IMPERFECTIONS/DEFECTS
• The term “defect” or “imperfection” is
generally used to describe any deviation
from the perfect periodic array of atoms
in the crystal.
POINT IMPERFECTIONS
LINE IMPERFECTIONS
SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS
VOLUME IMPERFECTIONS
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POINT IMPERFECTIONS
They are imperfect point- like regions, one or two
atomic diameters in size and hence referred to as
‘zero dimensional imperfections’.
There are different kinds of point imperfections.
• VACANCIES
If an atom is missing from its normal site in the matrix,
the defect is called a vacancy defect.
It may be a single vacancy, divacancy or a trivacancy
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POINT DEFECT-VACANCY
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POINT IMPERFECTIONS
In metals vacancies created by thermal
excitation.
When the temperature is sufficiently high, as the
atoms vibrate around their regular positions,
some acquire enough energy to leave the site
completely..
A pair of one cation and one anion can be
missed from an ionic crystal.
Such a pair of vacant ion sites is called Schottky
imperfection.
This type of defect is dominant in alkali
halides.
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SCHOTTKY IMPERFECTIONS
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SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY
It refers to a foreign atom that substitutes for or
replaces a parent atom in the crystal.
• Pentavalent or trivalent impurity atoms doped
in Silicon or Germanium are also substitutional
impurities in the crystal.
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SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY
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INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY
An interstitial defect arises when an atom occupies a
definite position in the lattice that is not normally occupied
in the perfect crystal.
In crystals, packing density is always less than 1.
If a small sized atom occupies the void space in the parent
crystal without disturbing the parent atoms from their
regular sites, then it is called as ‘interstitial impurity’.
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INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY
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Frenkel Imperfection
In ionic crystals, an ion displaced from a regular site to an
interstitial site is called ‘Frenkel imperfection’.
As cations are generally the smaller ones, it is possible for
them to get displaced into the void space.
Anions do not get displaced as the void space is too small
compared to the size of the anions.
A Frenkel imperfection does not change the overall electrical
neutrality of the crystal. This type of defect occurs in silver
halides and CaF2.
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Frenkel imperfection
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LINE IMPERFECTIONS
The defects, which take place due to dislocation or distortion of
atoms along a line, in some direction are called as ‘line defects’.
Line defects are also called dislocations. In the Geometic sense,
they may be called as ‘one dimensional defects’.
A dislocation may be defined as a disturbed region between two
substantially perfect parts of a crystal.
It is responsible for the phenomenon of slip by which most
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LINE IMPERFECTIONS
The two types of dislocations are,
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
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EDGE DISLOCATION
In perfect crystal, atoms are arranged in both vertical and
horizontal planes parallel to the side faces.
If one of these vertical planes does not extend to the full
length, but ends in between within the crystal it is called ‘edge
dislocation’.
In the perfect crystal, just above the edge of the incomplete
plane the atoms are squeezed and are in a state of compression.
Just below the edge of the incomplete plane, the atoms are
pulled apart and are in a state of tension.
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EDGE DISLOCATION
The distorted configuration extends all along the edge
into the crystal.
Thus as the region of maximum distortion is centered
around the edge of the incomplete plane, this distortion
represents a line imperfection and is called an edge
dislocation.
Edge dislocations are represented by ‘’ or ‘‘ depending
on whether the incomplete plane starts from the top or from
the bottom of the crystal.
These two configurations are referred to as positive and
negative edge dislocations respectively.
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Imperfections in Solids
Edge Dislocation
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EDGE DISLOCATION
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BURGERS VECTOR
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BURGERS VECTOR
The magnitude and the direction of the displacement are
defined by a vector, called the Burgers Vector.
In figure (a), starting from the point P, we go up by 6 steps,
then move towards right by 5 steps, move down by 6 steps and
finally move towards left by 5 steps to reach the starting point
P. Now the Burgers circuit gets closed.
When the same operation is performed on the defect crystal
(figure (b)) we end up at Q instead of the starting point.
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BURGERS VECTOR
So, we have to move an extra step to return to P, in order to close
the Burgers circuit.
The magnitude and the direction of the step defines the Burgers
Vector (BV).
BV = Q P = b
The Burgers Vector is perpendicular to the edge dislocation line.
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SCREW DISLOCATION
In this dislocation, the atoms are displaced in two separate
planes perpendicular to each other.
It forms a spiral ramp around the dislocation.
The Burgers Vector is parallel to the screw dislocation line.
Speed of movement of a screw dislocation is lesser compared
to edge dislocation.
Normally, the real dislocations in the crystals are the mixtures
of edge and screw dislocation.
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Imperfections in Solids
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation
Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b
(a)
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SCREW DISLOCATION
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Edge, Screw, and Mixed
Dislocations
Mixed
Edge
Screw
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Imperfections in Solids
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs
.
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Surface Imperfections
• It is caused by the defects such as grain
boundaries, tilt boundaries, twin boundaries
and stacking faults
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GRAIN BOUNDARIES
They are the imperfections which separate crystals or grains of
different orientation in a poly crystalline solid during nucleation or
crystallization.
It is a two dimensional imperfection. During crystallization, new
crystals form in different parts and they are randomly oriented with
respect to one another.
They grow and impinge on each other.
The atoms held in between are attracted by crystals on either side
and depending on the forces, the atoms occupy equilibrium
positions.
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GRAIN BOUNDARIES
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TILT BOUNDARIES
This is called low-angle boundary as the orientation
difference between two neighbouring crystals is less than 10°.
The disruption in the boundary is not so severe as in the
high-angle boundary. In general low-angle boundaries can be
described by suitable arrays of dislocation.
Actually a low-angle tilt boundary is composed of edge
dislocation lying one above the other
The angle or tilt will be b
D
where b = Burgers vector and
D = the average vertical distance between dislocations.
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TILT BOUNDARIES
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TWIN BOUNDARIES
If the atomic arrangement on one side of a boundary is
a mirror reflection of the arrangement on the other side,
then it is called as twin boundary.
As they occur in pair, they are called twin boundaries.
At one boundary, orientation of atomic arrangement
changes.
At another boundary, it is restored back. The region
between the pair of boundaries is called the twinned
region.
These boundaries are easily identified under an optical
microscope.
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Planar Defects in Solids
• One case is a twin boundary (plane)
– Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin
plane.
Adapted from Fig. 4.9,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
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TWIN BOUNDARIES
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STACKING FAULTS
Whenever the stacking of atomic planes is not in a proper
sequence throughout the crystal, the fault caused is known
as stacking fault.
For example, the stacking sequence in an ideal FCC crystal
may be described as A-B-C-A-B-C- A-B-C-……. But the
stacking fault may change the sequence to A-B-C-A-B-A-B-
A-B-C. The region in which the stacking fault occurs (A-B-
A-B) forms a thin region and it becomes HCP.
This thin region is a surface imperfection and is called a
stacking fault.
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STACKING FAULTS
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VOLUME IMPERFECTIONS
Presence of a large vacancy or void space, when cluster of
atoms are missed is considered as a volume imperfection.
Foreign particle inclusions and non crystalline regions which
have the dimensions of the order of 0.20 nm are also called as
volume imperfections.
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Steps in Metal Solidification
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Defects in Solidification
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