Carbon steel is steel where the main interstitial alloying constituent is carbon.

The American
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) defines carbon steel as the following: "Steel is considered to be
carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt,
molybdenum, nickel, niobium, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element
to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not
exceed 1.04 percent; or when the maximum content specified for any of the following elements
does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60."[1]

The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel; in this
use carbon steel may include alloy steels.

As the carbon content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat
treating, but this also makes it less ductile. Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon
content reduces weldability. In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.
[2]

Contents
 [hide] 

 1 Types
o 1.1 Mild and low carbon steel
o 1.2 Higher carbon steels
 2 Heat treatment
 3 Case hardening
 4 See also
 5 References
 6 Bibliography

[edit] Types
See also: SAE steel grades

Carbon steel is broken down in to four classes based on carbon content:

[edit] Mild and low carbon steel

Mild steel, also called plain-carbon steel, is the most common form of steel because its price is
relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications.
Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.05–0.15% carbon[1] and mild steel contains 0.16–
0.29%[1] carbon; making it malleable and ductile, but it cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface hardness
can be increased through carburizing.[3]
It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed, for example as structural steel. The
density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3 (7850 kg/m3 or 0.284 lb/in3)[4] and the Young's
modulus is 210 GPa (30,000,000 psi).[5]

Low carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the material has two yield points. The
first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically
after the upper yield point. If a low carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper
and lower yield point then the surface may develop Lüder bands.[6] Low carbon steels contain
less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle.[7]

[edit] Higher carbon steels

Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range
of 0.30–1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can have a significant
effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular make the steel
red-short. Low alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melts
around 1426–1538 °C (2599–2800 °F).[8] Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability
of low carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low alloy steel by some definitions,
but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.

Medium carbon steel

Approximately 0.30–0.59% carbon content.[1] Balances ductility and strength and has good wear
resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components.[9]

High carbon steel

Approximately 0.6–0.99% carbon content.[1] Very strong, used for springs and high-strength
wires.[10]

Ultra-high carbon steel

Approximately 1.0–2.0% carbon content.[1] Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used
for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most steels with
more than 1.2% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy. Note that steel with a carbon
content above 2.0% is considered cast iron.

[edit] Heat treatment

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for certain types of heat
treatments.
Main article: Heat treatment

The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually
ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal
conductivity are slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for steel, Young's
modulus is unaffected. Steel has a higher solid solubility for carbon in the austenite phase;
therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating to an
austenitic phase. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the eutectoid reaction affects the
rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will give a
finer pearlite (until the martensite critical temperature is reached) and cooling slowly will give a
coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid (less than 0.77 wt% C) steel results in a pearlitic
structure with α-ferrite at the grain boundaries. If it is hypereutectoid (more than 0.77 wt% C)
steel then the structure is full pearlite with small grains of cementite scattered throughout. The
relative amounts of constituents are found using the lever rule. Here is a list of the types of heat
treatments possible:

 Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 °C

for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time needed
drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a structure of
rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on
which side of the eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and
allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel. The image to
the right shows where spheroidizing usually occurs.[11]
 Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 40 °C above Ac3 or Ac1 for 1
hour; this assures all the ferrite transforms into austenite (although cementite might still
exist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled
slowly, in the realm of 20°C (68.4°F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where
the furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic
structure, which means the "bands" of pearlite are thick. Fully annealed steel is soft and
ductile, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming.
Only spheroidized steel is softer and more ductile.[12]
 Process annealing: A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with
less than 0.3 wt% C. The steel is usually heated up to 550–650 °C for 1 hour, but
 sometimes temperatures as high as 700 °C. The image rightward shows the area where
process annealing occurs.
 Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the
upper critical temperature and this temperature is maintained for a time and then the
temperature is brought down below lower critical temperature and is again maintained.
Then finally it is cooled at room temperature. This method rids any temperature gradient.
 Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 55 °C above Ac3 or Acm for 1
hour; this assures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then air-
cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 °C (100.4 °F) per minute. This results
in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher
strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and ductility.[13]
 Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures
and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The
critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as
the carbon content increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that
possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic (BCC)
crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered tetragonal (BCT), with much internal
stress. Thus quenched steel is extremely hard but brittle, usually too brittle for practical
purposes. These internal stresses cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is
approximately three to four (with more carbon) fold harder than normalized steel.[14]
 Martempering (Marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure,
hence the term "marquenching". It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an
initial quench of typically in a molten salt bath at a temperature right above the
"martensite start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material
are relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not
have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control the
ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the ductility increases
with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the inner and outer
temperatures equalize. Then the steel is cooled at a moderate speed to keep the
temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this process reduce internal stresses and
stress cracks, but it also increases the impact resistance.[15]

 Quench and tempering: This is the most common heat treatment encountered, because
the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time of the
tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below the
eutectoid temperature then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small amounts
of spheroidite to form, which restores ductility, but reduces hardness. Actual
temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each composition.[16]

 Austempering: The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the steel
is held in the molten salt bath through the bainite transformation temperatures, and then
moderately cooled. The resulting bainite steel has a greater ductility, higher impact
resistance, and less distortion. The disadvantage of austempering is it can only be used on
a few steels, and it requires a special salt bath.[17]

[edit] Case hardening

Main article: Case hardening

Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear
resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not very
hardenable; therefore wide pieces cannot be thru-hardened. Alloy steels have a better
hardenability, so they can through-harden and do not require case hardening. This property of
carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but leaves
the core tough.

Structural steel
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Various structural steel shapes

Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific shape or cross
section and certain standards of chemical composition and mechanical properties. Structural steel
shape, size, composition, strength, storage, etc., is regulated in most industrialized countries.

Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of area, which allow
them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area.

Contents
 [hide] 

 1 Common structural shapes

 2 Standards
o 2.1 Standard structural steels (Europe)
 o 2.2 Standard structural steels (USA)
 2.2.1 Carbon steels
 2.2.2 High strength low alloy steels
 2.2.3 Corrosion resistant high strength low alloy steels
 2.2.4 Quenched and tempered alloy steels
o 2.3 CE Marking
 3 Steel vs. concrete
 4 Thermal properties
 5 Fire resistance
 6 Manufacturing
 7 See also
 8 References
 9 External links

[edit] Common structural shapes

In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in published standards, although a
number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available.

A steel I-beam, in this case used to support wood joists in a house.

 I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams (UB) and Universal
Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, HD and other sections; in the US it includes
Wide Flange (WF) and H sections)
 Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)
 HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow section) and
including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross sections)
 Angle (L-shaped cross-section)
 Channel, or C section, ( [-shaped cross-section)
 Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
 Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
o Railway rail
o Vignoles rail
o Flanged T rail
o Grooved rail
  Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so wide so as to be
called a sheet.
 Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see also rebar and dowel.
 Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 1⁄4 in.
 Open web steel joist

While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or
bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow sections are made from flat plate bent into a
circle and seam-welded).!

[edit] Standards
[edit] Standard structural steels (Europe)

Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the European standard EN
10025. However, many national standards also remain in force.[citation needed]

Typical grades are described as 'S275J2' or 'S355K2W'. In these examples, 'S' denotes structural
rather than engineering steel; 275 or 355 denotes the yield strength in newtons per square
millimetre or the equivalent megapascals; J2 or K2 denotes the materials toughness by reference
to Charpy impact test values; and the 'W' denotes weathering steel. Further letters can be used to
designate fine grain steel ('N' or 'NL'); quenched and tempered steel ('Q' or 'QL'); and
thermomechanically rolled steel ('M' or 'ML').

The normal yield strength grades available are 195, 235, 275, 355, 420, and 460, although some
grades are more commonly used than others e.g. in the UK, almost all structural steel is grades
S275 and S355. Higher grades are available in quenched and tempered material (500, 550, 620,
690, 890 and 960 - although grades above 690 receive little if any use in construction at present).

A set of euronorms define the shape of a set of standard structural profiles:

 European I-beam: IPE - Euronorm 19-57

 European I-beam: IPN - DIN 1025-1
 European flange beams: HE - Euronorm 53-62
 European channels: UPN - DIN 1026-1

[edit] Standard structural steels (USA)

Steels used for building construction in the US use standard alloys identified and specified by
ASTM International. These steels have an alloy identification beginning with A and then two,
three, or four numbers. The four-number AISI steel grades commonly used for mechanical
engineering, machines, and vehicles are a completely different specification series.

The standard commonly used structural steels are:[1]

[edit] Carbon steels

 A36 - structural shapes and plate

 A53 - structural pipe and tubing
 A500 - structural pipe and tubing
 A501 - structural pipe and tubing
 A529 - structural shapes and plate

[edit] High strength low alloy steels

 A441 - structural shapes and plates

 A572 - structural shapes and plates
 A618 - structural pipe and tubing
 A992 - W shapes beams only
 A270 - structural shapes and plates

[edit] Corrosion resistant high strength low alloy steels

 A242 - structural shapes and plates

 A588 - structural shapes and plates

[edit] Quenched and tempered alloy steels

 A514 - structural shapes and plates

 A517 - boilers and pressure vessels

[edit] CE Marking

The concept of CE Marking for all construction products and steel products is introduced by the
Construction Products Directive (CPD). The CPD is a European Directive that ensures the free
movement of all construction products within the European Union.

Because steel components are “safety critical”, CE Marking is not allowed unless the Factory
Production Control (FPC) system under which they are produced has been assessed by a suitable
certification body that has been approved to the European Commission.[2]

In the case of steel products such as sections, bolts and fabricated steelwork the CE Marking
demonstrates that the product complies with the relevant harmonized standard.[3]

For steel structures the main harmonized standards are:

 Steel sections and plate - EN 10025-1

 Hollow sections - EN 10219-1 and EN 10210-1
 Pre-loadable bolts - EN 14399-1
 Non-preloadable bolts - EN 15048-1
 Fabricated steel - EN EN 1090 -1
The standard that covers CE Marking of structural steelwork is EN 1090-1. The standard has
come in to force in late 2010. After a transition period of two years, CE Marking will become
mandatory in most European Countries sometime early in 2012.[4] The official end date of the
transition period is July 1st 2012.!

[edit] Steel vs. concrete

As raw material prices fluctuate, often so does building design. During times of lower steel
prices, more steel and less concrete is used, and vice versa. Each set of vendors and users
typically maintain national industry associations that advocate the use of its materials versus the
other. However, both materials are typically used together. Concrete without steel reinforcement
(usually ribbed round bars called rebar) crumbles under tensile loads. Steel on its own, without
composite or reinforced concrete floors, is likewise not a preferred building method.

While rebar is almost always steel, it is not considered a structural steel and is described
separately in the reinforcement bar and reinforced concrete articles.

While both steel structures and reinforced concrete cement (R.C.C) structures have their pros and
cons, the steel structures have better strength-to-weight ratios than RCC and can be easily
dismantled. Steel structures, which have bolted connections, can also be reused to some extent
after dismantling.

[edit] Thermal properties

The properties of steel vary widely, depending on its alloying elements.

The austenizing temperature, the temperature where a steel transforms to an austenite crystal
structure, for steel starts at 900 °C (1,650 °F) for pure iron, then, as more carbon is added, the
temperature falls to a minimum 724 °C (1,335 °F) for eutectic steel (steel with only .83% by
weight of carbon in it). As 2.1% carbon (by mass) is approached, the austenizing temperature
climbs back up, to 1,130 °C (2,070 °F). Similarly, the melting point of steel changes based on the
alloy.

The lowest temperature at which a plain carbon steel can begin to melt, its solidus, is 1,130 °C
(2,070 °F). Steel never turns into a liquid below this temperature. Pure Iron ('Steel' with 0%
Carbon) starts to melt at 1,492 °C (2,718 °F), and is completely liquid upon reaching 1,539 °C
(2,802 °F). Steel with 2.1% Carbon by weight begins melting at 1,130 °C (2,070 °F), and is
completely molten upon reaching 1,315 °C (2,399 °F). 'Steel' with more than 2.1% Carbon is no
longer Steel, but is known as Cast iron.[5]

[edit] Fire resistance

Metal deck and open web steel joist receiving spray fireproofing plaster, made of polystyrene leavened
gypsum.

Steel loses strength when heated sufficiently. The critical temperature of a steel member is the
temperature at which it cannot safely support its load. Building codes and structural engineering
standard practice defines different critical temperatures depending on the structural element type,
configuration, orientation, and loading characteristics. The critical temperature is often
considered the temperature at which its yield stress has been reduced to 60% of the room
temperature yield stress.[6] In order to determine the fire resistance rating of a steel member,
accepted calculations practice can be used,[7] or a fire test can be performed, the critical
temperature of which is set by the standard accepted to the Authority Having Jurisdiction, such
as a building code. In Japan, this is below 400°C[citation needed]. In China, Europe and North America
(e.g., ASTM E-119), this is approximately 1000–1300F[8] (530-810C). The time it takes for the
steel element that is being tested to reach the temperature set by the test standard determines the
duration of the fire-resistance rating. Heat transfer to the steel can be slowed by the use of
fireproofing materials, thus limiting steel temperature. Common fireproofing methods for
structural steel include intumescent, endothermic and plaster coatings as well as drywall, calcium
silicate cladding, and mineral or high temperature insulation mineral wool blanket[9].

Concrete building structures often meet code required fire-resistance ratings, as the concrete
thickness over the steel rebar provides sufficient fire resistance. However, concrete can be
subject to spalling, particularly if it has an elevated moisture content. Although additional
fireproofing is not often applied to concrete building structures, it is sometimes used in traffic
tunnels and locations where a hydrocarbon fuel fire is more likely, as flammable liquid fires
provides more heat to the structural element as compared to a fire involving ordinary
combustibles during the same fire period. Structural steel fireproofing materials include
intumescent, endothermic and plaster coatings as well as drywall, calcium silicate cladding, and
mineral or high temperature insulation wool blankets. Attention is given to connections, as the
thermal expansion of structural elements can compromise fire-resistance rated assemblies.

[edit] Manufacturing
Cutting workpieces to length is usually done with a bandsaw.
A beam drill line (drill line) has long been considered an indispensable way to drill holes and
mill slots into beams, channels and HSS elements. CNC beam drill lines are typically equipped
with feed conveyors and position sensors to move the element into position for drilling, plus
probing capability to determine the precise location where the hole or slot is to be cut.

For cutting irregular openings or non-uniform ends on dimensional (non-plate) elements, a

cutting torch is typically used. Oxy-fuel torches are the most common technology and range
from simple hand-held torches to automated CNC coping machines that move the torch head
around the structural element in accordance with cutting instructions programmed into the
machine.

Fabricating flat plate is performed on a plate processing center where the plate is laid flat on a
stationary 'table' and different cutting heads traverse the plate from a gantry-style arm or
"bridge." The cutting heads can include a punch, drill or torch.

I-beam
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For the text cursor of a graphical computer user interface, see Cursor (computers). For the night club, see
I-Beam (nightclub).

This I-beam is used to support the first floor of a house.

An I-beam, also known as H-beam, W-beam (for "wide flange"), Universal Beam (UB),
Rolled Steel Joist (RSJ), or double-T (especially in Polish, Spanish, Italian and German), is a
beam with an I- or H-shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the "I" are flanges,
while the vertical element is the web. The web resists shear forces while the flanges resist most
of the bending moment experienced by the beam. Beam theory shows that the I-shaped section
is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the
other hand, the cross-section has a reduced capacity in the transverse direction, and is also
inefficient in carrying torsion, for which hollow structural sections are often preferred.
Contents
 [hide] 

 1 Overview
 2 Design
o 2.1 Design for bending
o 2.2 Issues
 3 Wide-flange steel materials and rolling processes (U.S.)
 4 Standards
o 4.1 Euronorms
o 4.2 Other
 5 Designation and terminology
o 5.1 Indian standard beams ISMB
o 5.2 European wide flange beams HEA and HEB
 6 Cellular beams
 7 History
 8 See also
 9 References
 10 Further reading
 11 External links

[edit] Overview

Typical cross-sections of I-beams.

There are two standard I-beam forms:

  Rolled I-beam, formed by hot rolling, cold rolling or extrusion (depending on material).
 Plate girder, formed by welding (or occasionally bolting or riveting) plates.

I-beams are commonly made of structural steel but may also be formed from aluminium or
other materials. A common type of I-beam is the rolled steel joist (RSJ)—sometimes incorrectly
rendered as reinforced steel joist. British and European standards also specify Universal Beams
(UBs) and Universal Columns (UCs). These sections have parallel flanges, as opposed to the
varying thickness of RSJ flanges which are seldom now rolled in the UK. Parallel flanges are
easier to connect to and do away with the need for tapering washers. UCs have equal or near-
equal width and depth and are more suited to being orientated vertically to carry axial load such
as columns in multi-storey construction, while UBs are significantly deeper than they are wide
are more suited to carrying bending load such as beam elements in floors.

I-beams engineered from wood with fiberboard and/or laminated veneer lumber are also
becoming increasingly popular in construction, especially residential, as they are both lighter and
less prone to warping than solid wooden joists. However there has been some concern as to their
rapid loss of strength in a fire if unprotected.

[edit] Design

Illustration of a vibrating I-beam.

I-beams are widely used in the construction industry and are available in a variety of standard
sizes. Tables are available to allow easy selection of a suitable steel I-beam size for a given
applied load. I-beams may be used both as beams and as columns.

I-beams may be used both on their own, or acting compositely with another material, typically
concrete. Design may be governed by any of the following criteria:

 deflection: the stiffness of the I-beam will be chosen to minimize deformation

 vibration: the stiffness and mass are chosen to prevent unacceptable vibrations, particularly in
settings sensitive to vibrations, such as offices and libraries
  bending failure by yielding: where the stress in the cross section exceeds the yield stress
 bending failure by lateral torsional buckling: where a flange in compression tends to buckle
sideways or the entire cross-section buckles torsionally
 bending failure by local buckling: where the flange or web is so slender as to buckle locally
 local yield: caused by concentrated loads, such as at the beam's point of support
 shear failure: where the web fails. Slender webs will fail by buckling, rippling in a phenomenon
termed tension field action, but shear failure is also resisted by the stiffness of the flanges
 buckling or yielding of components: for example, of stiffeners used to provide stability to the I-
beam's web.

[edit] Design for bending

The largest stresses ( ) in a beam under bending are in the locations farthest from the neutral axis.

A beam under bending sees high stresses along the axial fibers that are farthest from the neutral
axis. To prevent failure, most of the material in the beam must be located in these regions.
Comparatively little material is needed in the area close to the neutral axis. This observation is
the basis of the I-beam cross-section; the neutral axis runs along the center of the web which
can be relatively thin and most of the material can be concentrated in the flanges.

The ideal beam is the one with the least cross-sectional area (and hence requiring the least
material) needed to achieve a given section modulus. Since the section modulus depends on the
value of the moment of inertia, an efficient beam must have most of its material located as far
from the neutral axis as possible. The farther a given amount of material is from the neutral axis,
the larger is the section modulus and hence a larger bending moment can be resisted.

When designing a symmetric I-beam to resist stresses due to bending the usual starting point is
the required section modulus. If the allowable stress is and the maximum expected bending
moment is , then the required section modulus is given by[1]

where is the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section and is the distance of the top of the
beam from the neutral axis (see beam theory for more details).

For a beam of cross-sectional area and height , the ideal cross-section would have half the
area at a distance above the cross-section and the other half at a distance below the
cross-section[1] For this cross-section

However, these ideal conditions can never be achieved because material is needed in the web for
physical reasons, including to resist buckling. For wide-flange beams, the section modulus is
approximately

which is superior to that achieved by rectangular beams and circular beams.

[edit] Issues

Though I-beams are excellent for unidirectional bending in a plane parallel to the web, they do
not perform as well in bidirectional bending. These beams also show little resistance to twisting
and undergo sectional warping under torsional loading. For torsion dominated problems, box
beams and other types of stiff sections are used in preference to the I-beam.
[edit] Wide-flange steel materials and rolling processes
(U.S.)

Rusty riveted steel I-beam

In the United States, the most commonly mentioned I-beam is the wide-flange (W) shape.
These beams have flanges in which the planes are nearly parallel. Other I-beams include
American Standard (designated S) shapes, in which flange surfaces are not parallel, and H-piles
(designated HP), which are typically used as pile foundations. Wide-flange shapes are available
in grade ASTM A992,[2] which has generally replaced the older ASTM grades A572 and A36.
Ranges of yield strength:

 A36: 36,000 psi (250 MPa)

 A572: 42,000–60,000 psi (290–410 MPa), but 50,000 psi (340 MPa) is the most common
 A588: Similar to A572
 A992: 50,000–65,000 psi (340–450 MPa)

Like most steel products, I-beams often contain some recycled content.

The American Institute of Steel Construction ("AISC") publishes the "Steel Construction
Manual" for designing structures of various shapes. It documents the common approaches, ASD
and LRFD, (as of 13th ed.) to creating such designs.

[edit] Standards
The following standards define the shape and tolerances of I-beam steel sections:

[edit] Euronorms

 EN 10024, Hot rolled taper flange I sections - Tolerances on shape and dimensions.
 EN 10034, Structural steel I and H sections - Tolerances on shape and dimensions.
  EN 10162, Cold rolled steel sections - Technical delivery conditions - Dimensional and cross-
sectional

tolerances

[edit] Other

 DIN 1025-5
 ASTM A6, American Standard Beams
 BS 4-1
 IS 808 - Dimensions hot rolled steel beam, column, channel and angle sections

[edit] Designation and terminology

 In the United States, steel I-beams are commonly specified using the depth and weight of the
beam. For example, a "W10x22" beam is approximately 10 inches (25 cm) in depth (nominal
height of the I-beam from the outer face of one flange to the outer face of the other flange)
and weighs approximately 22 lb/ft (33 kg/m). It should be noted that wide flange section often
vary from their nominal depth. In the case of the W14 series, they may be as deep as 22.84
inches.[3]

 In Canada, steel I-beams are now commonly specified using the depth and weight of the beam
in metric terms. For example, a "W250x33" beam is approximately 250 millimetres (10 in) in
depth (height of the I-beam from the outer face of one flange to the outer face of the other
flange) and weighs approximately 33 kg/m (22 lb/ft).[4] I-beams are still available in U.S. sizes
from many Canadian manufacturers.

 In India I-beams are designated as ISMB, ISJB, ISLB, ISWB. ISMB :Indian Standard Medium
Weight Beam, ISJB : Indian Standard Junior Beams, ISLB : Indian Standard Light Weight Beams,
ISWB : Indian Standard Wide Flange Beams. Beams are designated as per respective abbreviated
reference followed by the depth of section such as for example ISMB 450, where 450 is the
depth of section in millimetres (mm). The dimensions of these beams are classified as per
IS:808. (as per BIS)

 In the United Kingdom, these steel sections are commonly specified with a code consisting of
the major dimension (usually the depth)-x-the minor dimension-x-the mass per metre-ending
with the section type, all measurements being metric. Therefore a 152x152x23UC would be a
column section (UC = universal column) of approximately 152 millimetres (6 in) depth 152
millimetres (6 in) width and weighing 23 kg per meter length.[5]

 In Australia, these steel sections are commonly referred to as Universal Beams (UB) or Columns
(UC). The designation for each is given as the height of the beam, the type (beam or column)
and then the unit metre rate (e.g., a 460UB67 is a 460 millimetres (18 in) deep universal beam
that weighs 67 kg/m)
[edit] Indian standard beams ISMB

Wide-flange I-beam.

Beam Flange Web Flange Cross-section Moment of inertia

Weight
Type height width thickness thickness area in torsion (J)
(kg/m) 2
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (cm ) (cm4)

ISMB 80 80 46 3.8 5.2 6.0 7.64 0.70

ISMB 100 100 55 4.1 5.7 8.1 10.3 1.10

ISMB 120 120 70 4.4 6.3 10.4 13.2 1.71

ISMB 140 140 73 4.7 6.9 12.9 16.4 2.54

ISMB 750 x 137 753 263 11.5 17 137 175 137.1

ISMB 750 x 147 753 265 13.2 17 147 188 161.5

ISMB 750 x 173 762 267 14.4 21.6 173 221 273.6

ISMB 750 x 196 770 268 15.6 25.4 196 251 408.9

[edit] European wide flange beams HEA and HEB

 Beam Flange Web Flange Cross-section Moment of inertia
Weight
Type height width thickness thickness area in torsion (J)
(kg/m) 2
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (cm ) (cm4)

HE 100 A 96 100 5 8 16.7 21.2 5.24

HE 120 A 114 120 5 8 19.9 25.3 5.99

HE 140 A 133 140 5.5 8.5 24,7 31.4 8.13

HE 160 A 152 160 6 9 30.4 38.8 12.19

HE 1000 x 415 1020 304 26 46 415 528.7 2714

HE 1000 x 438 1026 305 26.9 49 437 557.2 3200

HE 1000 x 494 1036 309 31 54 494 629.1 4433

HE 1000 x 584 1056 314 35.6 64 584 743.7 72230

[edit] Cellular beams

Cellular beams are the modern version of the traditional ‘castellated’ beam which results in a
beam approximately 40-60% deeper than its parent section. The exact finished depth, cell
diameter and cell spacing are flexible. A cellular beam is up to 1.5 times stronger than its parent
section and is therefore utilized to create efficient large span constructions.

[edit] History
The method of producing an I-beam, as rolled from a single piece of steel, was patented by
Alphonse Halbou of the company Forges de la Providence in 1849.[6]

Bethlehem Steel's Bethlehem plant was famous for its Gray mill and the wide-flange shapes that
that mill was good at rolling. The steel was hot rolled to make the beams. Bethlehem was a
leading supplier of rolled structural steel of various cross-sections in American bridge and
skyscraper work of the mid-twentieth century.[7] Today, rolled cross-sections have been partially
displaced in such work by fabricated cross-sections.