chemical Level - includes atoms and molecules
 Anatomy – the science of body structures and o Atoms – smallest units of matter that
the relationships among them participate in chemical reactions
 Dissection – the careful cutting apart of body o Molecules – two or more atoms joined
structures to study their relationships together
 Physiology – the science of body functions –  Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) –
how the body parts work genetic material passed from
one generation to the next
BRANCHES OF ANATOMY  Glucose – blood sugar
1. Embryology – study of the first eight weeks of o Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O),
development after fertilization of a human egg Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Calcium
2. Developmental Biology – complete (Ca), and Sulfur (S) are essential for
development of an individual from fertilization maintaining life.
to death 2. Cellular Level – molecules combine to form cells
3. Cell Biology – cellular structure and functions o Cell – basic structural and functional
4. Histology – microscopic structure of tissues units of an organism that are composed
5. Gross Anatomy – structures that can be of chemicals
examined without a microscope Example: muscle cells, nerve
6. Systemic Anatomy – structure of specific cells, epithelial cells
systems of the body such as the nervous or 3. Tissue Level
respiratory system o Tissue – group of cells and the materials
7. Regional Anatomy – specific regions of the body surrounding them that work together to
such as the head or chest perform a particular function
8. Surface Anatomy – surface markings of the  Epithelial Tissue – covers body
body to understand internal anatomy through surfaces, lines hollow organs
visualization and palpation (gentle touch) and cavities, and forms glands
9. Imaging Anatomy – body structures that can be  Connective Tissue – connects,
visualized with techniques such as x-rays, MRI, supports, and protects body
and CT Scan organs while distributing blood
10. Pathological Anatomy – structural changes vessels to other tissues
associated with disease  Muscular Tissue – contracts to
make body parts move and
BRANCHES OF PHYSIOLOGY generates heat
1. Neurophysiology – functional properties of  Nervous Tissue – carries
nerve cells information from one part of
2. Endocrinology – hormones (chemical the body to another through
regulations in the blood) and how they control nerve impulses
body functions 4. Organ Level – different types of tissues are
3. Cardiovascular Physiology – functions of the joined together
heart and blood vessels o Organs – structures that are composed
4. Immunology – body’s defenses against disease- of two or more different types of tissues
causing agents  Have specific functions and
5. Respiratory Physiology – function of the air usually have recognizable
passageways and lungs shapes
6. Renal Physiology – functions of the kidneys Example: stomach, skin, bones,
7. Exercise Physiology – changes in cell and organ heart, liver, lungs, brain
functions due to muscular activity o The stomach’s outer covering is a layer
8. Pathophysiology – functional changes of epithelial tissues and connective
associated with disease and aging tissue that reduces friction when the
stomach moves
 o Smooth Muscle Tissue – contracts to blood to exhaled air, regulates acid-base
churn and mix food and then push it balance of body fluids
into the small intestine o Lungs, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice
o Epithelial Tissue – innermost lining that box), trachea (wind pipe), bronchial
produces fluid and chemicals tubes
responsible for digestion 9. Digestive System – achieves physical and
5. System Level chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients,
o System – consists of related organs with eliminates solid wastes
a common function o Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
Example: digestive system small intestine, large intestine, anus,
6. Organismal Level salivary glands, liver, gall bladder,
o Organism – any living individual pancreas
10. Urinary System – produces, stores, and
ELEVEN SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY eliminates urine; eliminates wastes and
1. Integumentary System – protects body, helps regulates volume and chemical composition of
regulate body temperature, eliminates some blood
wastes, detects sensations o Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
o Skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat urethra
gland, oil glands 11. Reproductive System – gonads produce
2. Skeletal System – supports and protects body, gametes (sperm/oocytes) that unite to form a
provides surface area for muscle attachments, new organism, release hormones that regulate
aids body movements, houses cells that reproduction and other body processes
produce blood cells, stores minerals and lipids o Gonads (testes/ovaries), fallopian tube,
(fats) uterus, vagina, mammary glands,
o Bones, joints, cartilages epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
3. Muscular System – body movements (walking), vesicles, prostate, penis
maintains posture, produces heat
o Skeletal muscle tissue BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
4. Nervous System – generates action potentials to 1. Metabolism – sum of all chemical processes
regulate body activities, detects changes in that occur in the body
body’s internal and external environments, o Catabolism – a phase of metabolism;
interprets changes breakdown of complex chemical
o Brain, spinal cord, nerves, eyes, ears substances into simpler components
5. Endocrine System – regulates body activities by o Anabolism – other phase of
releasing hormones metabolism; building up of complex
o Hormone producing glands (pineal chemical substances from smaller,
gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, simpler, components
thymus, thyroid gland, pancreas, 2. Responsiveness – body’s ability to detect and
ovaries, testes) respond changes
6. Cardiovascular System – heart pumps blood 3. Movement – motion of the whole body,
through blood vessels, blood carries oxygen and individual organs, single cells, and even tiny
nutrients, blood components help defend structures inside cells
against disease and repair damaged blood 4. Growth – an increase in body size that results
vessels from an increase in the size of existing cells,
o Blood, heart, blood vessels increase in the number of cells, or both
7. Lymphatic System and Immunity – returns 5. Differentiation – the development of a cell from
proteins and fluid to blood, carries lipids from an unspecialized to a specialized state
gastrointestinal tract to blood o Stem Cells – pre-cursor cells which can
o Lymphatic fluid and vessels, thymus, divide and give rise to cells that
spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils undergo differentiation
8. Respiratory System – transfers oxygen from 6. Reproduction – the formation of new cells for
inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from tissue growth, repair, or replacement; the
production of a new individual
HOMEOSTASIS  Blood Pressure (BP) – the force exerted by
- The condition of equilibrium (balance) in the blood as it presses against the walls of blood
body’s internal environment due to the vessels
constant interaction of the body’s many  Baroreceptors – pressure-sensitive nerve cells
regulatory processes located in the walls of certain blood vessels
 Intracellular Fluid (ICF) – fluid within cells Positive Feedback System – tends to strengthen or
 Extracellular Fluid (ECF) – fluid outside body reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled
cells conditions
 Interstitial Fluid – the ECF that fills the narrow
spaces between cells of tissues  Disorder – any abnormality of structure or
 Blood Plasma – ECF within blood vessels function
 Lymph – within lymphatic vessels  Disease – more specific term for an illness
 Cerebrospinal Fluid – in and around the brain characterized by a recognizable set of signs and
and spinal cord symptoms
 Synovial Fluid – in joints a. Local Disease – affects one part or a
 Aqueous Humor and Vitreous Body – ECF of the limited region of the body
eyes b. Systemic Disease – affects either the
entire body or several parts of it
Feedback System/Feedback Loop – cycle of events in  Symptoms – subjective changes in body
which the status of a body condition is monitored, functions that are not apparent to an observer
evaluated, changed, re-monitored, re-evaluated, etc. (ex: headache, nausea, anxiety)
Controlled Condition – each monitored variable, such as  Signs – objective changes that a clinician can
body temperature, blood pressure, or blood glucose observe and measure (ex: swelling, rash, fever,
level high blood pressure, paralysis)
Stimulus – any disruption that changes a controlled  Epidemiology – science that deals with why,
condition when, and where diseases occur and how they
are transmitted among individuals in a
3 Basic Components of a Feedback System: community
1. Receptor – body structure that monitors  Pharmacology – science that deals with the
changes in a controlled condition and sends effects and uses of drugs in the treatment of
input to a control center disease
o Afferent Pathway – information flows
toward the control center BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
o Input – typically in the form of nerve
impulses or chemical signals  Anatomical Position
2. Control Center – sets the range of values within - The subject stands erect facing the observer
which a controlled condition should be with the head level and the eyes facing
maintained, evaluates the input it receives from directly facing forward
receptors, and generates output commands - Lower limbs are parallel and the feet are flat
when they are needed on the floor and directed forward, and the
o Output – typically occurs as nerve upper limbs are at the sides with the palms
impulses or hormones or other turned forward
chemical signals o Prone Position – body is lying facedown
o Efferent Pathway – information flows o Supine Position – body is lying faceup
away from the control center
3. Effector – a body structure that receives output Regional Names
from the control center and produces a Principal Regions:
response or effect that changes the controlled 1. Head – consists of the skull and face
condition a. Skull – encloses and protects the brain
b. Face – front portion of the head that
Negative Feedback System – reverses a change in a includes the eyes, nose, mouth, forehead,
controlled condition cheeks, and chin
 2. Neck – supports the head and attaches it to the  Tarsal (ankle)
truck  Digital/Pharyngeal (toes)
3. Trunk – consists of the chest, abdomen, and  Dorsum (top of foot)
pelvis  Hallux (great toe)
4. Upper Limb – attaches to the trunk and consists  Acromial (shoulder)
of the shoulder, armpit, arm (shoulder to
elbow), forearm (elbow to wrist), wrist, and Posterior View
hand
5. Lower Limb – attaches to the trunk and consists OCCIPITAL (base of skull)
of the buttocks, thigh (buttocks to the knee), leg UPPER LIMB
(knee to the ankle), ankle, and foot  Scapular (shoulder blade)
a. Groin – area on the front surface of the  Vertebral (spinal column)
marked by a crease on each side, where the  Olecranal/Cubital (back of elbow)
trunk attaches to the thighs  Sacral (between hips)
 Dorsal (back)
Anterior View  Lumbar (loin)
 Dorsum (back of hand)
CEPHALIC (Head) LOWER LIMB
 Cranial (skull)  Gluteal (buttock)
 Facial (face)  Perineal (region of anus & ext. genitals)
 Frontal (forehead)  Popliteal (hollow behind knee)
 Temporal (temple)  Sural (calf)
 Orbital/Ocular (eye)  Plantar (sole)
 Otic (ear)  Calcaneal (heel)
 Buccal (cheek)
 Nasal (nose) DIRECTIONAL TERMS – words that describe the position
 Oral (mouth) of one body part relative to another
 Mental (chin) 1. Superior (cephalic or cranial) – toward the head
CERVICAL (Neck) or the upper part of a structure
TRUNK o Heart is superior to the liver.
 Axillary (armpit) 2. Inferior (caudal) – away from the head or the
 Brachial (arm) lower part of structure
 Antecubital (front of elbow) o Stomach is inferior to the lungs.
 Antebrachial (forearm) 3. Anterior (ventral) – nearer to or at the front of
 Carpal (wrist) the body
 Palmar/Volar (palm) o Sternum (breastbone) is anterior to the
 Digital/Phalangeal (fingers) heart.
 Pelvic (pelvis) 4. Posterior (dorsal) – nearer to at the back of the
 Sternal (breastbone) body
 Mammary (breast) o Esophagus (food tube) is posterior to
 Umbilical (navel) the traches (wind pipe).
 Coxal (hip) 5. Medial – nearer to the midline
 Inguinal (groin) o Ulna is medial to the radius.
 Pollex (thumb) 6. Lateral – farther from the midline
 Thoracic (chest) o Lungs are lateral to the heart.
 Abdominal (abdomen) 7. Intermediate – between two structures
 Manual (hand) 8. Ipsilateral – on the same side of the body as
 Pubic (pelvis) another structure
 Femoral (thigh) o Gallbladder and ascending colon are
 Patellar (anterior surface of knee) ipsilateral.
 Crural (leg) 9. Contralateral – on the opposite side of the body
 Pedal (foot) from another structure
 o Ascending and descending colon are  Pericardial Cavity – fluid-filled space that
contralateral. surrounds the heart
10. Proximal – nearer to the attachment of a limb  Pleural Cavities – two fluid-filled spaces, one
to the trunk around each lung
o Humerus (arm bone) is proximal to the  Mediastinum – an anatomical region in the
radius. central part of the thoracic cavity
11. Distal – farther from the attachment of a limb to  Diaphragm – dome-shaped muscle that
the trunk separates the thoracic cavity from the
o Phalanges (finger bones) are distal to abdominopelvic cavity
the carpals (wrist bone)  Abdominopelvic Cavity – extends from the
12. Superficial (external) – toward or on the surface diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the
of the body abdominal muscular wall and the bones and
o Ribs are superficial to the lungs. muscles of the pelvis
13. Deep (internal) – away from the surface of the o Abdominal Cavity – superior portion;
body contains the stomach, spleen, liver,
o Ribs are deep to the skin of the chest gallbladder, small intestine, and most of
and back. the large intestine
o Pelvic Cavity – inferior portion; contains
PLANES AND SECTIONS the urinary bladder, portions of the
 Planes – imaginary flat surfaces that pass large intestine, and internal organs of
through the body parts the reproductive system
 Sagittal Plane – a vertical plane that divides the  Viscera – organs inside the thoracic and
body or an organ into right and left sides abdominopelvic cavities
 Midsagittal Plane/Median Plane – when a plane
passes through the midline of the body or an Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Membranes
organ and divides it into equal right and left  Membrane – thin, pliable tissue that covers,
sides lines, partitions, or connects structures
 Midline – an imaginary vertical line that divides o Serous Membrane – slipper, double-
the body into equal left and right sides layered membrane associated with
 Parasagittal Plane – if the sagittal plane does body cavities that does not open
not pass through the midline but instead divides directly to the exterior
the body or an organ into unequal right and left a. Parietal Layer – thin
sides epithelium that lines the walls
 Frontal/Coronal Plane – divides the body or an of the cavities
organ into anterior and posterior portions b. Visceral Layer – thin
 Transverse Plane/Cross-Sectional/Horizontal epithelium that covers and
Plane – divides the body or an organ into adheres to the viscera within
superior and inferior portions the cavities
 Oblique Plane – passes through the body or an c. Serous Fluid – potential space
organ at an oblique angle between the two layers that
 Section – a cut of the body or one of its organs contains small amount of
made along one of the planes just described lubricating fluid
- Allows the viscera to
BODY CAVITIES slide somewhat during
- Space that enclose internal organs movements
 Cranial Cavity – a hollow space of the head  Pleural – the serous membrane of the pleural
which contains the brain cavities
 Vertebral Canal – contains the spinal cord o Visceral Pleural – clings to the surface of
 Thoracic Cavity – formed by the ribs, the the lungs
muscles of the chest, the sternum, and the o Parietal Pleural – lines the chest wall,
thoracic portion of the vertebral column covering the superior surface of the
diaphragm
 o Pleural Cavity – in between; filled with a o Skin, fat, and muscle appear as varying
small amount of lubricating serous fluid shades of gray
 Pericardium – serous membrane of the o Useful for examining soft tissues such as
pericardial cavity the breast (mammography) and for
o Visceral Pericardium – covers the determining bone density (bone
surface of the heart densitometry)
o Parietal Pericardium – lines the chest o Contrast x-rays are used to image blood
wall vessels (angiography), urinary system
o Pericardial Cavity – in between (intravenous urography), and the
 Peritoneum – serous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract (barium contrast
abdominal cavity x-ray)
o Visceral Peritoneum – covers the 2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – body is
abdominal viscera exposed to a high-energy magnetic field which
o Parietal Peritoneum – lines the causes protons in body fluids and tissues to
abdominal wall arrange themselves in relation to the field
o Peritoneal Cavity – in between o Result is a 2D or 3D blueprint of cellular
 Retroperitoneal – kidneys, adrenal glands chemistry
o Cannot be used on patients with metal
2 Methods of Dividing the Abdominopelvic Cavity: in their bodies
1. 9 Abdominopelvic Regions (2 horizontal & 2 o Shows fine details for soft tissues
vertical) o Useful for differentiating between
- Right Hypochondriac normal and abnormal tissues
- Epigastric o Detects tumors and artery-clogging
- Left Hypochondriac fatty plaques, reveal brain
- Right Lumbar abnormalities, measure blood flow,
- Umbilical detects muscular, skeletal, liver, and
- Left Lumbar kidney disorders
- Right Inguinal 3. Computed Tomography (CT) – formerly called
- Hypogastric Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scanning
- Left Inguinal o Computer-assisted radiography; x-ray
2. Quadrants beam traces an arc at multiple angles
- Right Upper Quadrant around a section of the body
- Left Upper Quadrant o A CT Scan is shown on a video monitor
- Right Lower Quadrant o Visualizes soft tissues and organs with
- Left Lower Quadrant much more detail
o Provides the most benefit in screening
MEDICAL IMAGING for lung cancers, coronary artery
- Refers to techniques and procedures used to disease, and kidney cancers
create images of the human body 4. Ultrasound Scanning – high frequency sound
waves produced by a handheld wand reflect off
 Conventional Radiography (x-rays) – body tissues and are detected by the same
grandparent of all medical imaging techniques; instrument
in medical use since the late 1940s. o The sonogram is shown on a video
monitor
1. Radiography – single barrage of x-rays passes o Safe, non-invasive, painless, uses no
through the body, producing an image of dyes
inferior structures on x-ray sensitive film o Commonly used to visualize the fetus
o Usually provides sufficient information during pregnancy
for diagnosis o Used to observe the size, location, and
o Do not easily pass through dense actions of organs and blood flow
structures, so bones appear white through blood vessels (Doppler
o Hollow structures, such as the lungs, ultrasound)
appear black
5. Coronary (cardiac) Computed Tomography
Angiography (CCTA) Scan – computer-assisted
radiography; iodine containing contrast medium
is injected into a vein and a beta-blocker is
given to decrease heart rate
o Numerous x-ray beams trace an arc
around the heart, transforms the
information into a 3D image of the
coronary blood vessels (CCTA Scan)
o Used to determine if there are any
coronary artery blockages that may
require angioplasty or stent
o Scan can be rotated, enlarged, and
moved at any angle
6. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – a
substance that emits positions is injected into
the body, where it is taken up by tissues
o PET scan image; black and blue colors
indicate minimal activity; red, orange,
yellow, and white indicate areas of
increasingly greater activity
o To study the physiology of body
structures such as metabolism in the
brain or heart
7. Endoscopy – visual examination of the inside of
body organs/cavities using a lighted instrument
with lenses called an endoscope
o Colonoscopy (examining the interior of
the colon), laparoscopy (examining the
organs within the abdominopelvic
cavity), and arthroscopy (examining the
interior of a joint, usually the knee)
8. Radionuclide Scanning – radionuclide is
introduced intravenously into the body and
carried by the blood to the tissue to be imaged
o Constructs a radionuclide image
o Areas of intense color take up a lot of
radionuclide and represent high tissue
activity; vice-versa
o Used to study activity of a tissue or
organ, such as searching for malignant
tumors in body tissue or scars that may
interfere with heart muscle activity
o Single-photon-emission Computed
Tomography (SPECT) Scanning –
specialized type of radionuclide
scanning that is useful for studying the
brain, heart, lungs, and liver