CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Drainage System in the Philippines

Most Philippine cities have drainage systems of some kind.

There are no separate storm water and waste water (sewerage)

systems. Wastewater from septic systems freely mixes with the

stormwater. In practice this is not as bad as it sounds as the

volume of storm water is large and may well flush out the

drainage system and its contents into the streams and rivers. The

installation and maintenance of drainage systems (along with

roads and water systems), is a one of the major responsibility of

local government.

The systems are not necessarily centralized. The idea is to

get wastewater to a nearby ditch, stream or river. Most

residences will have a septic tank or cesspool to treat toilet

waste. This can provide some very basic level of treatment of

human waste. The output of septic system (septage) is piped to

the subdivision or barangay drainage system.

Greywater (wastewater from sinks, showers and washing) is

generally discharged untreated into the drainage system.

Sometimes the drainage system is more or less underground and

sometimes it is open concrete ditches. This can be smelly but

cheaper and easier to keep clear than covered drainage systems.

In many places the drainage system is under the sidewalks, the

sidewalks consisting of concrete slabs covering the drainage

channel. Sometimes these are broken, so walk carefully or plunge

treatment of the waste before it plunges into the nearest stream.

Types of Drainage System

Different systems of drainage are used based on the

location, amount of discharge and number of resident in a certain

area. Drainage systems are designed to dispose of wastewater as

quickly as possible and should prevent gases from sewers and

septic tanks from entering residential areas.

Residential Drainage System

Residential drainage systems remove excess water from

residential areas. This system helps whisk water away from

walkways, driveways, and roofs to avoid flooding. Residential

drainage systems are very important as they prevent rotting,

mold, mildew, and structural damage in buildings from a buildup

of water. Our SE exam review courses discuss the requirements and

recommendations for residential structures regarding drainage

systems.

The types of residential drainage systems are:

1) Surface

2) Subsurface

3) Slope

4) Downspout/gutters
  Surface Drainage Systems

Surface drainage systems contain shallow ditches dug in a

parallel pattern, which act as canals for run-off water. Theses

ditches lead the water into the main drain to avoid water pooling

and flooding.

 Subsurface Drainage Systems

A subsurface drainage system is also known as a French drain.

Subsurface drains are placed beneath the top layer of soil to

remove excess water at the root level. Subsurface drains require

the digging of deep ditches and the installation of underground

pipes. A large collector drain is installed to collect water from

the pipes.

 Slope Drainage Systems

Slope drains allow water to flow downward from a structure

with the aid of pipes moving down a slope. A pipe is installed

and anchored into a small incline, which causes water to flow

through the pipe and away from the structure.

 Downspout and Gutter systems

Downspouts collect water from gutters and divert it to the

ground. A downspout is typically connected to a gutter system on

a building and carries water away from the roof down to the

ground. Downspouts empty out the water on a slope so that the

water does not pool at the base of the downspout.

Combined drainage systems use a single drain to convey both

water from sanitary usage and rainwater from roofs and other
surfaces to a shared sewer. This system is economical to install.

Separate drainage systems use separate foul water drains that

lead to a sanitary sewer. The rainwater from roofs and other

surfaces is conveyed in a separate surface water drain into a

surface water sewer. This system is relatively expensive to

install.

Importance of Having a Drainage System

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's

water and sub-surface water from an area. The internal drainage

of most agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe

waterlogging (anaerobic conditions that harm root growth), but

many soils need artificial drainage to improve production or to

manage water supplies.

The civil engineer is responsible for drainage in construction

projects. They set out from the plans all the roads, street

gutters, drainage, culverts and sewers involved in construction

operations. During the construction process he/she will set out

all the necessary levels for each of the previously mentioned

factors.

Civil engineers and construction managers work alongside

architects and supervisors, planners, quantity surveyors, the

general workforce, as well as subcontractors. Typically, most

jurisdictions have some body of drainage law to govern to what

degree a landowner can alter the drainage from his parcel.

Drainage options for the construction industry include:

Point drainage, which intercepts water at gullies (points).

Gullies connect to drainage pipes beneath the ground surface and

deep excavation is required to facilitate this system. Support

or shoring.

Channel drainage, which intercepts water along the entire run of

the channel. Channel drainage is typically manufactured from

concrete, steel, polymer or composites. The interception rate of

channel drainage is greater than point drainage and the

excavation required is usually much less deep.

The surface opening of channel drainage usually comes in the

form of gratings (polymer, plastic, steel or iron) or a single

slot (slot drain) that runs along the ground surface (typically

manufactured from steel or iron).

The actual location and design of a road can dramatically

improve drainage, or lead to its demise. Water is fundamental

for life, but too much water with nowhere to go can cause serious

damage to roadways. The greater the velocity of water as it

races across pavement, the faster it’ll deteriorate surfaces.

It’s so important for ditches, cuts or other waterways to handle

moving water.

The first roads were built some 3,500 years ago in Europe.

Even original roadways took the importance of drainage into

account. They focused on cross-fall, grade line and lateral

ditches, all of which help move water away from roadways. Yet, to

this day, many roadways around the world remain unsafe and open

to extensive damage due to oversights in roadway drainage

systems.
 4 Common Problems Associated With Poor Roadway Drainage

1. Erosion

When water continually flows over a surface it causes erosion,

or the giving way of materials. Clogged culverts or small

diameter culverts can lead to water flooding into the road and

causing erosion. Soils that are most sensitive to erosion include

silt, silty moraine and sand.

2. Traffic Safety

Drivers are not as safe when a roadway lacks proper drainage

systems. When the roads puddle up with water it increases the

risk for hydroplaning. Also, wet surfaces equate to reduced

friction and longer braking time, ultimately increasing the risk

for accidents. During the winter, puddles of water freeze

overnight and turn into dangerous patches of slick ice by morning

when people are out on the roadways heading to school and work.

3. Permanent Road Deformations

Roads can experience permanent deformation when proper

drainage is not included. These deformations are the leading

cause of undesirable rutting on low volume roads. As a result,

roads are less safe, drivers experience greater issues, and roads

have lower bearing capacities. Roads with permanent deformities

are also more expensive for road owners and drivers.

4. Reduced Lifeline of Pavement & Increased Costs

road and reduce maintenance costs considerably. On the other

hand, not having proper drainage systems increases maintenance

costs and decreases lifeline of roadways.

Roadway Drainage Systems Built To Last

There’s no one-size-fits-all solution for roadway drainage

systems. Instead, there are many factors that influence the best

way to go about creating an efficient drainage system. For one

thing, a good estimation of runoff must be calculated. Runoff has

to do with location of the road, intensity and duration of

rainfall in the area as well as just upstream from the area. It’s

also important to consider how frequently rainfall is expected to

exceed averages.

Three important considerations when building efficient roadway

drainage systems:

1. Total size of drainage area needs to fall in line with the

amount of runoff an area is prone to. A solid basin area estimate

will help you when using runoff formulas and charts.

2. The topography of the land is important in regards to the

average slope and elevation of the basin.

3. Soil type and characteristics will determine permeability

and infiltration capacity. The amount of water a certain soil

type is able to absorb will influence runoff rate. Certain

hydrophobicity, frozen earth and compaction.

The Power Of Proper Roadway Drainage Systems

Roads that are eroded, deformed or unsafe in any way are not

only a hazard to the public, but also they increase costs drivers

and those responsible for maintaining roadways. By installing

proper roadway drainage systems from the beginning you can save a

lot of hassles and money. Plus, you can expect your investment in

drainage to pay for itself over time.

It takes research, careful consideration and engineering to

determine the best possible drainage system for a particular

roadway.