Cholelithiasis

 Refers to formation of calculi (e.g. gallstones) in the gallbladder.

Cholecystitis
 Is acute or chronic inflammation of the gallbladder.

 Acute cholecystits – may be calculous (with gallstones) or

acalculous (with gallstones).
 Chronic cholecystitis – may follow acute cholecystitis, although
it often occurs independently. It is usually associated with
gallstone formation.
Risk Factors
Cholelithiasis
Results from changes in bile components or bile stasis, associated with:

 Infection
 Cirrhosis
 Pancreatitis
 Celiac disease
 Diabetes mellitus
 Pregnancy
 Hormonal contraceptive use
Cholecystitis
 Obstruction of the cystic duct by an impacted gallstone
 Tissue damage due to trauma, massive burns, or surgery
 Gram-negative septicemia
 Multiple blood transfusion
 Prolonged fasting
  Hypertension
 Overuse of opioid analgesics
Pathophysiology
Cholelithiasis
Calculi usually from solid constituents of bile; the three major types are:

 Cholesterol gallstones – the most common type, thought to form in

supersaturated bile
 Pigment gallstones – formed mainly of unconjugated pigments in bile
precipitate
 Mixed types – with characteristics of pigment and cholesterol stones.
Gallstones can obstruct the cystic duct, causing cholecystitsi, or the
common bile duct, which is called choledocholithiasis.

Cholecystitis
 In acute and chronic cholecystitis, inflammation causes the
gallbladder wall to become thickened and edematous and causes the
cystic lumen to increase in diameter.
 If inflammation spreads to the common bile duct, obstruction of bile
drainage can lead to jaundice. Other possible complications include:
(Empyema i.e. pus-filled gallbladder, perforation, emphysematous
cholecystitis)
Assessment/Clinical Manifestations/Signs And
Symptoms
Cholelithiasis (up to ½ of persons with gallstones are asymptomatic;
however possible clinical manifestations include the following)

 Episodic (commonly after a high-fat meal), cramping pain in the right

upper abdominal quadrant or the epigastrium, possibly radiating to
the back near the right scapular tip (i.e. biliary colic)
 Nausea and vomiting
 Fat intolerance
 Fever and leukocystosis
 Signs and symptoms of jaundice
Acute Cholecystitis
 Biliary colic
 Tenderness and rigidity in the right upper quadrant elicited on
palpation (i.e. Murphy’s sign)
 Fever
 Nausea and vomiting
  Fat intolerance
 Signs and symptoms of jaundice
Chronic Cholecystitis
 Pain, which is less severe than in the acute form
 Fever, which is less severe than in the acute form
 Fat intolerance
 Heartburn
 Flatulence
Laboratory and diagnostic study findings
Cholelithiasis
 Biliary ultrasonography (i.e. cholecystosonography) can detect
gallstones in most cases.
Cholecystitis
 White blood cell count reveals leukocytosis
 Serum alkaline phosphatase is elevated
 Ultrasonography detects gallstone
 Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography may reveal
inflamed common bile ducts, gallbladder, and gallstones.
 Percutaneous transheptic cholangiography can identify gallstones
within the bile ducts.
Medical Management
Teach the client about planned treatments.
 Chenodeoxycholic acid is administered to dissolve gallstones. It is
effective in dissolving about 60% of radiolucent gallstones. Pigment
gallstones cannot be dissolves and must be excised.
 Nonsurgical removal, such as lithotripsy or extracorpeal shock wave
therapy, may be implemented.
Surgical treatment may be ordered.
Laparoscopic cholecytectomy (usually outpatient surgery) is
performed through a small incision made through the abdominal
wall in the umbilicus.
 Assess incision sites for infection. Instruct the client to notify the
health care provider if loss of appetite, vomiting, pain, abdominal
distention, or fever occur.
 Advise the client that he will need assistance at home for 2 to 3 days.
 Cholecystectomy is removal of the gallbladder after ligation of the
cystic duct and artery. Inform the client that a T-tube will be inserted
to drain blood; serosanguineous fluids, and bile and that the T-tube
must be taped below the incision
Choledochostomy is an incision into the common bile duct for
calculi removal.
Cholecystomy is the surgical opening of the gallbladder for removal
of stones, bile, or pus, after which a drainage tube is placed.
Nursing Diagnosis
 Acute pain secondary to biliary obstruction
 Ineffective coping related to nausea
 Deficient knowledge related to diagnosis
 Impaired gas exchange related to high abdominal surgical incision.
 Impaired skin integrity related to altered biliary drainage after surgical
incision.
 Imbalanced nutrition related to inadequate bile secretion.
Nursing Management
Provide nursing interventions during an acute gallbladder attack.
 Intervene to relive pain; give prescribed analgesics
 Promote adequate rest
 Administer IV fluids, monitor intake and output
 Monitor nasogastric tube and suctioning
 Administer antibiotics if prescribed.
Provide adequate nutrition.
 Assess nutritional status. Encourage a high-protein, high-
carbohydrate, low-fat diet.

Nursing Care Plan

1. Nursing Diagnosis
   

 Fluid Volume, risk for deficient

Risk factors may include
 Excessive losses through gastric suction; vomiting, distension, and
gastric hypermotility
 Medically restricted intake
 Altered clotting process
 Possibly evidenced by
 Not applicable. A risk diagnosis is not evidenced by signs and
symptoms, as the problem has not occurred and nursing
interventions are directed at prevention.
Desired Outcomes
 Demonstrate adequate fluid balance evidenced by stable vital signs,
moist mucous membranes, good skin turgor, capillary refill,
individually appropriate urinary output, absence of vomiting.
Nursing Interventions
 Maintain accurate record of I&O, noting output less than intake,
increased urine specific gravity. Assess skin and mucous
membranes, peripheral pulses, and capillary refill.

 Rationale: To provide information about fluid status and

circulating volume needing replacement.

 Monitor for signs and symptoms of increased or continued nausea or

vomiting, abdominal cramps, weakness, twitching, seizures, irregular
heart rate, paresthesia, hypoactive or absent bowel sounds,
depressed respirations.

 Rationale: Prolonged vomiting, gastric aspiration, and restricted

oral intake can lead to deficits in sodium, potassium, and
chloride.
·        Eliminate noxious sights or smells from environment.
·        Rationale: Reduces stimulation of vomiting center.
·        Perform frequent oral hygiene with alcohol-free mouthwash; apply
lubricants.
·        Rationale: Decreases dryness of oral mucous membranes; reduces risk of
oral bleeding.
·        Use small-gauge needles for injections and apply firm pressure for longer
than usual after venipuncture.
·        Rationale: Reduces trauma, risk of bleeding or hematoma formation.
·        Assess for unusual bleeding: oozing from injection sites, epistaxis,
bleeding gums, ecchymosis, petechiae, hematemesis or melena.
·        Rationale: Prothrombin is reduced and coagulation time prolonged when
bile flow is obstructed, increasing risk of bleeding or hemorrhage.
·        Keep patient NPO as necessary.
·         Rationale: Decreases GI secretions and motility.
·        Insert NG tube, connect to suction, and maintain patency as indicated.
  Rationale: To rest the GI Tract

2. Nursing Diagnosis
   

 Pain, acute
May be related to
 Biological injuring agents: obstruction/ductal spasm, inflammatory
process, tissue ischemia/necrosis
Possibly evidenced by
 Reports of pain, biliary colic (waves of pain)
 Facial mask of pain; guarding behavior
 Autonomic responses (changes in BP, pulse)
 Self-focusing; narrowed focus
Desired Outcomes
 Report pain is relieved/controlled.
 Demonstrate use of relaxation skills and diversional activities as
indicated for individual situation.
Nursing Interventions
·        Observe and document location, severity (0–10 scale), and character of
pain (steady, intermittent, colicky).
·        Rationale: Assists in differentiating cause of pain, and provides information
about disease progression and resolution, development of complications,
and effectiveness of interventions.
·        Note response to medication, and report to physician if pain is not being
relieved.
·         Rationale: Severe pain not relieved by routine measures may indicate
developing complications or need for further intervention.
·        Promote bedrest, allowing patient to assume position of comfort.
·         Rationale: Bedrest in low-Fowler’s position reduces intra-abdominal
pressure; however, patient will naturally assume least painful position.
·        Use soft or cotton linens; calamine lotion, oil bath; cool or moist
compresses as indicated.
·        Rationale: Reduces irritation and dryness of the skin and itching sensation.
·        Control environmental temperature.
·        Rationale: Cool surroundings aid in minimizing dermal discomfort.
·        Encourage use of relaxation techniques. Provide diversional activities.
·        Rationale: Promotes rest, redirects attention, may enhance coping.
·        Make time to listen to and maintain frequent contact with patient.
·         Rationale: Helpful in alleviating anxiety and refocusing attention, which can
relieve pain.
·        Maintain NPO status, insert and/or maintain NG suction as indicated.
·         Rationale: Removes gastric secretions that stimulate release of
cholecystokinin and gallbladder contractions.
·        Administer medications as indicated:
·        Anticholinergics: atropine, propantheline (Pro-Banthı-ne);
·        Rationale: Relieves reflex spasm and smooth muscle contraction and
assists with pain management.
·        Sedatives: phenobarbital;
·        Rationale: Promotes rest and relaxes smooth muscle, relieving pain.
·        Narcotics: meperidine hydrochloride (Demerol), morphine sulfate;
·         Rationale: Given to reduce severe pain. Morphine is used with caution
because it may increase spasms of the sphincter of Oddi,
although nitroglycerin may be given to reduce morphine-induced spasms if
they occur.
·        Monoctanoin (Moctanin);
·        Rationale: This medication may be used after a cholecystectomy for
retained stones or for newly formed large stones in the bile duct. It is a
lengthy treatment (1–3 wk) and is administered via a nasal-biliary tube. A
cholangiogram is done periodically to monitor stone dissolution.
·        Smooth muscle relaxants: papaverine (Pavabid), nitroglycerin, amyl nitrite;
·         Rationale: Relieves ductal spasm.
·        Chenodeoxycholic acid (Chenix), ursodeoxycholic acid (Urso, Actigall);
·        Rationale: These natural bile acids decrease cholesterol synthesis,
dissolving gallstones. Success of this treatment depends on the number
and size of gallstones (preferably three or fewer stones smaller than 20 min
in diameter) floating in a functioning gallbladder.
·        Antibiotics.
·         Rationale: To treat infectious process, reducing inflammation.

3. Nursing Diagnosis
   

 Nutrition: Less Than Body Requirements, Risk for Imbalanced

Risk factors may include
 Self-imposed or prescribed dietary restrictions, nausea/vomiting,
dyspepsia, pain
 Loss of nutrients; impaired fat digestion due to obstruction of bile flow
Possibly evidenced by
 Not applicable. A risk diagnosis is not evidenced by signs and
symptoms, as the problem has not occurred and nursing
interventions are directed at prevention.
 Desired Outcomes
 Report relief of nausea/vomiting.
 Demonstrate progression toward desired weight gain or maintain
weight as individually appropriate.
Nursing Interventions
·        Calculate caloric intake. Keep comments about appetite to a minimum.
·        Rationale: Identifies nutritional deficiencies and/or needs. Focusing on
problem creates a negative atmosphere and may interfere with intake.
·        Weigh as indicated.
·         Rationale: Monitors effectiveness of dietary plan.
·        Consult with patient about likes and dislikes, foods that cause distress, and
preferred meal schedule.
·         Rationale: Involving patient in planning enables patient to have a sense of
control and encourages eating.
·        Provide a pleasant atmosphere at mealtime; remove noxious stimuli.
·        Rationale: Useful in promoting appetite/reducing nausea.
·        Provide oral hygiene before meals.
·        Rationale: A clean mouth enhances appetite.
·        Offer effervescent drinks with meals, if tolerated.
·        Rationale: May lessen nausea and relieve gas. Note:May be
contraindicated if beverage causes gas formation/gastric discomfort.
·        Assess for abdominal distension, frequent belching, guarding, reluctance
to move.
·        Rationale: Nonverbal signs of discomfort associated with impaired
digestion, gas pain.
·        Ambulate and increase activity as tolerated.
·        Rationale: Helpful in expulsion of flatus, reduction of abdominal distension.
Contributes to overall recovery and sense of well-being and decreases
possibility of secondary problems related to immobility (pneumonia,
thrombophlebitis).
·        Consult with dietitian or nutritional support team as indicated.
·        Rationale: Useful in establishing individual nutritional needs and most
appropriate route.
·        Begin low-fat liquid diet after NG tube is removed.
·        Rationale: Limiting fat content reduces stimulation of gallbladder and pain
associated with incomplete fat digestion and is helpful in preventing
recurrence.
·        Advance diet as tolerated, usually low-fat, high-fiber. Restrict gas-
producing foods (onions, cabbage, popcorn) and foods or fluids high in fats
(butter, fried foods, nuts).
·         Rationale: Meets nutritional requirements while minimizing stimulation of
the gallbladder.
·        Administer bile salts: Bilron, Zanchol, dehydrocholic acid (Decholin), as
indicated.
·        Rationale: Promotes digestion and absorption of fats, fat-soluble vitamins,
cholesterol. Useful in chronic cholecystitis.
·        Monitor laboratory studies: BUN, prealbumin, albumin, total protein,
transferrin levels.
·         Rationale: Provides information about nutritional deficits or effectiveness of
therapy.
·        Provide parenteral and/or enteral feedings as needed.
·        Rationale: Alternative feeding may be required depending on degree of
disability and gallbladder involvement and need for prolonged gastric rest.

4. Nursing Diagnosis
   

 Deficient Knowledge
May be related to
 Lack of knowledge/recall
 Information misinterpretation
 Unfamiliarity with information resources
Possibly evidenced by
 Questions; request for information
 Statement of misconception
 Inaccurate follow-through of instruction
 Development of preventable complications
Desired Outcomes
 Verbalize understanding of disease process, prognosis, potential
complications.
 Verbalize understanding of therapeutic needs.
 Initiate necessary lifestyle changes and participate in treatment
regimen.
Nursing Interventions
·        Explain reasons for test procedures and preparations as needed.
·         Rationale: Information can decrease anxiety, thereby reducing sympathetic
stimulation.
·        Review disease process and prognosis. Discuss hospitalization and
prospective treatment as indicated. Encourage questions, expression of
concern.
·        Rationale: Provides knowledge base from which patient can make
informed choices. Effective communication and support at this time can
diminish anxiety and promote healing.
·        Review drug regimen, possible side effects.
·        Rationale: Gallstones often recur, necessitating long-term therapy.
Development of diarrhea or cramps during chenodiol therapy may be dose-
related or correctable. Note: Women of childbearing age should be
counseled regarding birth control to prevent pregnancy and risk of fetal
hepatic damage.
·        Discuss weight reduction programs if indicated
·        Rationale: Obesity is a risk factor associated with cholecystitis, and weight
loss is beneficial in medical management of chronic condition.
·        Instruct patient to avoid food/fluids high in fats (pork, gravies, nuts, fried
foods, butter, whole milk, ice cream), gas producers (cabbage, beans,
onions, carbonated beverages), or gastric irritants ( spicy foods, caffeine,
citrus).
·        Rationale: Limits or prevents recurrence of gallbladder attacks.
·        Review signs and symptoms requiring medical intervention: recurrent
fever; persistent nausea and vomiting, or pain; jaundice of skin or eyes,
itching; dark urine; clay-colored stools; blood in urine, stools, vomitus; or
bleeding from mucous membranes.
·         Rationale: Indicative of progression of disease process and development
of complications requiring further intervention.
·        Recommend resting in semi-Fowler’s position after meals.
·        Rationale: Promotes flow of bile and general relaxation during initial
digestive process.
·        Suggest patient limit gum chewing, sucking on straw and hard candy, or
smoking.
·        Rationale: Promotes gas formation, which can increase gastric distension
and discomfort.
·        Discuss avoidance of aspirin-containing products, forceful blowing of nose,
straining for bowel movement, contact sports.
·        Rationale: Reduces risk of bleeding related to changes in coagulation time,
mucosal irritation, and trauma.
·        Recommend use of soft toothbrush, electric razor.
·        Rationale: Reduces risk of bleeding related to changes in coagulation time,
mucosal irritation, and trauma.