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 Architectural Programming
and Predesign Manager

Robert Hershberger, Ph.D., FAIA

Boston, Massachusetts Burr Ridge, Illinois Dubuque, Iowa

Madison, Wisconsin New York, New York San Francisco,
California St. Louis, Missouri

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hershberger, Robert G.
Architectural programming and predesign manager I Robert G.
Hershberger.
p. cm. Dedication
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-07-134749-6 This book is dedicated to my wife, Deanna, and our children, Vernon
1. Architectural design-Data processing. 2. Computer-aided and Andrew, who have given me both the love and encouragement
design. I. Title.
NA2728.H47 1999 that I needed to persevere for the twenty-three years that this book
720-dc21 99-14447 has been in process.
CIP

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 Contents

Forevvord ix
Preface xiii
Acknovvledgments xvii

Chapter 1: Architectural Programming 1

1.1 The Nature of Architectural Programming 1
1.2 Definitions of Architectural Programming 4
1.3 Approaches to Architectural Programming 6
1.4 Design-Based Architectural Programming 7
1.5 Knovvledge-Based Architectural Programming 14
1. 6 Agreement-Based Architectural Programming 17
1. 7 Value-Based Architectural Programming 25
1. 8 Exercises 35
1. 9 References 36

Chapter 2: Values and Architecture 41

2 .1 Importance of Values 41
2.2 Enduring Values of Architecture 42
2.3 Contemporary Values of Architecture 53
2.4 HECTTEAS (TEST EACH) 56
2.5 Case Study: Alleluia Lutheran Church 57
2. 6 Case Study: Hershberger Residence 60
2. 7 Exercises 70
2. 8 References 71

Chapter 3: Values Become Issues 73

3 .1 Human Issues 75
3.2 Environmental Issues 89

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VI Contents
Contents VI I

372
3. 3 Cultural Issues 108 7.4 Executive Summary
3 .4 Technological Issues 123 7.5 Values and Goals 375
3. 5 Temporal Issues 132 7. 6 Design Considerations 376
3. 6 Economic Issues 140 7. 7 Project Requirements 382
3. 7 Aesthetic Issues 145 7. 8 Space Identification and Allocation 7. 9 390
3. 8 Safety Issues Relationship Matrices and Diagrams 395
161
3. 9 Exercises 7 .10 Space Program Sheets
167 404
3 .10 References 7 .11 Budget and Cost Analysis 7
168 406
.12 Project Schedule 415
Chapter 4: Preparing to Program 4 171 7 .13 Design Analysis 418
171 7 .14 Appendix 430
.1 Pre-Design Services
180 7 .15 Exercises 431
4.2 Architectural Programming 7 .16 References
181 432
4.3 Discovering Critical Issues 4.
182
4 Program Planning 435
4. 5 Exercises 190 Chapter 8: Methods of Evaluation 8.1
4. 6 References 191 Program Evaluation 436
8.2 Design Evaluation 446
Chapter 5: Information Gathering 193 8.3 Building Evaluation 448
5 .1 Literature Search and Review 5. 195 8. 4 Body of Knowledge 451
2 Diagnostic Interviewing 219 8. 5 The Next Commission 452
5.3 Diagnostic Observation 246 8. 6 Exercises 453
5 .4 Questionnaires and Surveys 273 8. 7 References
454
5.5 Site and Climate Analysis 306
5. 6 Exercises 313 457
Appendix: Sample Architectural Programs
5. 7 References
317 A.1 The Planning Department,
457
The University of Arizona
Chapter 6: Work Sessions 321 A.2 Mikvah for an Orthodox Jewish Congregation 470
6.1 Client/User Work Sessions 323
6.2 Executive Work Sessions 6.3 331 Index 487
Work Session Setting 334
6. 4 Matrix Development 335
6.5 Presentation Methods
346
6.6 Requirement Sheets
6. 7 Exercises 359
6. 8 References 364
365

Chapter 7: Program Preparation 7

36
7
.1 Program Form 368
7.2 Program Content 369
7.3 Preliminaries
370
 Foreword

T hroughout a long and distinguished career as an educator, a

significant piece of which was at Arizona State University in
the College of Architecture and Environmental Design (of which I
am currently the Dean), and then most recently at the University of
Arizona (where he has only recently stepped down as Dean), Bob
Hershberger has sustained in parallel an active architectural practice.
This volume draws richly from this joint background. Donald Schoen
has written vividly of the need for reflective practice. Perhaps no one
should feel more powerfully that challenge than the
educator/practitioner. In this book we all benefit from Dr.
Hershberger's reflections on a career that has included the rigorous
research required for his Ph.D., the careful structuring required to
transform students into professionals, and his own work as a
practicing architect.
I should declare immediately that I am the direct beneficiary of
Bob Hershberger's efforts. For a brief period he was my Associate
Dean before the University of Arizona called. The new addition to
our College of Architecture and Environmental Design celebrates
through the work of Alan Chimacoff of the Hillier Group an ex-
traordinarily thoughtful program for which Bob Hershberger and
Tim McGinty provided the major effort and guidance. And every day
of my working life is spent in the context of Bob Hershberger' s two
efforts on Mill Avenue in Tempe, both of which are described in this
book. I am referring to his influence that caused the city fathers to
rethink their plan to bulldoze Mill Avenue, which was then replaced
with a much more responsible plan to honor the historic heritage and
create a richer and far more hu-
x Foreword Foreword

mane urban center. I also enjoy my daily salute to the Alleluia Given a certain climate, the availability of certain materials, and
Lutheran Church on Mill Avenue where the existing modest house the constraints and capabilities of a given level of technology, what
became the springboard for his design of the sanctuary. finally decides the form of a dwelling, and moulds the spaces and
This book is a contribution to the literature on programming and their relationships, is the vision that people have of the ideal life.
acknowledges its debt to its predecessors, most notably the work of Amos Rapoport was writing primarily about buildings that were
William Pena whose series of volumes, all of which have the phrase the product of what he calls the "preindustrial vernacular." That is to
"Problem Seeking" in their title, began in 1969. Other names say, buildings that may have been built by craftsmen but were not the
familiar from the literature, such as Henry Sanoff, Wolfgang Freiser, conceptual products of professional architects. I see this book as an
and Mickey Palmer are invoked, as are institutions such as the AIA effort to bring to the self-conscious work of the architect a similar
and GSA who have helped define the current practice. priority of cultural value.
This book differs, however, in several respects. First, it is clearly One of the questions that is always raised when programming is
intended primarily as a text to be used in an educational setting. discussed is whether programming and design are necessarily sep-
Second, it is much more discursive and inclusive, drawing heavily arate and sequential activities, and the corollary question of whether
on the author's academic and professional experiences. Third, and the programmer and the designer can or should be the same
most significantly, it emphasizes the qualitative, or value, issues as individual. This book does not firmly answer those questions, while
having priority while accepting as a competent professional that it does discuss the pros and cons behind them. As an architect who
there remain quantitative, and particularly economic, realities that often has designed the buildings he has programmed, and who is
must be addressed. intimately familiar with the dialogue that can be so fertile between
As a text I suspect the book will be easy to use. The eight chap- program and design, Bob Hershberger clearly does not fit in the
ters relate nicely to a sixteen-week semester. The exercises at the end camp of those who would hold them firmly separate. Indeed, as a
of each chapter are valuable pedagogical tools. And the instructor student, he studied under Louis Kahn, whose building designs are as
will be able to develop an interesting dialogue with the voice and much an interrogation of the program of an institution as they are a
ideas of the author. The voice, and those ideas, lend a personality to consequence of that program.
the text. The reader gets to know and admire the author as a In closing, I have a suggestion as to how to read this book. I
reflective practitioner and a natural teacher, whose own values of would start at the end, with the two sample programs. In particular I
respect and caring for his clients and his students are transparent. would start with the program for a Mikvah for an Orthodox Jewish
Ever since Amos Rapoport wrote House Form and Culture, ed- Congregation. Dr. Hershberger is not an Orthodox Jew, indeed a
ucators have been appropriately loath to refer to climate, site, significant part of his 'practice has been churches for the Christian
technology, and use, as "determinants" of architectural form. Let me faith that informs his life and values, but in this program there is
quote: evidence of the profound respect for the values of the institution
My basic hypothesis, then, is that house form is not simply the which is being served. That is the very center of what this book is
result of physical forces or any single causal factor, but is the con- about. Having come to terms with it, one can turn with profit back to
sequence of a whole range of socio-cultural factors seen in their the beginning to follow the logic of the text in the comfortable
broadest terms. Form is in turn modified by climatic conditions (the company of its estimable author.
physical environment which makes some things impossible and John Meunier
encourages others) and by methods of construction, materials July 1997
available, and the technology (the tools for achieving the desired
environment). I will call the socio-cultural factors primary, and the
others secondary or modifying.
 Preface

T his book is intended to be a teaching/learning tool-a text/

workbook that can be used in the college classroom to help
students in architecture and other environmental design disciplines
learn a sound basis for architectural programming. It will also be
useful in the architectural office for practitioners who have not had
sufficient educational background in architectural programming.
Each reader can learn from the text about the theoretical and
methodological aspects of programming and employ the suggested
exercises to develop needed programming skills.
The intent of the book is to provide a strong philosophical basis
and the appropriate methodology for programming that begins the
process leading to architecture-buildings that accomplish the goals,
meet the needs, and express the highest and most appropriate values
of the clients, users, and architect to become works of art.
Because of its emphasis, the book should appeal to architects,
architectural designers, architectural educators, and architectural
students. Interior designers, landscape architects, and urban de-
signers should also find this programming approach to be useful as
they endeavor to create works of art in their own areas.
The book will also prove of interest and use to behavioral and
social scientists engaged in architectural programming because the
philosophical basis is not alien to their objectives, and the
methodologies are decidedly biased toward those used by behav-
ioral and social scientists. They will find themselves on familiar
ground during discussions of literature search and review, obser-
vation, interviewing, questionnaire preparation, sampling, and

x
 Preface X
XIV Preface

the like. They will also find the emphasis on values to be of current 7. Demonstrating how such an approach can help architects
interest in their own fields. evaluate, and hence improve, their design solutions.
The point of view offered is that effective architectural pro- 7. Providing two excellent examples of program documents in
gramming can enhance the quality of design, and conversely that the appendix to show the reader how a final program docu-
some programming approaches actually inhibit quality design. ment should be presented.
Those methods of programming that focus only on the collection of
Finally, the organization of the text and abundance of illustra-
facts and figures about the presumed needs of the client or user
tions should make reading both easy and enjoyable for those in or
group are likely to miss the most important information for design:
aspiring to be in a visually oriented design profession. They should
values and goals. Without an initial understanding of these areas,
find this book of use in their endeavor to create architec-
there is a very high probability that many of the collected facts and
figures will be irrelevant and misleading. The important values and ture.
goals must be identified for the programmer to know what facts and
figures need to be articulated in the program. The designer, on the
other hand, needs values and goals to know on which areas to focus
the design effort. The designer can also use the expressed values and
goals to evaluate the appropriateness of various design decisions.
The behavioral scientist needs to understand the values and goals for
meaningful post-occupancy evaluation.
The intent, therefore, is to provide the reader with a text/
workbook that articulates a sound and general basis for architectural
programming and sets forth the fundamental methods, techniques,
and tools to be utilized. It differentiates itself from other texts and
publications currently available in this area by:
1. Providing an extended theoretical discussion of the reasons
for preparing an architectural program.
3. Stressing the importance of value identification prior to es-
tablishing specific program goals and requirements.
1. Covering in some depth the most essential and general pro-
cedures for developing programming information
1. Showing how work sessions can be used effectively at the
conclusion of information gathering and the beginning of
program preparation.
1. Showing what program documents should contain and how to
assemble them.
6. Introducing specific exercises by which the reader can de-
velop the skills necessary to do quality architectural pro-
gramming.
 Acknowledgments

A s an architectural student I did not take a course in architectural

programming. I was given the program, usually a
brief one, by the studio instructor and was expected to begin to
design. However, like other students in the typical five-year ar-
chitectural program, I was required to do research and write a
program for my bachelor's thesis. I selected a two-year medical
school for my project, and in the process of literature review dis-
covered Louis I. Kahn and his seminal work on the Richards
Building at the University of Pennsylvania. I was amazed at the
depth of his thinking about architecture, not just design but also
questions about the nature of form and its relation to human in-
stitutions. I decided that I should study under this master architect
and teacher. I must acknowledge the seed that he planted as he
considered with his students the essential nature of various design
projects-a house in Chestnut Hill, a consulate for Angola, a river boat
on the River Th~mes and finally the Salk Center. It started me
thinking about the nature of architecture. My sincere
thanks to Louis I. Kahn.
In my first teaching job at Idaho State University, I regularly
ate lunch in the Faculty Club where, to my constant amazement, I
listened to other faculty talk about their research, statistics and the
like. I found their conversations stimulating and baffling, because
my education had practically nothing in these areas. The University
of Pennsylvania had just begun a Ph.D. program in architecture, so I
decided to go back and learn about research, especially as it might
apply to architecture. This time I discovered Russell Ackoff,
professor and head of Operations Research. He
XVIII Acknowledgments Acknowledgments XI

had graduated in architecture, but had found research more to his how they showed me that "values become issues," whether we want
liking. He applied the problem solving mentality of the architect to them to or not. They taught me how to program.
this new field. His work and teaching were fascinating because, like I began working on this book in the summer and fall of 1976.
Kahn, he looked beyond the obvious for the profound-for The book took second place to an active programming and design
understanding, not just description. I gratefully acknowledge his practice for about ten years, but was nearly complete when I left
influence on my way of thinking. Dean G. Holmes Perkins reinforced Arizona State University in 1988 to become Dean of the College of
this type of thinking as he guided me through my dissertation study Architecture at The University of Arizona. I team-taught pro-
on Architecture and Meaning. His incisive directions and insistence gramming that spring with Susan Moody, who then taught the course
that I manage the scope of the research also greatly contributed to for the next seven years using my nearly complete document. I very
how I think. I acknowledge and thank him. He is my model of a fine much appreciate the insights that she and her students gave me from
human being and an outstanding educator and administrator. that time period.
I presented my dissertation research at one of the first meetings of I thank Chuck Hutchinson for his encouragement and good ad-
the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA) in vice over the years. I also thank Donna Duerk, Kent Spreckelmeyer,
Blacksburg, Virginia. Here I met other architects and social scientists Wolf Freiser, and Walter Moleski for being thoughtful reviewers of
interested in research questions in architecture. A few, like Gerald the manuscript in its various stages. I deeply appreciate the
Davis and Jay Farbstein, were practicing as architectural thoughtful foreword by Dean John Meunier of Arizona State
programmers. I have been greatly influenced by a number of these University. I thank Carl Okasaki for the many excellent sketch
people including Walter Moleski, Robert Bechtel, John Zeisel, Kent illustrations, Nancy Cole for her computer graphic images, and
Spreckelmeyer, and Wolf Freiser, to name a few. Returning to the Claudette Barry for initial editing of the manuscript. I especially
annual EDRA conference every year for ten or more years influenced thank Audrey Brichetto Morris of the Herberger Center for Design
my thinking a great deal. Excellence at Arizona State University for her exceptionally
After receiving my Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania, I took thoughtful copyediting of the final manuscript. I stand in awe of her
a position as Associate Professor at Arizona State University where I special abilities in this area. I am equally impressed with the
began teaching research methods and architectural programming. I expertise of Kelly Ricci, Lisa M. Mellott, Nadine McFarland, and
also began teaching design with Calvin C. Straub, who became a Toya Warner of Barry E. Brown, Broker, in designing, formatting,
personal mentor. His devotion to site analysis and, especially, layout, and graphic design of this book. Finally, I want to express
client/user analysis greatly influence how I think, how I teach design, appreciation to Mary Kihl, Director of the Herberger Center, and
and especially how I have come to think about and teach architectural Wendy Lochner, Architectural Editor for McGraw-Hill, for their
programming. I especially acknowledge his contribution to this timely and incisive answers to my many questions about how to get
book. the book published. Thank you all!
And, of course, a professor's best teachers are students. I greatly
appreciate the education that they have given to me. I especially
acknowledge how their insights and concerns have gradually shaped
the text on programming to its present state. I have been able to
include some of their work in the text, but there has been so much
more that could not be included. Thank you everyone. Your
contributions are most appreciated. Similarly, the practicing
professional's best teachers are clients! They often selected my firm
because it offered programming services. I have had many
outstanding clients and acknowledge their contribution, especially
 Architectural
Programming

About the Author

Robert Hershberger is a professor and dean emeritus of the College 1.1 The Nature of Architectural Programming
of Architecture at the University of Arizona in Tucson and a 1.2 Definitions of Architectural Programming
practicing architect who has won numerous design awards. He is a 1.3 Approaches to Architectural Programming
fellow of the American Institute of Architects. 1.4 Design-Based Architectural Programming
1. 5 Knowledge- Based Architectural Programming
1. 6 Agreement-Based Architectural Programming
1. 7 Value-Based Architectural Programming
1. 8 Exercises
1. 9 References

1.1 The Nature of Architectural Programming

Programming is the first, and perhaps the most important, stage in
the architecture delivery process. Whether provided as an integral
part of professional architectural services, as an additional service, or
not consciously provided by anyone, programming takes place at
one level or another in the interaction of the client, users, and the
architect.

Programming is the definitional stage of design-the time to discover

the nature of the design problem, rather than the nature of the design
solution.

The programming stage is a crucial time in which serious mis-

takes can happen or insightful, formative decisions can be made. The
implications for the design solution are as enormous as the
differences between the Taj Mahal (Fig. 1-1) and a car wash,(Fig.
1-2). Both are appropriate architecture for very different problems.
2 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 3

It is the nature of the problem as expressed in the architectural

program that has the most profound effect on the design solution in
architecture. As one outstanding architect and educator, Calvin C.
Straub, FAIA, stated (1980):

" The program is the design!"

He was not implying that the talents of the design architect are
of little consequence, but that many of the most important "form-
ative"decisions are made before the architect begins to design.
For instance, the decision may have been reached to have only
one building instead of two; or an auditorium within the fabric of
a larger building rather than freestanding on its own site; or offices
in a building separate from the classrooms, or vice versa.
The budget could be set so low as to preclude any number of design
opportunities, or the time span for completion of the design and
construction could be so short that only the simplest of forms
could be utilized in order to finish on schedule.
Figure 1-1 Taj Mahal. If the client and programmer are primarily interested in functional
Photo Credit Calvin C. Straub efficiency, organizational and activity decisions may be made that
could significantly affect the form of the building. If the client and
programmer are more concerned with the social and psychological
needs of the users, prescriptions for form may be inherent in the listed
spaces, sizes, characteristics, and relationships. If they are concerned
with economics, it is possible that numerous material and system
opportunities, as well as potentially unique spaces and places, will be
eliminated from design consideration. Conversely, for any of the
above illustrations, the lack of concern for and information on
important design issues may restrict the designer's options. The point
is that the values and concerns of the client and the programmer will
have a sigilificant impact on the form of the building, because they
choose the information presented to the designer. -Some architects
have expressed concern that poorly conceived programs limit their
design decision-making freedom, and they have taken steps to be
certain that architectural programs address their concerns as well as
those of the client and programmer. William Peria of the architecture
and engineering firm Caudill Rowlett Scott (CRS) developed and
articulated a very systematic and successful approach to architectural
programming, which attempts to define the "whole problem" by
making certain that every program produced by the firm provides
Figure 1-2 Weiss Guys Car Wash. essential information' in four distinct areas: functibn, form,
 Architectural Programming 5
4 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

of both programming and design should be to achieve architecture:

economy, and time (Pefia et al. 1969, 1977, 1987). It is apparent buildings that respond effectively to the program, but in synthesis
from the many design awards received by the firm that this become works of art.
approach to developing information about the whole problem has The objective, then, is to program for architecture, for environ-
had a significant positive impact on the quality of the firm's design ments that transcend the "problem" to create something of wonder
efforts. that captures the essence of the institution; relates marvelously to
Other architects, such as Louis I. Kahn, upset by the poor quality the site, climate, and time; goes beyond immediate needs to enhance
of architectural programs received from clients, insisted on going the potential of the users; expresses the highest aspirations of the
back to "original beginnings," rethinking with the client about the client, architect, and society; and "moves" all users in some special
nature of the design problem (Kahn 1961). Numerous other way.
practicing architects and programming specialists have dealt The terminology proposed here is the most generally used: "ar-
similarly with these issues and tried to bring understanding to this chitectural programming." A carefully conceived and executed
first stage of the architectural design process (Becker 1959; Demoll program should promote architecture. It should not focus exclu-
1965; Horowitz 1966; Evans and Wheeler 1969; Davis 1969; White sively on "defining the problem." It should serve as a vehicle to
1972; Farbstein 1976; Sanoff 1977, 1992; Preiser 1978, 1985, 1993; "question the problem," to discover the nature of the "institution," to
Davis and Szigeti 1979; Zeisel 1981; Palmer 1981; Marti 1981; explore and discover the values of society, client, user, and architect;
Hershberger 1985; Spreckelmeyer 1986; Lang 1987; Duerk 1993; to uncover constraints and opportunities, so that in the hands of a
Kumlin 1995). talented designer, the program becomes a guidepost for achieving
This book is deeply influenced by many of these efforts. It uti- architecture.
lizes insights obtained from these sources and the author's experi- What then is the appropriate definition for architectural pro-
ences in practice and teaching to set forth a general programming gramming?
approach applicable to a wide range of architectural design prob-
lems, and provides both theoretical and practical frameworks for
learning how to do effective architectural programming. Architectural Programming is the first stage of the architectural
design process in which the relevant val-
ues of the client, user, architect, and society
1.2 Definitions of Architectural Programming are identified; important project goals are
Definitions of programming in the design professions are as diverse articulated; facts about the project are
as the people involved in its practice. These people have even had uncovered; and facility needs are made
difficulty arriving at an appropriate modifier to distinguish the ac- explicit.
tivity from the more pervasive "computer programming."
Combinations such as building programming (Davis 1969), It follows then that:
environmental programming (Farbstein 1976), facility
The architectural program is the document
programming (Freiser 1978), functional programming (Davis and in which the identified values, goals, facts,
Szigeti 1979), and design programming (GSA 1983) have been used and needs are presented.
to describe the activity.
The above-stated modifiers to programming and the resulting Programming is an essential part of the
definitions do not set high enough standards. It is not enough to overall architecture delivery process, which
"facilitate" a client's operations. "Function," while important in can roughly be defined as having four
most projects, is not the only reason for building. "Environment" stages: programming, design, construction,
simply implies that which surrounds, neither good nor bad. Even and occupancy. Between each stage is an
"design programming," with its process rather than product ori- appropriate time for evaluating the effec- Figure 1-3 Architecture:Delivery Process.
entation, misses the essential reason why architects should be in- tiveness of the previous stage (Fig. 1-3). Credit: Nancy Cole
terested and involved in programming. For architects, the purpose
 Architectural Programming 7
6 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

\
The article was of great interest to a 1. Objective of the master plan.
1.3 Approaches to Architectural Programming number of architectural practitioners 2. Special restrictions and limitations on design.
Various programming methods have been developed and used over the and social scientists. Indeed, it was 3. Characteristics of the site.
4. Site development requirements.
years as clients, architects, and programmers have tried to arrive at highly influential and continues to de- 5. Functional requirements for the facility.
appropriate definitions for particular architectural problems. These fine the essential elements of architec- 6. Characteristics of the occupants.
methods range from informal discussions between client and architect tural programming today (Fig. 1-4). 7. Specific facility requirements.
to carefully articulated research studies covering similar facilities and 8. Relative location and inter-relationship of the spaces.
9. Budget.
users leading to a comprehensive and detailed program. Most
10. Flexibility for future growth and changes in function.
programming approaches fall between the two extremes. 1.4 Design-Based 11. Priority of need among the various requirements.
Historically, programming appears to have fallen outside of normal
architectural services. In fact, in the current AIA Standard Form of Architectural Programming
Agreement between Owner and Architect (AIA Document B141), today's most frequently used pro- Figure 1-4 Horowitz Programming Areas.
grammmg me o occurs simultane-
programming is identified as an additional service. The expectation is ously with the design process. In this
that the owner will provide the architect with the needed program method, a minimum amount of programmatic information is gen-
information. In England, this document is referred to as the "client's erated prior to initiation of the design process. Usually, the archi-
brief." Aptly named, these documents are typically very short lists of tect and client meet to discuss the client's design problem and the
the required rooms and their square footages, with very little architect takes notes as the discussion proceeds. Sometimes the
explanation of the values of client, users, or society; purposes to be client has already prepared a short program statement or client's
served by the building; relationships between the spaces; requirements brief, which may list the spaces required, square footage for each,
of the spaces; and so on. This type of program was adequate at a time maximum construction budget, and occasionally some particular
when most institutions were relatively simple and slow to change, material or system requirements, or desired special effects.
allowing architects to intuitively understand what was needed. In most cases, a minimum amount of time and effort are ex-
This client-based approach to architectural programming became pended in generating the program, and the design proceeds forth-
less effective toward the middle of this century, as buildings became with-sometimes at the first meeting. This happens both when the
more complicated and difficult to understand. In these cases, when client has already generated a plan for the architect "to draw up,"
insufficient or inaccurate information was provided to the designer by and when the architect brings pencil and paper to the meeting and
the client, it proved costly during design, construction, and after begins to sketch design ideas based on the client's brief and/or the
occupancy because of the necessity for expensive changes to make the discussion with the client. The programming process then continues
building work. As a result, architects such as Herbert Swinbome over a number of meetings as the client reacts to the designs genera
(1958), Nathanial Becker (1959), and Louis Demoll (1965) began to -ted by the architect.
offer architectural programming services to their clients in order to If something was left out of the brief and not covered in the
achieve more reliable and valid programs. discussion, it becomes evident in the drawings. The new information is
In 1966, Harold Horowitz, an architect working at a federal research then taken into account and a new drawing is produced. This process is
agency in the United States, wrote a seminal article on the nature of repeated until the client and architect are satisfied that all problems
architectural programming and its relationship with research in the have been uncovered and resolved in the design. This approach
behavioral sciences: "The Architect's Programme and the Behavioral sometimes works, depending on:
Sciences" (Horowitz 1966). In this article, Horowitz discussed 11 areas
of information that should be included in an architectural program as
well as how the work of behavioral scientists could contribute to the 1. The thoroughness and accuracy of the client's brief.
development of information in each area. 2. The effectiveness of the architect as an interviewer.
3. The scope of the project.
8 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 9

If the project is very simple, such as an artist's studio or a time new information is gener-
small house for an individual or couple, the hopes, dreams, and ated, but it will be at considerable
requirements of the client may be completely articulated in one or personal cost.
two meetings, and a satisfactory solution achieved with minimal The author knows of one ar-
formal programming or cost to the client or architect. However, if chitect who prepared four com-
the client has prepared an inadequate brief and/ or the architect is not plete schematic designs for a large
an effective interviewer, problems may arise. house using design-based pro-
If the client has already prepared a plan, as is often the case for gramming procedures. At that
residences, the architect may try it and sketch some elevations to see point, the client completely lost
how they look. What if they do not look good? This is quite likely, confidence in the architect's abil-
since the plan would have been prepared by a non-designer. What is ity to solve the problem. The ar-
the architect to do next? Tell the client that the plan is bad because
chitect had spent nearly four times
the elevations do not look good? An adversarial relationship is
the normal budget for schematic
likely to develop if this takes place. Or should the architect simply
design before the contract was
accept the plan even if the elevations do not look good? The
terminated. What a terrible and
architect, if interested at all in creating architecture,
foolish loss! All four of the
' will probably be extremely uncomfortable doing this.
designs had artistic merit, but
Conversely, if the client does not offer a plan, then the architect
none solved the client's inad
may come up with plan and elevation studies, and the process will
equately defined problem. The Figure 1-5 Are We Really Communicating? client
be reversed. The client may find something missing from the plan
ended up thinking the ar- Credit: Carl Okazaki
that had not been previously discussed. Or, the elevations may not
be considered satisfactory by the client, because the plan does not chitect was incompetent, and the
seem to work. A negative situation may develop in which the client architect ended up thinking even worse of the client (Fig. 1-5).
always has the last word. The key problems here are that: Louis I. Kahn is known to have completely redesigned buildings
after he discovered something new about the essential character of
1. The process might become reactionary, rather than creative, the facility. He had the integrity to take substantial financial loss to
in nature. produce a design of great significance. Perhaps, however, it would
have been possible to understand the essential nature or "existence
2. The interaction between client and architect may erode any
will" (as-he might have called it) of the building before going
initial confidence or rapport between them.
through the great expense of preparing the designs he rejected. It
It may also shift the authority to make aesthetic decisions from the would have saved a great deal of time and money for both the client
architect to the client. This is almost inevitably disastrous to the and the architect. Fortunately, Kahn was interested in seeking out
creation of architecture. The proverbial camel is created the very essence of a problem and the discoveries and insights were
as the committee of client and architect react to each successive his own, not the result of client critiques of his designs. Clients were
design. awed by how profound his discoveries were, rather than chagrined
Another problem with the design-based approach is that it can be by the fact that something had been missed earlier. For lesser
expensive and time consuming. It is much simpler and less expensive to architects, however, such changes are often the result of inadequate
generate program requirements (words, numbers, diagrams) than to programming-and the discovery by the client that needs are not
generate designs. An architect in a reactionary relationship with a client being met. This circumstance can create serious problems for the
may be tempted to accept less than an excellent and artistic solution in architect.
order to cut financial losses. Or, an architect with artistic integrity may Another exception to the often unsatisfactory approach of
start a new design each programming by design has been used and articulated by Joseph
10 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 11

Esherick, architect and professor of architecture at the University of

California at Berkeley (Esherick 1987). Working primarily on single
family residences, Esherick meets with the client several timesat
their home, at the site, in the architect's office. At each meeting, he
produces very simple analytic sketches and diagrams in response to
the client's input. He leaves these sketches with the client and does
very little, if any, work on the project until the next meeting, at
which time the process repeats itself as the client provides new
information and the architect generates new sketches. This goes on
until the client is satisfied that the architect knows and appreciates
the client's expectations for the house. Esherick then proceeds to
develop the actual design for the house (Figs. 1-6 and 1-7).
Esherick avoids an adversary relationship because the conceptual
diagrams and sketches are simply representations of what the client
is discussing-manifestations of the client's own thoughts. The
tendency of the client to become sole judge of design is avoided,
because the sketches are not designs but reflections of the
discussion. The high cost in terms of time, money, and especially Figure 1-7 House: Plan.
lost rapport between client and architect is completely avoided, since Credit and Permission: Esherick Homsey Dodge and Davis
the architect makes no investment in design between meetings (Fig.
1-8).

Figure 1-6 House: Sketch. Figure 1-8 House: Interior.

Credit and Permission: Esherick Homsey Dodge and Davis Credit and Permission: Esherick Homsey Dodge and Davis
 Architectural Programming 13
12 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Similarly, an architect who sees his or her role as facilitator and completed" (Robinson and
resource to the client may be more comfortable with designs resulting Weeks 1984). The entire de-
from a highly interactive process in which the problem and its sign process is seen as a process
solution are not known until the design is complete (Sanoff 1977). of problem definition.
Segregated approach to design (after Palmer)
Designers who delight in complex, contradictory, and even Robinson and Weeks further
discordant final design statements may enjoy programming by argue that the distinction is not
design, because whatever turns up at the end of the process can be between analysis and synthesis,
developed into an aesthetic statement satisfactory to the architect. nor rational and intuitive, but
The fact that the process is essentially reactionary and inefficient may between verbal/ numerical and
be of little importance if the client and architect are happy with the formal/ spatial exploration.
results. Words and pictures are more Interactive approach to design (after Palmer)

A fine example of this interactive process with outstanding results powerful programming tools in
is the programming and design of St. Matthew's Episcopal Church concert than alone, and, thus, a
(Fig. 1-9) in Pacific Palisades, California, by Moore Ruble Yudell program is not complete without
Architects and members of the congregation, who worked together to them .(Fig. 1-10).
assemble a three-dimensional model of the overall scheme (Knight The author agrees with
some of the above assertions Integrated-interactive approach to design (Robinson/Weeks)
1984). and feels that design expl0-
A cogent argument for "programming as design" has been ad- ration is appropriate during
vocated by Julia Robinson and J. Stephen Weeks of the University of programming, especially in an academic setting where a real client,
1

Minnesota College of Architecture. Their premise is that "an user, and/or site cannot be identified. However, in a professional
architectural problem cannot be fully understood prior to design; thus setting, the earlier cautions about "programming by design'' still
any definition of the problem is premature until the design is apply. It is true that no problem definition is ever complete-even after
I design is complete! Our understanding of the problem becomes
• clearer as time progresses.Similarly, organizations, environments,
and economic situations are constantly changing. They do not stop
changing when the program is complete, the design is complete, the
building is complete, or any time thereafter. This should not mean
that an adequate problem definition cannot be generated from which
to begin design.
Beginning design with a carefully developed program does not
preclude some overlap of programming (verbal/numerical) and
design (formal/spatial) activities late in programming and early in
design, especially if the design architect is involved in programming,
such as is the case with many fine architects. This overlap takes place
in two ways: 1) when design ideas are articulated (verbally and
visually) during the programming process by the client, users, and
designer; and 2) as the programmer initiates design analysis by
seeking clarification as to whether certain combinations of activities,
spaces, and relationships will be viable.

Figure 1-9 St. Matthew's Episcopal Church.

14 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 15

This kind of design exploration or analysis These interdisciplinary groups generally chose to utilize research
PROS
(rather than synthesis) is almost always helpful methods, techniques, and tools developed by social and behavioral sci-
1. A minimum amount of time is spent on
generating programmatic information. to both the architect and the client in entists to study human attitudes and behavior-literature search and
2. Design can begin at the very first meeting of understanding the architectural problem more review, systematic observation, controlled interviewing, ques-
client and architect. completely. It may lead to changes to the tionnaires and surveys, sampling, and statistical analysis. This ushered
3. There is intensive and often positive previously accepted program. This is to be in a time of extensive research oriented to developing knowledge
interaction between client and architect. expected. If done systematically at the end of about the environmental needs of various user groups.
4. The review of various design schemes may
programming or at the beginning of design, Seminal studies of personal space and territoriality by Edward Hall
help the client recognize new ways to
accomplish their objectives. such changes can be included in the final (1966) and Robert Sommer (1969) were introduced to the architectural
5. Both client and architect can claim the program statement or a suitable addendum. profession and influenced many architects, who gave consideration to
design solution as their own. In any case, the desirability of design ex- their findings in both programming and design. Other behavioral
ploration does not mitigate against developing scientists such as Irwin Altman (1975), Powell Lawton (1982), Bechtel
CONS
the best possible architectural program as a et al. (1987), and Clare Cooper Marcus (1975) followed with more
1. If the client's brief is flawed, it may be
difficult to overcome with design. beginning point for design. Also, there is no directed studies on privacy, special needs of the elderly, survey
2. It the client already has a plan, the reason to confine programming activities to research, and special building types. A number of architects including
architect may have difficulty adjusting to verbal/numeric data. There are good reasons to Henry Sanoff (1977, 1992), Gary Moore (Moore and Gooledge 1976),
the limited aesthetic possibilities. use visual information throughout the Paul Windley (Lawton et al. 1982), Kent Spreckelmeyer (Marans and
3. The client may assume authority to make all Spreckelmeyer 1981), and the author (Hershberger 1969) adopted
programming process to show site conditions,
decisions, including aesthetic and technical
ones.
existing facilities both on and off the site, some of the same methods, techniques, and tools to study problems of
4. The process may become reactionary and required furnishings or equipment, desired interest to them. Still other architects, such as Gerald Davis (1969), Jay
adversarial rather than creative. relationships, design ideas, and the like. Farbstein (1976), Wolfgang F. E. Preiser (1978, 1985, 1993), Walter
5. In these cases, the process can be time Programming is not solely a verbal/numeric Moleski (1974), and Michael Brill (1984) began to utilize research in
consuming and costly tor the architect. activity (Fig. 1-11). actual programming practice. All have been successful in their own
ways and
Figure 1-11 Design-Based Programming.
have accounted for a large
number of the programs pro-
Snapshot Diagrams: Queuing

1.5 Knowledge-Based duced for major clients in re-

cent years (Fig. 1-12).
Architectural Programming Typically, these program-
In the late 1960s, a new group of people began to have an impact on ming efforts have been of great
architectural programming. These were social and behavioral benefit when considering
scientists who began to direct some of their attention to the built facility needs for large,
environment. A new social science specialization alternatively re- complex building types such
ferred to as environmental psychology, environmental sociology, or as prisons, hospitals, airports,
human ecology began to emerge (Conway 1973). Many of these social research facilities,
scientists became affiliated with the Environmental Design Research governmental office buildings,
Association (EDRA), an organization in which architects, interior and the like, where the
architect or even the key ad- Figure 1-12 O.ueuing Study.
designers, and other design professionals began to interact with social
ministrators may not have a very
scientists in the common concern that many buildings and other good conception of the Credit: Jay Farbstein and Associates and Min Kantrowitz and Associates for Einhorn Yafl
designed environments did not work particularly well for the people Prescott, 1996. Albuquerque Test Market Post Occupancy Evaluatwns: Summary. Unil
States Postal Service. Permission: Jay Farbstein and Associates
they were meant to serve.
16 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 17

values, goals, and needs of persons in various divisions of the or-

ganization. In order to make these determinations, it is necessary to the knowledge-based approach to programming.knowledge-based
interview key personnel in the various divisions about their values programming tends to consume great quantities of time in planning,
and goals and to observe how people use their current enVironments. making arrangements for the actual studies, doing the
It may also be possible to review the research literature on special studies, and analyzing the large amounts of data generated.This
user needs, to visit other facilities to see how they respond to similar is not a problem unless it leaves insufficient time or money to ad-
problems, and to devise questionnaires to sample typical users about equately consider the remaining environmental, technological, legal,
their attitudes and ideas about specific facility, furnishing, and temporal, economic, aesthetic, and safety issues in architecture. If
equipment requirements. something crucial to the eventual architectural solution is not studied
The information gained from the various research approaches is sufficiently or covered adequately in the program, the resulting
assembled, statistically analyzed, and summarized in a program building could fail in one manner or another.
document that attempts to cover all of the human requirements of the In a situation of unlimited time and resources, it would be ideal to
organization. Indeed, program sheets are developed for every space devote an extensive systematic research effort to developing
in the proposed facility. Such a systematic approach to programming knowledge on every relevant design issue, so that no area of
provides highly reliable information that is of considerable value to potential importance would be left unstudied. However, few
the designer in preparing plans to meet the needs of programming projects are done in conditions where time and money
the client and the various are of little concern. Indeed, most programming endeavors are
user groups of the building conducted under conditions where time and money are limited, and
(Fig. 1-13). there is not enough of either to do the kind of job the programmer
Given the generally sys- would prefer. If knowledge-based programming is to be utilized, it is
tematic approach to knowl- important that the programming team isolate the crucial variables, in
Commons
edge-based programming, whatever issue areas they are found, and be sure to devote research
there tend to be few problems efforts to these variables. The high costs of research, then, can be
with resulting programs. In focused where the
some cases, the interest in cost of error is high, and less expensive
being systematic in develop- programming approaches can be used to PROS
1. Brings to bear all currently available
ing knowledge about users obtain other kinds of information (Fig.
knowledge on the design problem.
may tend to obscure issues of 1-14). 1. Develops new knowledge using the
importance to the design systematic methods of the sciences.
architect. Similarly, the fact 1.6 Agreement-Bae;ed 2. Provides all of the information needed to
Augsburg Fonress that oftentimes the design design each space.
Book Store
architect has yet to be hired Architectural Programming 3. Especially useful on large, complex, or
innovative projects, when no one has a clear
prevents the designer's exper- The agreement-based approach to pro- grasp of the project requirements.
tise and values from influenc- gramming has a number of advantages,
ing the program. Utilization especially when time and money are at a CONS
of high-powered research premium. This approach to programming 1. Can be time consuming and costly for typical
methods on comparatively building projects.
Floor levelsct Learning Center to align relies on the knowledge of several key in- 2. If a social scientist is the programmer, there may
withlibrary floor levels.
easy problems can also re- dividuals in the client's organization to be a tendency to under emphasize non-
quire excessive amounts of generate the required programming infor- behavioral science areas such as site/climate
Figure 1-13 Lutheran Theological time and money. Indeed, this mation. Often the key participants are of- economics, time, and technology.
Seminary. is the primary problem with
Credit: Walter Moleski, ERG/The Environmental Research Group, 1996. Programming Study far ficers of the organization and departmental '
Lutheran Thea/agica/ Seminary. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Permission: ERG/The Environmental
heads who are appointed to a planning or Figure 1-14 Knowledge-Based
Research Group
Programming.
18 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 19

The most notable example of this approach to programming is the

work of CRS of Houston, Texas (Pena et al. 1969, 1977, 1987). Their
approach developed over a number of years under the able guidance of
William Pena has been one of the hallmarks of the programming
profession. In this approach, referred to by Pefia as "problem seeking,"
the intent is to discover the nature of the whole design problem. In order
to accomplish this, they proposed the completion of a predetermined
information matrix, which the firm believed to be capable of providing a
complete definition of the design problem. The completion of such a
matrix and agreement on its content is the fundamental task in each
programming situation.
The problem seeking matrix has four value, or issue, categories
along one side: function, form, economy, and time. Pefia argues that any
relevant information in a design project can be placed in one of these
categories. For example, site, context, climate, materials, technology,
Figure 1-15 Work Session.
landscape, and aesthetics can be included under form. Similarly,
Photo Credit: Richard Brittain
building purpose, special users, way finding, task performance, safety,
and security all fall under the function category.
building committee to generate the needed programmatic information,
Along the top of the matrix are five information areas: goals, facts,
to hire the architect, and possibly to monitor construction.
concepts, needs, and problem statement. If the resulting twenty cells of
The programmer works with this planning or building committee to
arrive at a mutually acceptable set of design requirements. It is assumed the program matrix, including the four problem statement cells, are
that key individuals appointed to the committee will have sufficient filled with acceptable information about the project, then the problem is
knowledge of the organization to arrive at a satisfactory program, or considered to be defined (Fig. 1-16).
they can access other information as needed (Fig. 1-15).
In this approach, the programmer serves as a knowledgeable
Goals Facts Concepts Needs Problem
catalyst to guide the committee in assembling the program. First,
the programmer collects readily available information from the or-
ganization`s records, local site and climate data, applicable govern- Function
mental regulations, and the like, and sets forth areas where more
information is needed from the client and users. In a working session
with the programmer, the committee either responds directly with Form
additional needed information, or the members return to their respective
divisions to obtain needed information from others. The programmer
points out potential areas of conflict or inconsistency in the information
Economy
and leads the committee in working out differences to arrive at an
agreeable program statement. The keys to the success of this approach
are the understanding of the programmer relative to the information that
will be needed by the designer, and the capability of the committee to Time
provide reliable and accurate information in a timely way.
Figure 1-16 CRS Programming Matrix.
Adapted from Peiia et al. (1969, 1977, 1987). Permission: American Institute of Architects and HOK
20 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Architectural Programming 21

The approach to filling the twenty cells of the matrix is as fol-

lows: the programmers from the architecture firm independently
search out readily available facts about any of the four informa
tion areas (function, form, economy, time). They then gather in
"squatter" work sessions, usually at the client's existing facility, to
interact with a representative group of the client/users, with an open
invitation for anyone in the client's organization to participate.
During these work sessions, specific project goals are identified,
additional facts are generated, conceptual ways of dealing with the
problem (programmatic concepts) are identified, and specific need
statements are generated for each value category. A representative
of the architect's design team joins the work session to fashion the
problem statements in the fifth column of the matrix. This final
column is included as a feedback mechanism to ensure the client and
users that the designer really does understand the nature of the
design problem.
The matrix is placed on a large plain wall in one of the client's
meeting rooms-it often fills the entire wall. Cards indicating the
value categories are placed along the left wall and cards indicating
the other information areas are placed along the ceiling before the Figure 1-17 Completed Card Matrix.
session begins. Strings are stretched between the category cards to
indicate the twenty "cells" of the matrix. Five-by-eight-inch cards
are prepared by the architect's programming team members and
placed within the cells to visually and verbally display the in-
formation obtained (Fig. 1-17).
Cards are added throughout the programming work session,
changed as necessary, and even moved from one cell to another until
everyone agrees that the appropriate and complete problem
definition is being presented on the wall (Fig. 1-18).
After the matrix is complete, the programming team continues to
work with the client's programming group to develop specific lists
of required spaces, square footages, and appropriate relationship
diagrams. They do these on brown sheets of butcher paper (or on
white grid paper), which, like the programming matrix, are attached
to a wall in the work session room where they can easily be seen by
all of the work session participants.
The brown sheets are developed using chalk on the butcher paper
so they can be continuously modified until all work session
participants agree that the information contained on them is correct.
The participants also work together on these sheets to develop
realistic budgets and schedules. They continue to work in Figure 1-18 Placing Cards on a Matrix. Photo
Credit: Richard Brittain
 Architectural Programming 23
22 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

client and architect agree on the nature and scope of the design
problem before design commences. Fourth, time is conserved in the
initial programming process by avoiding development of in-
formation not required to commence schematic design.
Because of the above listed advantages, this programming ap-
proach avoids both the misunderstandings and reactionary nature of
the design-based programming process and the higher costs and
time requirements of the knowledge-based process. And, the design
results are generally very positive as evidenced by most projects by
CRS including the Indiana Bell (Fig. 1-20) and Irwin Union Bank
buildings (Fig. 1-21) in Columbus, Indiana.
There are, however, some disadvantages to the agreementbased
programming approach as advocated by CRS. One disadvantage is
the pre-fixing of the value categories. If the four categories chosen to
define the whole problem appear to exclude certain value areas,
there is a chance that the design problem will be inadequately
defined. When trying to use the CRS system, this author always
found it necessary to introduce a context category to accommodate
issues such as site, climate, and urban setting, because it seemed
Figure 1-19 Completed Brown Sheet.
unnatural to include them under the form category. Another firm that
utilizes the problem seeking method, Anderson DeBartolo Pan
this manner until all elements of the program are agreed to by the (ADP), added an energy category, because
members of the work session team, including the client, the pro-
grammers, and the designer (Fig. 1-19).
It should be noted that in the programming approach advocated
by CRS, completing brown sheets containing information on space
allocation, relationships, estimated costs, and schedule completes
the active information gathering stage of programming. CRS
consciously avoids the development of design development
information, such as space program sheets, in order to maintain an
exclusive focus on schematic design. Design development pro-
gramming is conducted after the schematic design has commenced
or even been completed. (See section 4.1 for full descriptions of
schematic design and design development.)
There are several advantages to the above architectural pro-
gramming process. First, it is a way to ensure that information is
obtained for every area in which the architect has design concerns.
Second, it is an economical method of generating the information
needed to begin design. Very little effort is spent on
time-consuming research on user needs. The firm relies, instead, on
a representative group of users to communicate these needs during
Figure 1-20 Indiana Bell.
work sessions. Third, and perhaps most importantly, both
24 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 25

primarily responsible for advancing the con- PROS

cepts, this may not be a problem, but if design 1. Ensures that information is obtained for
concepts are advanced and accepted by others, every area in which the architect has
they may be overly restrictive or in- design concerns-the "whole problem."
appropriate. 2. Having a representative group develop tt
program information during work session is
The purposeful separation of schematic
efficient and economical.
design programming from design develop- 3. Visually displaying the programming
ment programming in the CRS system elim- information during the work sessions belt
inates detailed information that may be the participants to understand and influence
important to the design of individual spaces. the program.
~etailed information may be important to 4. The client, users, and architect agree on the
nature and scope of the problem befc
obtain and place in the program if a room must
design commences.
be of a particular shape to function 5. The costs of programming changes durir
appropriately, or if it must have access to design are generally avoided.
natural daylight, or have a particular view or 6. The design results are typically positive a
orientation. Even specific needed types or evidenced in projects by users such as CRS
arrangements of furniture should be known by and ADP.

Figure 1-21 Irwin Union Bank. the designer so they can be accommodated CONS
appropriately. 1. The pre-fixed value categories in the cm
this issue was not easily absorbed within the four predetermined Finally, it is not appropriate to fill in the matrix may be too limiting for some projects.
value categories (Pan 1985). I understand that CRS originally problem statements for each value area if the 2. Important information may be missed by
designer is not a part of the programming using on-site work sessions as the primar
placed form first in the matrix until a number of clients indicated information gathering method.
that function was their first concern. All of these changes indicate team. This may not be possible if the
3. Limiting clients and users to proqrarnrna]
that limiting the matrix to four value categories may not be an- programmer is hired before the architect (Fig. concepts is frustrating when they have
propriate in every case. There will be other influences as well! 1-22). design ideas that they want to express au
Another disadvantage of the CRS approach relates to how the include in the program.
4. Not including detailed information on
information is obtained. If the client's selected programming group individual spaces may result in
is not representative of the entire organization, or is unable to 1.7 Value-Based inappropriate schematic design decision
understand or communicate important user concerns and needs 5. The problem statement requires the
accurately during the on-site programming sessions, the resulting Architectural Programming designer to be actively involved in the
program data may be flawed. This would be most likely for Legend has it that Frank Lloyd Wright moved programming process.
unfamiliar building types. in with some of his clients for several days or
Similarly, the information area identified as concepts in the CRS weeks prior to designing them a new
matrix appears to be appropriate only for certain types of projects, Figure 1-22 Agreement-Based Programming.
and perhaps only for firms that design numerous projects of the house.during this time he would have nu-
same building type. It has proven difficult for most student merous conversations with the clients, see
programmers and especially clients/users to separate "programmatic and experience how they lived, and have time to visit and analyze
concepts" from "design concepts," hence there is a confusion of the site for the new house. By the end of this period, he had de-
roles as clients and programmers begin to tie down "design'' veloped an excellent understanding of the family's values and goals
approaches, perhaps prematurely (Marans and Spreckelmeyer for the new house. He also had developed an understanding of the
1981). If the designer is on the programming team and constraints and opportunities of site, climate, budget, and
the like. ,
 Architectural Programming 2"i
26 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

The above legend also indicates that Wright returned to his of- was a need for an efficient
fice after the intensive time period with the client and site to "draw up" and effective way to bring
the design that he had already completely realized in his mind. There in clean materials and to
was no need to erase or redraw any element of the design. The truth of dispose of waste materials.
the story is not clear, but the result, inevitably, was architecture (Fig. His design for the Richards
1-23). Building (Fig. 1-24) took
Louis I. Kahn was similarly intense exploring the problem with into account this important
his clients. In so doing, he came to an understanding of the most design issue, and in so
important issues to be doing allowed him to
confronted during the de- create an entirely new form
sign process. For example, of academic research
in programming for the building: a design
Richards Building, a expressing the importance
medical research facility of the "served" spaces for
on the campus of the the scientists (the offices
University of Pennsylva- and the laboratories) and of
nia, Kahn discovered that the "servant" spaces (the
the laboratory needs of the high towers for the
scientists were constantly mechanical, plumbing, and
changing and, thus, they electrical systems and for
required a large, high, open egress in case of emer-
laboratory space to allow gency).
for different types of Calvin C. Straub, F
experiments. In order to AIA, of the Southern
make the laboratory spaces California architectural
effective, Kahn also real- firm of Buff, Straub and
ized that there was a need Bensman, was similarly
for flexibility of service to intense in his architec-
and strict environmental tural programming activ-
Figure 1-24 Richards Building.
control in these research ities, e was especially
laboratories. Indeed, he sensitive to the lifestyle
found that a very values and needs of the client/user in relationship to the opportunities
substantial portion of the offered by site and climate. The 1,400-square-foot Thomson residence
construction budget would is a particularly good example of his work (Figs. 1-2 5 to 1-2 7). In spite
have to be expended on of its small size and modest budget, it is a spacious and beautifully
bringing mechanical, articulated wood frame house that fully meets the needs of the family
plumbing, and electrical and relates well to the sloping wooded site and mild climate of Southern
service systems into and California.
out of each laboratory.
There

Figure 1-23 Kaufman Residence (Falling Water).

28 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 29

Will Bruder, architect, of

New River, Arizona, is so thor-
ough when interviewing his
clients, so careful in discovering
their values and goals and ana-
lyzing budget, site, climate, and
other external influences, that he
is able to develop initial designs
that are usually accepted without
change by the client. Bruder
indicates that "by celebrating the
client's poetic and pragmatic
program aspirations as
opportunities for unique so- I
lutions, the client takes owner-
I
ship of the architecture from the
/ I
•.•....•... .
beginning, as they see them- ~ ..
Figure 1-25 Thomson Residence: Exterior. ....•...... ., .. ..,.
selves reflected in the first draw-
Photo Credit: Julius Shulman
ings, models, and ideas" (Bruder
1997). The quality of Bruder's \
\

work, and his success in having

original designs accepted and
built, attests to his diligence and
perception in the interviewing
and analysis processes, as well as
to his design ability (Figs. 1-28
and 1-29).
In their thoroughness of pre-
design analysis, Wright, Kahn;:
Straub, and Bruder avoid the
pitfalls of design-based pro-
gramming and accomplish
something more akin to, but less
formal than, the valuebased
approach to programming being
advocated in this text.

Value-based programming
tries to incorporate the best
aspects and avoid the worst
problems of all of the pro- Figure 1-27 Thomson Residence: Plans.
Figure 1-26 Thomson Residence: Interior. gramming approaches dis- credit: Calvin c. Straub, FAIA

Photo Credit: Julius Shulman cussed above.

30 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 31

First, value-based proramming introduces an examination of the

fundamental nature of the design problem into the earliest stages of
architectural programming. Thus, it incorporates an intensive search for
the essential purposes for which human institutions exist and are
perpetuated. In order to do this, it relies heavily on the type of
interviewing and discussion sessions between architect and client used by
leading designers such as those discussed above to uncover the strongly
held values and goals of the client. In addition, it employs this approach
with other users and representatives of the community to discover their
understanding of the nature of the organization. By conducting this search
for values early in the programming process, rather than waiting until
design, the value-based programming approach allows the entire balance
Figure 1-28 Platt Residence: Exterior Evening. Photo
of programming activities to be influenced by the important values
Credit: Hans Leitner. Permission: William P. Bruder
uncovered. This is the crucial difference between this approach and other
approaches to architectural programming. The reason for this difference
is to make the program itself the first step in the quest for architecture, to
program for architecture. An understanding of strongly held values is
essential in this pursuit.

Value-based programming makes certain that the most impo~tant

design issues are addressed in the programming document.

Second, the value-based programming_J2rocess adopts the systematic

procedures used in knowledge-based programming whenever they are
needed to ensure that the information obtained during programming is
reliable and valid. Literature search and review, interviewing,
observation, questionnaire development and administration, and various
sampling and statistical methods are used in the value-based
programming process to establish values and goals; to collect, organize,
and analyze facts; and to establish needs. Value-based programming,
however, differs from a purely research-oriented approach in that it
acknowledges the typically limited budgets and short time schedules
allowed for programming activities. By determining the important values
relating to the design problem early in the programming process, it
becomes possible to identify those crucial areas in which more systematic
research procedures should be used. This is done because of the
potentially high cost of error if these areas are not carefully examined. In
less crucial areas, the less structured Information gathering systems
employed in design- and agreementbased programming are utilized.

Figure 1-29 Platt Residence: Entry Evening. Photo

Credit: Hans Leitner. Permission: William P. Bruder
32 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 33

Value-based programming uses systematic information gathering

procedures to ensure that important information is not overlooked In one case, it might include symbolic, institutional, functional,
in the programming process. technical, environmental, temporal, and financial values. In
another case, the list might include image, function, special
users, safety, economics, and urban context as more
Third, the value-based agproach to programming is heavily in- appropriate values. The point is that it should be possible for
fluenced in structure and approach by the agreement-based method of the value areas to change for every project, client, and architect.
programming developed by CRS. It incorporates the objective of The intent in value-based programming is to let the most important
being comprehensive (of defining the complete architectural values or issues set the tone of the programming ef fort, while
problem) and relies on a similar matrix format to ensure that all of the making certain that recurring value areas are not inadvertently
necessary information is collected, presented, and agreed to by the omitted.
client's programming team. Important values are listed down the left
2. The CRS system develops a listing of appropriate goals, facts,
side of the matrix, and categories for goals, facts, needs, and ideas are
concepts, and needs for each value area, followed by a problem
listed across the top of the matrix. Additional needs information is
summary statement. The value-based programming approach
recorded on brown sheets or grid sheets. It utilizes the very efficient
is similar, but avoids the difficult task of developing
and effective work session method advocated by Pena to obtain much programmatic concepts prior to finalizing the need statements.
of the needed programming information and, especially, to obtain Rather, it allows for programmatic or design concepts to be
agreement. introduced into the program simply as undifferentiated ideas to
be considered by the designer. The kinds of ideas presented in
Value-based programming recognizes the importance of obtaining the program are not really important, as long as the designer is
agreement with the client, users, and community in open not required to follow them. In value-based programming, they
work session environments. are presented simply as ideas which the programming group
hopes will be explored by the designer. Some will be
There are, however, four distinct differences from the agree- programmatic ideas. Others will be design ideas. Many will
ment-based programming approach to obtaining agreement: prove to be preconceptions that will be considered, but then
1. The CRS system maintains that the four value categories will be discarded by the designer because, during careful
(Function, Form, Economy, Time) listed to the left of the ma- design analysis, they prove to be inappropriate.
trix are complete, constant, and apply to all building types, user Value-based programming encourages the clients and users to set
groups, and presumably architectural firms. The valuebased forth both their programmatic and design ideas for the project so
approach, on the other hand, uses an eight-value starting point, that the designer will have benefit of their unique perspectives.
but seeks to discover the unique set of values applicable to
3. The CRS system assumes that the designer is part of the pro-
each design project. In value-based programming, the most
gramming team, hence, is available to provide a summary
important value areas are typically listed near the top of the
problem statement as part of the program. The value-based
matrix and decrease in importance as the list descends. In this
system attempts to state the design problem in such a way as to
way, a sense of priority is made known to the designer. Thus,
allow the designer to develop an understanding of the
the value-based programming approach avoids a commitment
important design issues whether or not the designer is part of
to a restricted list of values and asks: What about the reason for
the programming team. Thus, it does not advocate including a
being of an organization, its institutional purpose? Does
cursory problem statement by the designer in the matrix. The
function alone define an organization? What about the natural ordering of the values in the matrix helps the designer to
environment and the urban context? What about history, recognize what the client, user, and programmer consider to be
tradition, and meaning? Some important value areas, at least the most important values and goals. The rest
for some architects, clients, and users, are hard to fit into the
CRS programming matrix. The left column of the value-based
programming ma trix, thus, might vary from project to project.
 Architectural Programming 35
34 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

of the matrix, along with the accompanying brown or grid 1.8 Exercises
sheets, display the agreed upon nature of the design problem. 1. Write down a definition of architectural programming with-
The programmer is expected to summarize the nature of the
out looking back over the chapter.
problem in the executive summary of the program document
and the designer is expected to confirm the program with the Compare your definition with the one in Section 1.2. What are
client before commencing schematic design. the differences? Are they important? Would programming
based on your definition be different from or similar to the
The value-based architectural program is prepared in such a way definitions described in Sections 1.4 through 1. 7?
as to completely define the architectural problem wb.ether or not
the designer is a participant in the programming process. 2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of design-, knowl-
edge-, agreement-, and value-based programming with some
4.The value-based programming approach does not seek to of your colleagues.
differentiate between schematic design and design development a. Is value-based programming an improvement over the
programming. In interviews and work sessions as well as in the
other programming approaches?
literature search and observational studies, considerable
b. Is flexibility in establishing value areas an improvement
information is forthcoming that relates more to design
development than to schematic design. There is no reason to over the CRS fixed matrix?
avoid collecting this information during the programming c. Would one fixed value list be better for you? Would it be
process-if it is known, why not collect it? This information the CRS list, another list, or one of your own? Would it be
typically relates to specific requirements for individual spaces, appropriate for every commission? Is there a better way
areas, or systems in the new facility. As such, it can be developed than any discussed so far?
and presented on space program sheets in the overall architectural 3. Set aside a couple of hours to begin the design of a house for a
program. These sheets are like mini-programs for each of the friend. Select a site (or make one up), bring drawing paper and
rooms, public spaces, service spaces, and exterior spaces of the a soft pencil, and sit down with your friend. Begin to design as
new facilities. Rather than get in the way of effective schematic you discuss your friend's desires and needs for the house. Be
design, these space program sheets provide the designers with sure to get beyond the plan view to at least one elevation and a
detailed knowledge about each space so they can place them perspective sketch in the two-hour period.
appropriately in the new facility. Some rooms may need to be on
Consider what you accomplished and the nature of the in-
outside walls for fenestration, others on the interior to avoid
teractive process. Was it positive? Fun? Were there any
outside light or temperature fluctuations, others isolated from
problems? Do you personally like the result? Does your
public spaces to minimize noise disturbances, etc. This
information is also helpful to the designer to decide on room friend?
configuration. Should a room be long and narrow, or nearly 4. Pick another friend for whom to design a house on the same
square, or odd shaped for one reason or another? Without space site. Spend approximately an hour discussing this friend's
program sheets or a lot of prior knowledge about a particular aspirations and needs and write them down on a sheet of
room type, the designer has little basis to decide such questions. paper. Have the friend review the information you have
Having this information will allow the designer to make recorded and confirm that it is correct. Spend another hour by
appropriate schematic design decisions. yourself coming up with a preliminary design including a plan
Complete value-based programs include design development and at least one elevation and a sketch perspective.
information presented on space TJ_rogram sheets in order to help Consider what you accomplished and the nature of the in-
the designer make informed schematic design decision~. teractive process. Was it positive? Fun? Were there, any
 Architectural Programming 37
36 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

problems? Do you personally like the result? Does your Davis, Gerald. 1969. The Independent Building Program Consultant.
Building Research. 18(2) 16-21.
friend?
Davis, Gerald, and Francoise Szigeti. 1979. "Functional and
5. Compare the two processes. What were the advantages and Technical Programming: When the Owner/Sponsor is a Large or
disadvantages of each? Which process produced the best re- Complex Organization." Paper presented at the Fourth In-
sults? Which process worked best from your friends' point of ternational Architectural Psychology Conference, 10-14 July
view? 1979 at Louvain-la-Neuve.
Were there differences in the types of information discussed? Demoll, Louis. 1965. Operations Programming and Planning. In
Were there differences in the nature of the designs related Comprehensive Architectural Services: General Principles and
more to the processes use.cl than to the differences in the Practice, edited by William D. Hunt Jr. New York: McGraw-Hill.
friends' ideas? Keep these differences in mind as you proceed Duerk, Donna P. 1993. Architectural Programming: Information
through the text and the exercises at the end of each chapter. Management for Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Remember to have fun as you read the text, consider what it says, Esherick, Joseph. 1987. Lecture on the work of Esherick Homsey
and do the exercises at the end of each chapter. Programming and Dodge and Davis, Arizona State University, Tempe, Ariz.
design are interactive processes which can be accomplished in a Evans, Benjamin H., and C. Herbert Wheeler, Jr. 1969. Architectural
number of ways. You should try to discover the approach or Programming: Emerging Techniques of Architectural Practice-A
approaches that work best for you. Continuing Study by the Committee on Research of Architects.
Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Architects.
Farbstein, Jay D. 1976. Assumptions in Environmental Program-
ming. In The Behavioral Basis of Design: Proceedings of the Seventh
International Conference of the Environmental Design Research
1.9 References Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, edited by P.
Alexander, Christopher. 1965. "The Theory and Invention of Form. Suedfeld and J. Russell. Vol. 1. Stroudsburg, Pa.:
Architectural Record. 137(4): 177-186. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross.
Altman, Irwin. 1975. The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, GSA. 1983. Design Programming. PBS 3430.2. Washington, D.C.:
Personal Space, Territory, Crowding. Monterey, Calif.: General Services Administration.
Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Hall, Edward T. 1966. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, N.Y.:
Bechtel, Robert, Robert Marans, and William Michelson, eds. 19 8 7. Doubleday.
Methods in Environmental and Behavioral Research. New York: Van Haviland, David, ed. 1994. The Architect's Handbook of Professional
Nostrand Reinhold. Practice. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Architects
Becker, Nathaniel. 1959. Space Analysis in Architecture. American Press.
Institute of Architects journal. 31 ( 4): 40-4 7. Hershberger, Robert. 1969. A Study of Meaning and Architecture.
Brill, Michael, Stephen T. Margulis, Ellen Konar, and BOST!. 1984. Ph.D. diss., The University of Pennsylvania.
Using Office Design to Increase Productivity. Buffalo, N.Y.: . 1985. Values: A Theoretical Foundation for Architec-
----
Workplace Design and Productivity, Inc. tural Programming. In Programming the Built Environment,
Bruder, William. 1997. Letter to the author. 10 August. edited by Wolfgang F. E. Freiser. New York: Van Nostrand
Conway, Donald, ed. 1973. Social Science and Design: A Process Reinhold.
Model for Architect and Social Scientist Collaboration and Report of a Horowitz, Harold. 1966. The Architect's Programme and the Be-
Conference, October 1973, Coolfont Conference Center, Berkeley havioural Sciences. Architectural Science Review. 9(3): 71-79.
Springs, W. Va. Washington D.C.: American Institute of Kahn, Louis I. 1961. Design studio discussion at the University of
Architects. Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
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Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
38
Knight, Carleton. 1984. Built on Religious, Regional Traditions: Pena, William, William Caudill, and John Focke. 1977. Problem
St. Matthew's Episcopal Church, Pacific Palisades, Calif. Ar- Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. Boston, Mass.:
chitecture. 73(5): 178-185. Cahners Books International.
Kumlin, Robert R. 1995. Architectural Programming: Creative Pena, William, Steven Parshall, and Kevin Kelly. 1987. Problem
Techniques for Design Professionals. New York: McGraw-Hill. Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 3rd ed. Wash-
Lang, Jon. 1987. Creating Architectural Theory: The Role of the Be- ington, D.C.: AIA Press.
havioral Sciences in Environmental Design. New York: Van Freiser, Wolfgang F. E., ed. 1978. Facility Programming: Methods and
Nostrand Reinhold. Applications. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
Lang, Jon, Charles Burnette, Walter Moleski, and Steven Vachon, eds. ____ . 1985. Programming the Built Environment. New York:
1974. Designing for Human Behavior: Architecture and the Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Behavioral Sciences. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson and ____ . 1993. Professional Practice in Facility Programming.
Ross. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Lawton, Powell, Paul Windley, and Thomas Byerts, eds. 1982. Robinson, Julia, and J. Stephen Weeks. 1984. Programming as Design.
Aging and the Environment: Theoretical Approaches. New York: Minneapolis, Minn.: Department of Architecture, University of
Springer. Minnesota.
Marans, Robert, and Kent Spreckelmeyer. 1981. Evaluating Built Sanoff, Henry. 1977. Methods of Architectural Programming.
Environments: A Behavioral Approach. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Survey Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
Research Center, University of Michigan. ____ . 1992. Integrating Programming, Evaluation and Participation in
Marcus, Clare Cooper. 1975. Easter Hill Village: Some Social In- Design: A Theory Z Approach. Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury.
dications of Design. New York: The Free Press. Sommer, Robert. 1969. Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design.
Marti, Manuel. 1981. Space Operational Analysis: A Systematic Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Approach to Spatial Analysis and Programming. West Lafayette, Spreckelmeyer, Kent. 1986. Environmental Programming. Chapter 8
Ind.: PDA Publications Corp. in Methods in Environmental and Behavioral Research, edited by
Michelson, William, ed. 1975. Behavioral Research Methods in Robert Bechtel, Robert Marans, and William Michelson. New
Environmental Design. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Ross. Straub, Calvin C. 1980. Lecture on architectural programming at
Moleski, Walter. 197 4. "Behavioral Analysis in Environmental Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona.
Programming for Offices." In Designing for Human Behavior: Studer, Raymond. 1966. On Environmental Programming. Arena.
Architecture and the Behavioral Sciences, edited by Jon Lang, 81(902): 290-296.
Charles Burnette, Walter Moleski, and Steven Vachon. Swinborne, Herbert. 1967. Change is the Challenge. American Institute
Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. of Architects journal. 47(5): 83-90.
Moore, Gary, and Reginald Golledge, eds. 1976. Environmental White, Edward T. III. 1972. Introduction to Architectural Programming.
Knowing: Theories, Research and Methods. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Tucson, Ariz.: Architectural Media.
Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. Zeisel, John. 1981. Inquiry by Design: Tools for EnvironmentBehavior
Palmer, Mickey, ed. 1981. The Architect's Guide to Facility Pro- Research. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
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Pan, Solomon. 1985. Programming Seminar at ADP offices in
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Caudill Rowlett Scott.
 Values and Architecture

2.1 Importance of Values

2.2 Enduring Values of Architecture
2.3 Contemporary Values of Architecture
2.4 HECTTEAS (Test Each)
2.5 Case Study: Alleluia Lutheran Church 2.
6 Case Study: Hershberger Residence 2. 7
Exercises
2. 8 References

2.1 Importance of Values

The first responsibility in architectural programming is to articulate
the values to which the architect should respond in design. Values in
this context mean those beliefs, philosophies, ideologies,
understandings, purposes, or other deeply held ideas or feelings that
are the reason for building and should influence how the building is
designed. It is these underlying values and purposes that serve as the
framework for an architectural program. The identification of these
values in the program is crucial if the program is to help the designer
achieve architecture.
Every program will involve somewhat different values, de-
pending on the nature of the client, users, site, climate, and even the
programmer and designer. The client's reasons for building vary
widely. User groups have different views of the world and especially
of the types of environments suitable for their diverse activities. Site
and climate change from project to project. Programmers and
designers vary considerably in the values they bring to
 42 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Values and Architecture 43

The enduring values of archi-

tecture were first discussed by
the Roman Vitruvius in the first SELF ACTUALIZATION MEANING/
century BC as firmitas, utilitas,
SELF ESTEEM
and venustas (Vitruvius 1960).
These values were modified BELONGING GOOD
somewhat by Sir Henry Wotton
in the seventeenth century as SAFETY
"firmness, commodity, and
delight" (Wotton 1970), and PHYSIOLOGICAL SURVI
NEEDS
reassessed by several authors
Figure 2-2 Maslow s Pyramid & Enduring Values.
in the twentieth century in-
cluding Talbot Hamlin (l952 ) Adapted by Nancy Cole from Maslow 1973
and Christian Norberg-Schulz
( 1963). These values are now sometimes addressed in terms of their effect
on people, rather than as qualities of a building, and as such can be seen to
parallel the categories of the value pyramid (Fig. 2-2) originated by the
Figure 2-1 Hershberger Residence. psychologist Abraham Maslow (1973). In this same sense, and enlarging
Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger the meaning of each category to
encompass contemporary ar-
chitectural issues, these values
the programming process. It should be expected that the values identified
cover Survival (to protect), Good
for each project will be different. The following discussion covers a
1, Life (to nurture), Art (to
number of values that often have a significant impact on architectural
transform) (Fig. 2-2).
form.
The values discussed are not a definitive set applicable to all
architectural problems. The author contends that there is no such
definitive set, only sets that apply to certain architectural problems. For Survival (To Protect) Certainly
example, the Tucson, Arizona, house that the author designed for his the primordial value of
family in 1988 is a reflection of the client/user, site, climate, designer, and architecture was to promote
other values identified during the programming stage of design. For human survival by protecting its
example, the exterior of the house with its second- and third-story roof occupants. Shelter from the
decks reflect the value of views-the family's desire to see the surrounding elements allowed the occupants
mountains and sky even from a flat, mid-town location (Fig. 2-1). an opportunity to take care of
human needs such as sleep, food
preparation, socialization,
procreation, and child rearing. It
2.2 Enduring Values of Architecture is important that a building be
---- - ------ -
• Survival (to protect) programmed, designed, and
constructed so that it will not
• Good Life (to nurture) collapse and harm the occupants
(Fig. 2-3). Figure 2-3 Leaning Tower of Pisa.
• Art (to transform)
Credit: Carl Okazaki
44 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 45

The structure of the building must be firm. This can be en-

sured only if the architect and engineer are apprised of the kinds
and locations of loads that are likely to be imposed. The program
must specify unusual loads so that the designers can make certain
that the loads will not result in building failure.
The same is true for mechanical and electrical loads. If unusual
requirements are not specified in the program, then the building is
likely to fail in some respect, possibly resulting in a threat to human
survival, such as fire or inadequate ventilation. Thus, human
survival and protection are much broader categories than structural
strength alone as implied by the term fir- mitas, or firmness.
The program must also set forth guidelines for human safety
and security as available in the work on "defensible space" by
Oscar Newman (1972), on crowd behavior in fires and other
emergency situations (Stahl 1976; Canter 1980), on crucial re-
quirements of special user groups such as the handicapped and the
frail elderly (Steinfeld 1979; Lawton et al. 1982). There is a
growing body of knowledge about how buildings can be designed Figure 2-4 Martin Luther King Square.
to limit threats to occupants from other human beings as well as
from physical hazards that are often built into the environment
(Greenberg 1982). The architectural program must provide
information to help the designer avoid problems in these areas. And United States has created a keen interest in the survival value.
these are not trivial or unusual problems. They are survival These attacks are frequently directed at government, military, or
problems! diplomatic compounds in which the buildings and surrounding
If a person cannot get out of a building during a fire, this is se- landscaping serve as the first line of defense. In these cases, safety
rious business. If a handicapped person must use stairs or an ex- and security become dominating concerns in the design of such
cessively steep ramp, an accident might result in their injury or buildings and their grounds (Fig. 2-5). Unfortunately, it
even death. Similarly, many of our nation's streets, parks, and is requiring architects to
housing areas have become such a threat to those who use them surround these buildings
that specific strategies of accessibility, visibility, lighting, land- with fences, walls,
scaping, and the like have been developed to overcome the severe bollards, and the like to
consequences of inadequate design. For example, locating bal- prevent vehicles loaded
conies and windows overlooking exterior pedestrian areas helps with explosives from
coming near them.
to make them safe to use.
Programmers are in a
An excellent example of this can be found in the Martin Luther
unique position, as they
King Square public housing project by Kaplan McLaughlin in San
spend time with clients
Francisco (Fig. 2-4). It provides for surveillance of and ready ac
and users, to discover
cess to children's courtyard play areas near walk-up apartments
still other survival issues
with views from balconies and kitchen windows.
that could
The increase in terrorist attacks directed at American citizens
affect the user's health Figure 2-5 Fortified Government
and officials in foreign countries and, more recently, within the
Building. or safety. They may be Credit: Carl Okazaki
46 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 47

survival good. Buildings should enable users to accomplish their

purposes and tasks without great effort, and they should promote the
comfort of the users in all of their sensory modalities: visual, aural,
olfactory, tactile, and kinesthetic. Architecture has the obligation
and opportunity to nurture its occupants and the programmer must
discover how this can be ensured.
The underlying value or purpose of the early modern movement
in architecture was to bring the "good life" to all people. The
architects of this movement were not content with providing the
good life only to the wealthy elite. They wanted to make the benefits
of well-designed buildings available to the people as a whole:
housing, schools, hospitals, and other institutions. The Tuberculosis
Sanitarium by Alvar Aalto exemplifies this approach
to architecture (Fig. 2-7).
Some early modern
architects developed ela-
borate theories as to how
Figure 2-6 Hill Hall Women's Dormitory.
architecture could pro-
mote the good life. Large
able to discover waste products that could be hazardous-if not buildings set in green
directly to the user, then to society at large. If so, the program should parks with plenty of
specify that care must be taken in the disposal and treatment of the light, air, and special
hazardous material. The concern need not be just for the immediate playground facilities for
survival of the client/user, but for the long-term survival of the children were advocated
community or society. Ian McHarg has written very convincingly in for housing (Le
this regard in his book Design with Nature (McHarg 1969). A whole Corbusier 1946).
body of literature on ideas of sustainability has developed in recent Standards for minimum
years (Crosbie 1994). room sizes, lighting, and
If some of these survival issues are seen as more than just routine ventilation were
by the designer, they may become the stimulus for a unique and developed. New ma-
perhaps wonderfully creative design idea-an opportunity for terials, systems, equip-
architecture. Eero Saarinen's castle-like women's dormitory at the ment and furnishings
University of Pennsylvania, complete with what appears to be a promoted the efficiency
drawbridge and other features typical of a fortification, is a won- and comfort of occupants
derful and even humorous example of how a security problem of buildings. The whole
identified in the program can lead to a particular aesthetic ex- mood was to go well be-
pression in the architecture (Fig. 2-6). yond survival issues to
those that would make
Good Life (To Nurture) life more enjoyable for
A concern for the good life should also be present in design. Ar- everyone. This concern
for quality of life has Figure 2-7 Tuberculosis Sanitarium.
chitecture should not merely promote survival, it should make
not been lost on most Credit: Carl Okazaki
48 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architectur 49

contemporary architects and walls met the ground, roof, and sky that
continues to be a major went beyond mere building or
concern in programming. functional accommodation. By the
Interestingly, some ideas time of classical Greece and Rome, this
advanced to create the good urge to art had developed to the point
life led to problems of where every part of a building had
survival. The Pruitt Igoe specific requirements for both form
public housing development and meaning.
in Saint Louis, which Similarly, a concern of the Gothic
purported to follow some of and Renaissance periods was to create
these ideas, was completely works of art that would transform the
demolished after several viewer by their formal power and
years of occupancy due to the beauty. Gothic buildings, such as
Figure 2-8 Demolition of Pruitt Igoe. health and safety problems Chartre Cathedral (Fig. 2-9) in France,
Credit: Carl Okazaki created by its design (Fig. with their elaborately decorated
2-8). openings, windows, and towers, went
Fortunately for programmers, designers, and especially the users of far beyond shelter and accommodation
the buildings and cities they create, the failures of early modern in trying to express the highest
architecture led social and behavioral scientists to explore how religious aspirations of the people of
architecture creates problems of survival and difficulties in achieving their time.
the good life. The involvement of a large number of these scientists in The architecture of the Renais-
research and programming in the past 15 to 20 years has ensured that sance, Revival, and Eclectic periods
the survival and good life values will continue to be considered in that followed became increasingly
architectural programming. Functional, personal, social, and security concerned with the importance of art in
values are generally well articulated in programs influenced by social architecture. Many history books have
and behavioral scientists. been written about the architecture of
these arid other periods of architectural
Art (To Transform) history.
Such books should be studied by students
Finally, as an art, architecture has the opportunity to transform users,
to help them see beyond their immediate needs for protection and interested in architectural programming, Figure 2-9 Chartre Cathedral.

nurturing. The architect has the responsibility to please the users in for much of what they discuss has to do with the aesthetic qualities of
some manner or another: to excite and stimulate or to calm and assure. the buildings of those times (Hamlin 1952; Roth 1979; Trachtenberg
Architecture should enrich the meaning of the users' lives and move and Hyman 1986). Some more recent books on architectural history
them in some special way. The program should identify the aesthetic are more likely to address social and cultural concerns of the
values of society, client, and user to encourage the designer to express architecture of these periods and should also be studied (Kostof and
them in the architecture. Castillo 1995).
This urge to create objects of beauty and meaning has been present The early modern architects reacted strongly against the extreme
since humans first began to build. Cave dwellers placed figures on cave emphasis on aesthetics of the Revival and Eclectic architecture. Some
walls, perhaps for magical purposes. Even so, they were often even objected to the words meaning and .art in reference to
proportioned and stylized to become beautiful and meaningful objects. architecture. Hannes Meyer advocated that primary
Early builders similarly developed architectural details where
 Values and Architecture 51
50 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

attention be directed representative of this approach to art and meaning in modem ar-
toward functional and chitecture.
constructional issues A number of contemporary architects and their clients have re-
(Schnaidt 1965). His acted against what they perceive to be the limitations of modem
German Trade Union architecture relative to meaning and art and have adopted a post-
Federation Building modern attitude about architecture. Some of these architects are
(Fig. 2-10) is an exam- once again looking at historical architecture for suitable expressive
ple of this approach to forms and relationships. Others are rejecting previously accepted
architecture. tenets such as simplicity and clarity for complexity and
Most modem arch- contradiction in architecture (Venturi 1977). This later tendency is
itects consider meaning certainly the case in Robert Venturi's design for his mother's house
and art to be essential in Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania (Figs. 2-12 through 2-14). The house
to architecture and de- is small, but appears large in scale. Its apparent simplicity in the
velop their designs ac- frontal view is belied by views from the side and rear. The inside has
cordingly. Many reject numerous similar contradictions.
Figure 2-10 German Trade Union Federation School. specific references to Whatever approach architects take, they are generally concerned
Credit Carl Okazaki previous styles of ar- with aesthetic issues: with meaning and art, with transformation.
Here again, as with survival and good life issues, the programmer is
chitecture in trying to fashion an architecture uniquely appropriate
in a unique position to uncover what is particularly meaningful to
to their own time. In so doing, they show a preference for abstract or
clients and users, to discover what architectural objects are most
presentational form, as opposed to referential meaning in
likely to move these people. What do they appreciate? What are
architecture (Langer 1942). The IIT Architecture Building (Fig.
2-11) in Chicago by Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe is their traditions? What art do they value? This

Figure 2-12 Vanna Venturi House: Front.

Figure 2-11 llT Architecture Building.
52 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 53

Figure 2-13 Vanna Venturi House: Side/Rear.

Photo Credit George Pohl. Permission: Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates

Figure 2-15 Alleluia Lutheran Church.

Finally, as programmers seek out the important values of the

client, user, and community relative to an architectural project, they
must continue to remember that the enduring values of architecture
remain as a primary basis for design.

2.3 Contemporary Values of Architecture

The three enduring values elaborated above are certainly important
in architecture. However, it is difficult to use them to describe the
whole range of values that are important in contemporary
architecture. For example, Wotton's conversion of the original
terms used by Vitruvius, substituting "commodity" for utilitas,
de-emphasized Vitruvius' concern for the functional and economic
Figure 2-14 Vanna Venturi House: Interior. values of architecture and increased the importance of comfort. But
Photo Credit Rollin La France. Permission: Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates all are contemporary concerns! Similarly, it is hard to see how other
important issues for contemporary architects, such as
information can be uncovered and articulated in the architectural responsiveness to site and climate, energy costs, urban context,
program for the designer's benefit in their endeavor to create ar- building costs, growth, and change, can be adequately covered by
chitecture. For example, the design by the author for the Alleluia the three traditional categories. Hence, it is important to rethink and
Lutheran Church (Fig. 2-15) in Tempe, Arizona, incorporated a enlarge the value categories during programming so all potential
handsome old house that the client wanted to see preserved and architectural values can be anticipated.
restored as part of the project. He used the old house as the basis for Various programmers have attempted to develop comprehensive
the aesthetic expression of the much larger addition. lists of values and issues. As noted in Chapter 1, CRS uses
 Values and Architecture 55
54 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

funchon, form, economy, and time in their George Hoover (1996) of Hoover Berg Desmond Architects of
programming process. Mickey Palmer, in The Denver, Colorado, indicated in a recent lecture at The University of
Architect's Guide to Facility Programming Arizona that his firm looks metaphorically at issues of
(1981), advocates coverage of Human Factors, transformation ("the curving path"), permanence and change ("rocks
Physical Factors, and External Factors with and clouds"), embedding ("Russian dolls"), and coupling of the
numerous subcategories covering practically human with the environment ("I and Thou") in their mostly
every imaginable value area. He also uses an institutional commissions. These issues are evident in the design of
expanded list of issues, which provide an the new Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Building at The
interesting view of how designers and clients University of Arizona (Fig. 2-18). The building's material
differ in what they value in architecture (Figs. relationship to the rest of the campus suggests embedding. Its
2-16). response to the local climate, with a central courtyard and shaded
Barton Myers, a well known and respected windows, couples the human and natural environment. Its permanent
contemporary architect, has articulated what he horizontal and vertical circulation suggests growth to the east and the
considers to be important values for his work open, flexible research and teaching spaces speak to permanence and
(Fig. 2-17): change. Transformation of ordinary to extraordinary can be seen
throughout the building complex.
1. Context Other architects and programmers have similar lists of values or
2. Space/ environment concerns that they think are important. These can be considered the
3. Climate philosophic base or set from which these professionals approach
both architectural programming and design.
4. Technology

Figure 2-16 Client versus Designer Interests.

5. Social implication
Adapted by Nancy Cole from: Palmer 1981, 17. Permission: 6. Tradition
McGraw-Hill

Figure 2-17 Seagram Building Design Model. Figure 2-18 Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering.
Pilato Credit: Ian Samson. Permission: Barton Myers
56 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 57

2.4 HECTTEAS (TEST EACH) for the programmer to establish the scope of the project, appropriate
goals and objectives, specific space/place needs, and mandatory
The following eight value areas, with subsets of issues to be dis- spatial relationships. The potential impact on design decision
cussed later in the text, cover the values advanced by most pro- making of the identified value areas is so great that they can be
grammers and architects as well as the enduring values discussed in considered as the primary design issues in architecture (Duerk
the previous section. This comprehensive easy-to-remember list, 1993).
with the acronym "HECTTEAS," or "TEST EACH," will be used in
this text to represent important contemporary values in architecture. 2.5 Case Study: Alleluia Lutheran Church
It should be understood, however, that there are as many ways to
classify value areas as there are persons to do the classification, and A recent award-winning programming and design commission by
that for a particular architectural program the important values may the author for a campus-related church facility demonstrates how a
or may not conform to the HECTTEAS categories either in name or variety of values and issues come into play during programming and
number. design. Cultural, aesthetic, environmental, human, economic, and
technological values combined as major issues in the design of the
• Human: Functional, social, physical, physiological, and psy- facility.
chological. The existing building on the site was highly valued by the clients
• Environmental: Site, climate, context, resources, and waste. because it had once been a home. They felt that this homelike
• Cultural: Historical, institutional, political, and legal. character had a positive impact on the use and enjoyment by
students because it provided them with a place that had the feeling of
• Technological: Materials, systems, and processes.
a home away from home. Therefore, the clients wanted to keep and
• Temporal: Growth, change, and permanence. use the house as an integral part of the total church facilities.
• Economic: Finance, construction, operations, maintenance, However, they also wanted to expand the facilities to create new
and energy. worship, fellowship, and education spaces so that the center could
• Aesthetic: Form, space, color, and meaning. become a full-service church. These were the important cul
tural, institutional, and
•Safety: Structural, fire, chemical, personal, and criminal. human issues for design
Exploration of the HECTTEAS list should allow the program- that were stated in the
mer to develop a comprehensive understanding of the important program and responded
design issues for any building project. What are the basic purposes to in the design.
of the institution? What activities must be accommodated? Are The architect also val-
there special users with unique physical or emotional needs? Is the ued the home because of
site of great importance? Are there views that the client particularly its aesthetic and historic
treasures? Is the climate so severe that special considerations of qualities. It was a fine old
form are warranted? Me there special processes or procedures that bungalow-type house
must be precisely followed to prevent the organization's failure? Is with red brick walls, hip
safety an important issue? Are only certain materials and systems roofs, porches, eaves,
available? Acceptable? Will future growth be a major factor? Is white wood trim, high
there a limit on building cost? Is tradition valued over novelty, or ceilings, and abundant
vice versa? These are typical issues that architects must deal with as window areas, all of
they program and design buildings. which provided a sense
These values should be identified and prioritized with respect to of quality and history
their importance for each project. It then becomes relatively easy (Fig. 2-19). Figure 2-19 Alleluia: Axial View. :
58 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 59

The building com- fact, in order to stay within

mittee and the architect the limited budget, the
decided that the new clients had to accept a
development should re- smaller facility than de-
flect the character of the sired that combined the
old house. As a result, worship and fellowship
the historic, aesthetic, spaces and provided a
and technological quali- single rather than double
ties of the house became classroom. So, while still
important design issues very important, the func-
for the entire complex tional requirements gave
(Fig. 2-20). way to budgetary limita- Figure 2-21 Alleluia: Section through Sanctuary.
The location of the tions and desired quality of
1 existing house and a materials and systems in
- beautiful large Aleppo order to obtain a satisfac-
pine tree on the small tory overall development (Fig. 2-21).
site also had an impor- There were other lesser influences on
tant impact on design. the design, such as the city's requirements
The site planning was for storm water retention, automobile and
essentially determined bicycle parking spaces, handicap
by the location of the accessibility, and landscaping. All of the
Figure 2-20 Alleluia: Site/Floor Plan.
existing house at the existing windows leaked air badly, so they
street frontage and the tree near the side and rear property lines. The were tightly sealed, while new windows
additions had to be placed to the rear of the site, behind but slightly were double glazed to help reduce energy
offset from the house in order to save the tree. The parking was costs. Provisions were also made to ac-
located on the other side of the site, extending from street to alley to commodate sound partitions within the
obtain the required spaces and needed access. The offset of the new worship/fellowship space to allow for fu-
building from the old house allowed the architect to create a quiet ture subdivision into two additional class-
courtyard at the base of the tree as well as an entrance walkway rooms and a high central 'chapel (Figs.
along the side of the old house on axis with the centerline of the new 2-22 and 2-23).
building. The walkway was realized by filling the center of an old Survival concerns were dealt with in
strip concrete driveway with new brick paving. A line of fruit trees several ways, including provision of fire
along the walkway creates a ceremonial approach to the entrance of separations between the new and old fa-
the church. cilities, the addition of a required fire exit
Human and economic issues also came into play. As mentioned from the second floor of the house,
above, the client desired new worship, fellowship, and educational complete rewiring of the house, and
spaces in addition to the office, library, study, and lounge spaces that meeting code requirements for all sys-
could be accommodated in the existing house. The budget, however, tems. Improved air conditioning and
was limited by a fixed maximum construction cost. This required lighting as well as complete renovation of
careful consideration of what spaces and sizes were absolutely the interior surfaces of the existing house
required, as well as of the associated construction costs for new helped to provide for the comforts
facilities versus renovation of the existing house. In of the good life and returned the interior Figure 2-22 Alleluia: Interior of Church.
60 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 61

to the high quality of the original house. nize the views to the often brilliant sunset and starlit skies. Views
All of these issues were accounted for in were an extremely important issue.
the program and in the design, but had a
lesser impact on the architectural Resources
character of the complex than the first- The house had to respond appropriately to the hot, arid climate, with
mentioned issues. Thus, they were not energy and water conservation being major values strongly held by
major architectural issues. husband and wife. Water needed to be conserved and harvested for
use only on plants that bore fruit or beautiful flowers. The house had
to tum away the hot summer sun and capture the needed winter sun,
2.6 Case Study: Hershberger and to use daylight throughout to conserve energy. Conservation and
Residence appropriate use of freely provided resources to help create a
sustainable environment were strongly held values.
Programming for the house that the author
designed for his family in Tucson, Lifestyle
Arizona, has both parallels to and dif-
The house would have to be a wonderful, peaceful yet stimulating
ferences from the process used for the
place in which to live and entertain visiting family and guests. It
Alleluia Church. For Alleluia, the pro-
would have to serve as an effective retreat for wife and husband, a
gramming process was condensed into a
place for them to live and work and garden, a place to gather the
two-week period, owing to time dead-
family members on holidays, and a place to entertain guests on the
lines. For the house, the author and his
many social occasions required of a dean and a development officer.
wife had years of living together with
their children in other Arizona houses to
consider when they decided what would Art
be appropriate in a house that they pro- The house had to be a work of art that masterfully accomplished all
grammed and designed for themselves. In of the goals and expressed the primary values of the clients. It had to
both cases, the expectations of the use forms, textures, colors, and light to create a place of peace and
client/users were deeply felt and de- happiness. Aesthetic quality was the bottom line.
Figure 2-23 Alleluia: View of Cupola.
manding of the talents of the designer.
Time
Location The house had to be constructed within a six month time period to
The house had to be within ten minutes of the university to the east of allow the client/users' oldest son to serve as the construction
campus. The clients do not enjoy long commutes to work or the superintendent while taking off a semester from his construction
pollution caused by driving long distances to work. They wanted to management program in college.
show that a very satisfactory and less costly and polluting lifestyle
could be maintained in town close to campus. They also felt that the Budget
very bright morning and afternoon sun was dangerous to face while The house also had to be designed within a budget that would result
driving. Location became an important consideration. in affordable mortgage payments.

Views The first job was to find a suitable site. The first selected site, in
The mountain and sky views in Tucson are truly spectacular. Al- very close proximity to the university and with excellent views to the
though location dictated an in-town residence, the clients were mountains over an adjoining city park, turned out not to be
unwilling to sacrifice views. The site had to have good ground level purchasable within time constraints because of liens on the property.
views to the mountains and the design would have to recog- The second site, which was purchased, met the ten minute
62 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 63

travel criterion by automobile and The plan of the house responds to the various value areas, par-
had an equally nice view to the ticularly to lifestyle. There are two primary areas on the first floor:
mountains. It was preferred by the the entertainment/guest area to the west with entry, living, dining,
wife, because of concerns for guest bedroom, and guest bathroom; and the private area to the east
safety at a site fronting on a public with kitchen, breakfast room, garage, and master bedroom, bath,
park. dressing, and shower. The living and dining rooms face north
The selected site was in an ex- toward the moun-
isting residential area on a vacant tains and the landscaped west
quarter of a large property sur- yard of the neighbor's house.
rounded by a low stuccoed adobe The guest bedroom and bath
wall. The owner agreed to sell this face south with views under the
unused portion of the property deciduous fruit trees placed in
with the understanding that no front of the windows. The entry
walls would be put up to separate is protected by a large covered
the houses within the walled porch for protection from the
precinct, so that all properties weather. The kitchen is located
would seem more spacious. It also next to the dining room and a
meant that the owner would be small breakfast room facing a
maintaining the backyard view covered patio to the south. The
from the new house, an added master bedroom faces north and
ELM'WOQ[)

benefit in purchasing this prop- is situated for optimum control

Figure 2-24 Hershberger: First Floor Plan. erty, but without the safety issues of exterior light and sound for
of a public park. The owner also sleeping. The dressing room
agreed to a "first right of refusal" and walk-in closet are
clause in the purchase agreement skylighted and adjoin the
to allow the author and his wife to bathroom that faces east into a
acquire the adjoining vacant prop- completely private outside
erty should the owner decide to shower area. The garage faces
sell it at some future time. This a
east, avoiding direct view
allowed the new house to sit on from the street (Figs. 2-26 and
Figure 2-26 Hershberger: Second Floor Plan.
the cor-ner of the property with a 2-27).
large expanse of open space on The study is located
either of its street sides. on the second floor with
The desire for safe ingress and a spectacular view of the
egress dictated that entry be off Catalina Mountains to
the quiet street to the south. This the north and to a
allowed for a unique, sun-filled trellised rooftop planting
front yard to show off the existing area to the south. It is
native vegetation and to grow reached by a straight-run SECTION a ICJl::lll o
stair up from the living ·
vegetables and fruit trees (Figs.
2-24 and 2-25). area, which allows for a Figure 2-27 Hershberger: Section through House.
Figure 2-25 Hershberger: Zoning Diagram.
64 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 65

future wheelchair lift to

access the second floor,
should it be needed. The
room has access to a
rooftop patio and to a
third-story outdoor fam-
ily room, with magnifi-
cent views of the sky
and mountains to the
north and east (Figs.
2-28 and 2-29).
Figure 2-28 View to Catalina Mountains. The house responds
to the clients' wishes to
capture the magical
views. It also relates to
the desire to promote a Figure 2-30 Hershberger: from Northwest.
sustainable lifestyle by Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger
carefully protecting
southfacing windows
from the hot summer
sun, minimizing Aesthetically, the house is conceived of as a "desert mountain" or
windows to the west, "sky island," offering views to the luminous sky and surrounding
and protecting windows desert areas. It is also considered to be representative of the Sonoran
facing east with Desert as a whole. The south is Mexico, with the "ripple gates" in the
adjustable shading masonry archway reminiscent of the Gulf of California and the
screens. It uses a sepa- Mexican tradition of walled and gated properties. The property then
rate high-efficiency heat echoes the desert and agricultural areas of Arizona ending at the
pump for each of the house as "mountain." The hanging gardens over the masonry lintels
three zones to reduce and columns provide a sense of permanence. The two-by-eight-foot
non-renewable energy spacing of columns and expression of the masonry bond beams
consumption. It captures create a rhythm and tectonic theme appropriate to the nature of
roof and patio water and concrete block (Fig. 2-31).
channels it to fruit- The porch provides a shaded summer place to eat with a view of
bearing landscaping sur- the surrounding landscape and garden areas. The low winter sun
rounding the house. The warms the same porch, allowing year-round enjoyment of these
landscaping features low beautiful site amenities (Fig. 2-32).
water use native vegeta- The interior of the house also represents the Sonoran Desert with
tion outside the wall and the traditional red concrete floor symbolic of the hot desert floor, the
drip-irrigated vegetables varied texture of the masonry and green gallery walls, the
and fruit trees within
Figure 2-29 Hershberger: Roof Plan.
(Fig. 2-30).
66 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 67

. ' ........... ,,, , ..... .

••••. lill ,,,.,,,,,,,,

.......... ~ .... .
·····················
zz
··· ZZ:;.;;.....::
,,,,,,,,,,,_.,,.,,.,.f"_,_ - ,_ ,
.............. _._._. ............... .

Figure 2-32 Hershberger: Covered Entrance/Patio.

Photo Credit Andrew Hershberger

Figure 2-31 Hershberger: Gate, Porches, Trellises.

Photo Credit Andrew Hershberger
68 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 69

interior plantscape, and the blue ceiling

reminding us of the changing flora
ascending up the desert mountains to
the cool blue sky above (Figs. 2-33
through 2-36).
The trellised roof deck provides a
wonderful outdoor living place and
transition zone from the land to the sky
(Fig. 2-37). It captures the panoramic
and sky views as well as the cooling
breezes that often cannot be felt on the
desert floor below.
The final value area was only par-
tially resolved to the satisfaction of the Figure 2-35 Hershberger: Dining Room/Gallery.
client. The short time frame for Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger
construction was realized through the
diligent efforts of the construction
foreman. The costs of the project,
however, stretched beyond the budget,
rising from an estimated $ 8 5 per
square foot to $ 9 5 per square foot for
the building. Landscaping and
irrigation took the cost up to over $100
per square foot, much more than the
client wanted to spend.
Figure 2-33 Hershberger: Living Room.
Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger

Figure 2-34 Hershberger: Dining/Living Room. Figure 2-36 Hershberger: Stairs to Upper Levels.
Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger
 Values and Architecture 71
70 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

cations for design. This information can be listed for all to see. A
discussion should follow about the issues that seem to be crucial to
successful design. The discussion might also highlight the need for
clear and complete communication.

2.8 References
Canter, David, ed. 1980. Fires and Human Behaviour. Chichester,
England: John Wiley & Sons.
Crosbie, Mike. 1994. Green Architecture: A Guide to Sustainable
Design. Rockport, Mass.: Rockport Publishers.
Duerk, Donna P. 1993. Architectural Programming: Information
Management for Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Greenberg, Stephanie W., William M. Rohe, and Jay R. Williams.
1982. Safe and Secure Neighborhoods. Washington, D.C.: National
Institute of Justice.
Hamlin, Talbot. 19 5 2. Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century
Figure 2-37 Roof Deck and View to Mountains. Photo Architecture. New York: Columbia University Press.
Credit: Andrew Hershberger
Hoover, George. 1996. Personal correspondence, April 3. Kostof,
Spiro, and Greg Castillo. 1995. A History of Architecture:
2.7 Exercises Settings and Rituals. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
Langer, Susanne. 1942. Philosophy in a New Key: Study in the
1. Ask another person to join you and take 15 to 20 minutes to Symbolism of Reason, Rite and Art. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
each write down the important issues and requirements for a University Press.
personal space: a study space at home, a studio space at Lawton, Powell, Paul Windley, and Thomas Byerts, eds. 1982.
school, or some similar space. Aging and the Environment: Theoretical Approaches. New York:
1. Trade your issues and requirements and spend 20 to 30 Springer.
minutes making a preliminary design for their space. Le Corbusier. 1946. Towards a New Architecture. London: Archi-
tectural Press.
1. After the design session, trade again and evaluate the design Maslow, Abraham. 1973. Dominance, Self-Esteem, Self-Actual-
prepared for your space. ization: Germinal Papers of A. H. Maslow. Monterey, Calif.:
1. Discuss which issues and requirements were most clearly Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
stated and how the designs either fulfilled or missed the intent McHarg, Ian. 1969. Design with Nature. Garden City, N.Y.: Natural
of the user. History Press.
This exercise should help you understand the importance of the Myers, Barton. 1991. Personal correspondence, October 10.
architectural program. The discussion should reveal what kind of Newman, Oscar. 1972. Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through
information allows flexibility in de~n and what kind of information Urban Design. New York: The MacMillan Co.
restricts design. Norberg-Schulz, Christian. 1963. Intentions in Architecture. London:
If an entire class is involved with the exercise, each member Allen and Unwin.
should state what information seemed to have the greatest impli-
72 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Palmer, Mickey A., ed. 1981 The Architect's Guide to Facility Pro-
gramming. New York: Architectural Record Books.
Pena, William, William Caudill, and John Focke. 1977. Problem
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. Boston, Mass.:
Cahners Books International.
Values Become Issues
Roth, Leland M. 1979. A Concise History of American Architec-
ture. New York: Harper & Row.
Schnaidt, Claude. 1965. Hannes Meyer: Buildings, Projects and
Writings. Teufen, AR/Schweiz: Negli Ltd.
Stahl, Fred. 1976. Some Prospects for Simulating Human Behavior in
Fires. In The Behavioral Basis of Design: Proceedings of the Seventh
International Conference of the Environmental Design Research
Association, edited by P. Suedfeld and James A. Russell. Vol. 1.
Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. 3 .1 Human Issues
Steinfeld, Edward. 1979. Access to the Built Environment: A Review of 3.2 Environmental Issues 3.
Literature. Washington, D.C.: Department of Housing 3 Cultural Issues
and Urban Development. 3. 4 Technological Issues 3.
Trachtenberg, Marvin, and Isabelle Hyman. 1986. Architecture, 5 Temporal Issues
from Prehistory to Post-Modernism: The Western Tradition. En- 3. 6 Economic Issues
glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 3. 7 Aesthetic Issues
Venturi, Robert. 1977. Complexity and Contradiction in Architec- 3. 8 Safety Issues
ture. New York: Museum of Modern Art. 3. 9 Exercises
Vitruvius Pollio. 1960. Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture. 3 .10 References
Translated by Morris Morgan. New York: Dover Publications.
Wotton, Sir Henry. 1970. The Elements of Architecture. New York: In Chapter 2, the argument was made that architecture most often results
Da Capo Press. when the architect responds to and expresses important

I
human values. Three enduring values of architecture-Survival, Good Life,
and Art-were discussed, and while obviously important, were found not
adequate to describe all of the important issues that contemporary
architects must address. An expanded list of eight important value
areas-Human, Environmental, Cultural, Technological, Temporal,
Economic, Aesthetic, and Safety (HECTTEAS or TEST EACH)-were
shown to encompass the three traditional and other important values that
might have a significant impact on architectural decisions. It was noted
that design decisions for all buildings are influenced to some degree by
each of the values, but that really good buildings respond to and express
the most important values in such a way as to produce true works
of art: architecture.
7 4 Architectural Programming and Pre design Manager Values Become Issues 75

\
Who, then, decides what values are important enough to be- elevations are particularly responsive to site and climate while
come design issues, and what values are important enough to express providing excellent daylighting into the interior.
for any particular architectural commission? Initially, it is the Each of the sections of this chapter will concentrate on one focusing
architectural programmer who must identify what is highly valued by issue of architecture to show its importance. Be aware that other issues
the client, users, and designer, and make certain that specific project came into play during the design of each of these buildings.
goals, facts, and needs relating to these values are developed and set
forth in the architectural program. The designer for the project then
selects the values upon which to focus. Finally, the client's values come
into play when approving or rejecting the designer's decisions. Values 3.1 Human Issues
become issues when one of the participants in the design process
• Functional
decides that they are important.
In this chapter, the value sets covered under the HECTTEAS • Social
headings will be considered as the focusing issues of architecture that • Physical
should influence the form, character, and/or quality of buildings (Feerer
• Physiological
1977; Duerk 1993). These issues cover various aspects of the human
enterprises to be accommodated; the available technology; the physical, • Psychological
cultural, and economic environments; the philosophies and preferences Architecture is a social art. There would be no reason to build, no
of those who build; and concerns for the public health, safety, and reason to seek out and analyze a site, to consider any other issue, were it
welfare. not for some human activity or enterprise needing to be housed in some
All of these issues are not of equal importance for every project. It is manner or another. Architects respond to most human needs, including
essential that the programmer uncover, and the designer carefully accommodation, social contact, and comfort. They do not simply paint
consider and decide, which values should be the focusing issues for or sculpt something. Architects are commissioned to design something
each project or part of a project. Ultimately, the val- that someone needs. Human purposes and activities are the basis, the
ues to which the designer raw material for their art.
responds are what make The human issues of architecture include:
some buildings very good
1. The functional activities to be housed.
(architecture) and other
buildings either mediocre 2. The social relationships to be maintained
or possibly very bad, fail- 3. The physical characteristics and needs of the users.
ures in some manner or
another. 4. The physiological characteristics and needs of the users.
The Phoenix Central 5.The psychological characteristics and needs of the users. All are
Library (Fig. 3-1) by
important and should be carefully considered and ar-
Bruder DWL Architects,
ticulated in the architectural program.
also shown on the cover, is
an outstanding con- Functional
temporary building that
responds to important If a building is to be successful, it must allow for the intended activities
issues to create a marvelous to be accommodated. Sometimes the activities are. very simple. For
work of architecture. The example, the Lincoln Memorial (Fig. 3-2) by Henry
south and north
Figure 3-1 Phoenix Central Library.
76 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 77

Bacon, as far as the Most buildings are somewhere between

public is concerned, the extremes. Houses, schools, churches, of-
needs only to allow the fice buildings, and museums all have major
public to enter and view functional requirements that must be satisfied
the statue of the seated to allow the occupants to accomplish their
image of President tasks. Function may be a focusing issue for
Lincoln, to circulate the design of such buildings; but there are
freely in order to read other considerations as well. All of these
several important buildings must relate to their natural and/or
speeches recorded on urban contexts, conform to cultural norms or
the stone walls, and then legal requirements, be built within the client's
to leave. Accom- budget, and so on. These considerations may
modation of these ac- also be important enough to influence the
tivities, while simple, is form of the building design. No single issue
very important. determines building form.
Note that function - Alvar Aalto's Baker House dormitory at
was not the most im- the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is
portant issue addressed a wonderful example of function playing a
Figure 3-2 Lincoln Memorial. by the architecture of primary role, influencing all aspects of the
Photo Credit: Howard Olson building form. Aalto considered the lives of
this public monument.
Issues of time, meaning, and aesthetics were far more important. It the students carefully as well as their
was essential that the memorial be built to last virtually forever. It relationships to each other, to the campus,
was essential that it express the achievements and importance of this and to the community. This resulted in a
president of the United States. It was essential that the monument be building with unique form, but suitable only
of the highest possible aesthetic quality. to its site along the Charles River and beside Figure 3-4 Baker House: River Side.

An industrial plant, on the other hand, may have such a spe- a major cam- Credit: Carl Okazaki

cific production sequence or such unique functional requirements pus open space (Figs. 3-4 and
that they seem literally 3-5).
to "determine" the form In order to provide unique
of the resulting building rooms and views for the students,
(Fig. 3-3). All other Aalto placed all of the student
potential issues pale in rooms along an undulating
comparison to function. facade with views over a park to
However, even here, the the Charles River and to the City
author would argue that of Boston beyond. He thor-
the architect has the oughly understood the need for
obligation and, personal expression of the stu-
generally, the discretion dents and the value of such a
to propose a variety of magnificent view.
formal solutions to the On the campus side of the Figure 3-5 Baker House: Campus
problem. Side. dormitory, Aalto placed all of Credit: Carl Okazaki
Figure 3-3 Hop Factory in Northern California.
 Values Become Issues 79
78 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

the common and service

rooms, along with a set of
stairs that collected students
from every floor (Fig. 3-6).
This resulted in the
dominant angular exterior
form on the campus side of
the building. The stairs
deliver the students to a
handsome skylighted
Figure 3-8 Dulles Airport: Exterior.
commons/ dining room on
Photo Credit: Howard Olson
the second floor, also with a
view over the Charles
River. From here, the stu-
dents can descend just one
floor to the main entrance
of the dormitory, located on
the campus side of the
structure. The exterior form
Figure 3-6 Baker House: Typical Floor Plans.
of the building related to its
Credit Carl Okazaki
function, but also to its site.
A similar example is the Dulles Airport by
Eero Saarinen. In this case, a very thorough
review of major airport design during Figure 3-9 Dulles Airport: Exterior Loading.
programming revealed that the long walks Photo Credit: Howard Olson
between boarding areas result in considerable
human discomfort and angst, as people scurry
to their next flight with hands full of luggage
and children (Fig. 3-7).
As an alternative to this hassle, Saarinen
proposed a completely new system, one
where the planes remained out on the runway
areas and giant lounge cars gathered up the
people in a very compact area of the terminal,
so that no one would have to carry luggage or
children very far (Figs. 3-8 to 3-10).
Even kitchen and bathroom facilities re-
quire thoughtful design taking into account
functional needs. For example, male archi-
tects may lack an understanding of the basic Figure 3-10 Dulles Airport: Interior.
Figure 3-7 People in a Typical Airport. Photo Credit Howard Olson
 Values Become Issues 81
80 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

functional requirements for the participants of similar stature, cooperating to accomplish some
women's toilet facilities (Fig. purpose? How the group is structured has important implications
3-11), and provide far less for design, so this information must be articulated carefully.
counter and hanging space The designer also needs to know the preferred way that people
than is typically required in a group communicate.Do they need to communicate face-toface?
(Brown 1967). Or can they be remote from one another and use the telephone,
While function is only one interoffice memos, or e-mail? What do various people need in the
of the issues that must be way of personal space, territory, and privacy in order to accomplish
acknowledged in design, it their tasks (Sommer 1969)? Who needs private offices, semiprivate
typically is very important offices, conference rooms? For example, the executive officer, with
and is given special consider- little paperwork, typically has the largest desk on the top floor and
ation by both the programmer the clerical staff, with much paperwork, have the smallest desks on
and the designer. This often the lowest floor (Fig. 3-13).
means more than simply ar- Who can accomplish their tasks in an open office environment
ticulating the minimum or or even in a completely open workroom? If people are crowded
even optimum spatial layout tightly together, can they
to accommodate some activ- still accomplish their
ity. It also includes providing goals effectively? Should
information on the hierarchy the teacher stand behind
or relative importance of a lectern in front of the
various activities, essential class, or should the class
relationships, adjacencies or be organized in a circle
Figure 3-11 Women's Powder Room. proximities of activities, spe- with the teacher as just
Credit: Carl Okazaki cific space sizes and equip- one participant on the
ment needs, furnishings, and perimeter (Sommer
other materials necessary to support the functional ac- 1969)? The designer
tivity. This is an area where a lot of information must be needs to know the social
collected and analyzed. A number of the specific infor- relationships that will
mation gathering and presentation techniques described help the participants ac-
in Chapters 5, 6, and 7 are directed toward improving complish their objectives
programming skills in this area (Fig. 3-12). most effectively. If this
can be established
Social
during the programming
Very few functional activities in a building are accom- process, it will greatly
plished by only one individual. In most cases a group or aid the designer in de-
interacting groups of people combine efforts to accom- veloping creative design
plish a task. In consequence, the :e!;ogrammer must learn solutions (Deasy 1974).
Figure 3-12 Functional Relationship
Diagram. how such groups work together. If they work in teams, The social aspects of
Credit: Fourth. Year Design Studio, Professor are they horizontally or vertically structured? Is one design can lead to pri-
Poster, 1990. Salvation Army Homeless Facility: person the leader, with a couple of captains, and the mary expression in form. Figure 3-13 The Executive Office Syndrome.
Program and Site Analysis. College of Architecture,
The University of Arizona
remainder workers of one type or another? Or are all of This is particularly true Credit: Carl Okazaki
 Values Become Issues 83
82 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

at the Kresge Resi-

dential College at
the University of
California at Santa
Cruz, designed by
Moore, Lyndon,
Turnbull and
Whitiker (MLTW),
for which they an-
ticipated social
events in the interior
courtyard and
surrounding bal-
conies (Fig. 3-14).
Another example
of response to social
issues is the Lake
Figure 3-14 Kresge College: Courtyard. Anne Village Center
in the new Figure 3-16 Reston, Virginia: Separated Wall<.

town of Reston,
Physical
Virginia, which was designed by William Conklin to ensure ample
exterior recreation, socialization, meeting, and pedestrian circulation The physical characteristics of the occupants can have a profound
areas that are completely separated from the automobile circulation of influence on the form of a building. {§Pecial user needs of all kinds
the community (Fig. 3-15 and 3-16). are encountered in architectural problems. Facilities for children, such
as in preschools and day care centers, need to acknowledge
the size of the principal
occupants in terms of the
heights and dimensions of
windows, counters, and
various furnishing_~ The
size of rooms needs to
acknowledge the child's
natural tendency to learn
through movement and
various space-consuming
activities (Figs. 3-1 7
through 3-19).
Buildings that accom-
modate the elderly and
physically handicapped
must provide suitable Figure 3-17 Baby by Stairs.
Figure 3-15 Reston, Virginia: Public Area. door openings, room Credit Carl Okazaki
 Values Become Issues 85
84 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

turning radii for various vehicles, and sizes of various appli-

sizes, furnishings, equipment, surfaces,
ances. Much of this information is available in such documents
lighting, and mechanical systems. Re-
as Architectural Graphic Standards (1994), Humanscale
quirements for accommodating persons
(1974), and other standard references that cover both er-
with various disabilities, especially
gonomics and anthropometrics. However, many facilities have
those confined to wheelchairs, are very
special appliance and/ or equipment needs that are not con-
specific and are outlined in mandatory
tained in these standards and must be discovered during pro-
standards and codes (ANSI 1996).
gramming. This is extremely important in helping the designer
They set forth the minimum width of
~ avoid making assumptions which may result in costly errors.
halls; the size, location, and swing of
,
doors; the height and loca-
Physiological
-
-~ --=--=- _:_-~~~
------
-·---:--~~
~ ---
tion of various bathroom fixtures; and
--- numerous other requirements de- Information about human physiology may seem a very un-
Figure 3c18 Baby by Toilet.
pending on the needs of the people to likely concern for programming or architectural design, but in
Credit: Carl Okazaki
be accommodated. The designer some cases it is not. The elderly, for example, may have very
working without this information, or special needs resulting from sensory losses. Letters on signs
with inaccurate or inappropriate information, may need to be bolder and largerly.Glare can be a major
is likely to design non-accessible facilities- problem, making it very uncomfortable for the elderly to find
requiring redesign upon rejection by local their way. Acoustics may need to be carefully studied to be
building officials. This can be especially certain that messages can be heard by the hard-of-hearing.
embarrassing and costly when the errors are Oftentimes, the elderly experience a decrease in blood supply
found during or after construction of the to their extremities, causing them to be more sensitive to
facility.
The designer must understand how people
with various disabilities actually use toilet
facilities in order to design them
appropriately. For instance, the frail elderly
require stalls that are just three feet wide, with
a higher than normal toilet seat, and with grab
bars on both sides to help them get up from
the toilet. Wheelchair confined persons, on
the other hand, must have ample room in the
toilet stall to allow them to make a lateral
mount and dismount as shown below (Fig. 3-
20). Figure 3-20 Handicapped Toilet
These are not trivial problems. They can Usage.
pose difficulties for the disabled that can Credit: Carl Okazaki
prevent them from leading normal lives and,
in some cases, can cause serious injury or
even be life threatening (Fig. 3-21).
Even information on typical users can be
important when it comes to such things as Figure 3-21 Wheelchair by a Curb. Credit:
Figure 3-19 Young Child by Door. accessible heights for shelves, work surfaces, Carl Okazaki
Credit: Carl Okazaki
 Values Become Issues 87
86 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Figure 3-23 Church of the Palms: Courtyard.

Photo Credit: Koppes Photography

Young children of pre-

Figure 3-22 Church of the Palms: Interior. school or elementary school
age are quite the opposite
of the elderly relative to ...
cold drafts on their feet or on the back of their necks than persons
from other age groups. The designer of facilities for the elderly must circulation to the extremi-
be aware of these physiological changes, so that appropriate design ties. They are little heat
decisions can be made. For example, in the Church of the Palms machines who can be com-
(Fig. 3-22) in Sun City, Arizona, Robert Hershberger and Ernest fortable in a considerably
Nickels of Par 3 Studio designed the air conditioning system to cooler room with plentiful
bring in low-velocity air through long linear diffusers located high ventilation. This can be a
in the ceiling (dark strips on the photo) and to return it high at the problem when a middle-
_,

rear of the sanctuary (behind a spaced wood screen), to ensure that aged teacher turns up the
there would be no drafts at the floor level or on the backs of the thermostat to keep his or
elderly members of the congregation and, also importantly, to her feet warm. The children
provide an attractive ceiling and back wall. are likely to become too
Similar considerations were made on the exterior of the church, warm, disruptive, or sleepy,
where a wide, covered arcade extends to a drop-off and pick-up area and make the teacher won-
near the parking area. This walkway is flanked by a fountain court- der why they are not paying
more attention to the
yard surrounded by ample seating, covered walks, and landscaping
lesson! Sensitivity to this
to provide protected, shaded, and sunlit areas for the users. This is
kind of information by the
extremely important for the elderly, who often cannot tolerate the
programmer can be a great
extreme heat from direct sun in the summer, or standing while wait- Figure 3-24 Teacher's Ideas versus Child's Ideas.
help to the designer (Fig. 3-
ing to be picked up. It also creates a quiet and pleasant environment Credit: Thomas Dieterle, 1993. Computer Graphics Assignment. College of Architecture, The Uni-
24).
in which anyone can choose to sit and meditate (Fig. 3-23). versity of Arizona. '
88 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 89

Psychological
There is an increasing body of information on the psychological needs
of people in buildings and urban areas. In the past 25 years,
environmental psychologists and sociologists have been actively
studying just how people perceive, behave in, and feel about their
physical environments. Some of this information has become well
known and might be considered as knowledge that all designers
should incorporate into their designs (EDRA 1969-96).
If there is psychological information peculiar to a particular type of
project or user group, include it in the architectural program. This
could include needs for apparent stability or security in environments
for the elderly, for reducing environmental stimulation for people with
certain mental disabilities, or for privacy or territoriality for
hospitalized or institutionalized individuals. Books such as The Hidden
Dimension by Edward Hall (1966), Personal Space by Robert Sommer
(1969), and A Graphic Survey of Perception and Behavior for the Figure 3-25 Open Office Setting.
Design Professions by Forrest Wilson (1984), provide good
generalized coverage of many of these psychological interactions with
architecture. 3.2 Environmental Issues
There are also quite a number of articles and books on various • Site (including views)
facility types or user groups that would be extremely valuable for
• Climate
particular projects. Current research is reported in journals such as
Environment and Behavior and The journal of Architecture and Planning • Context
Research. Powell Lawton's book Planning and Managing Housing for
• Resources
the Elderly (Lawton 1975) contains many important insights on the
psychological needs of the institutionalized elderly; Oscar Newman's • Waste
book Defensible Space (1972) includes information on the safety and The environmental concerns that may become focusing issues in
security needs of both low-income families and the elderly; and Jean architecture include site, climate, urban and regional context, available
Wineman's book Behavioral Issues in Office Design (1986) takes an in- resources, and waste products. These are often very important issues
depth look at psychological needs of persons in office settings such as in architecture because their influence is very direct and crucial,
the one the following page (Fig. 3-25). impacting the survival of the building or its occupants. If the designer
It is the architectural programmer's responsibility to conduct a ignores these issues and designs an inappropriate building for the
suitable survey of the literature so as to be able to advise the client and particular site, climate, or other environmental concern, the building or
the designer of important psychological issues for design. The degree occupants will suffer some loss over time, if not immediately. The
to which the client and users value this type of information will help building may neglect some wonderful view or be oriented to receive
determine to what degree specific project goals and facility needs sun penetration in hot summer months or cold breezes during the
relating to human psychology are included in the program and coldest part of the winter. It may deteriorate as harsh weather takes a
subsequently in the design. A discussion of appropriate approaches to toll on inappropriate materials. It may sit in a floodplain or drainage
literature search and review is contained in Chapter 5. area, such that it will be destroyed or washed away in a major storm.
Its waste products may pollute' a nearby stream or lake. If the
programmer fails to inform the
 90 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 1

designer of such important design issues, how can the designer make
the appropriate response? Complete environmental information is
essential for a successful design solution.

Site (Including Views)

Frank Lloyd Wright repeatedly said, "The character of the site is the
beginning of the building that aspires to architecture" (House Beautiful
1955). A colleague once said, "The site is the most important design
consideration. It comes first. It was there before the architect and
client and will be there long after they are gone" (Straub 1970). Both
obviously valued the site very much, but does every client, user, and
architect? If so, how much? Is it the first consideration, or is it only
something to be dealt with after more important matters are
considered? For some architectural problems, the site is a very
important issue that can not be ignored during design.
The author, residing in the largest desert environment in the United
States, advised a client (during the master planning stage of
architectural services) not to build a retreat center on a cherished
desert site near Sedona, Arizona, because most of the site was within a Figure 3-27 Building in Floodplain.
one-hundred year floodplain. In that particular case, there was a Photo Credit: The Arizona Daily Star

hundred-year flood just two years after the client decided

not to build. The site was
Topography is often a
devastated. In two other major consideration in the
instances, because of site location of buildings. Les
locations that would be Wallach, principal of Line
backwater areas in a flood, and Space, an architect/
it was possible for the au- builder in Tucson, Arizona,
thor to propose the use of is very sensitive to site
earth fill to raise the sites analysis and design, often
above the floodplain. The saving significant
clients proceeded with the landscape elements to in-
design and construction of corporate their beauty as
the projects. The floods he designs and builds his
have come, but the build- projects. His own home,
ings have escaped any the Arroyo House, is an
damage. These are clearly excellent example (Figs. 3-
cases where the issue of site 28 through 3-30). He saved
could not be ignored, most of the vegetation,
because it related to the including several
;
survival of the buildings ancient saguaro cacti, Figure 3-28 Arroyo House: Exterior.
Figure 3-26 Sedona Retreat Center: Site Plan. (Figs. 3-26 and 3-27). and safely bridged an Photo Credit: Henry Tom. Permission: Line and Space
 92 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 93

arroyo that runs full

during heavy rain-
storms.
In designing the
Ventana Canyon Re-
sort (Fig. 3-31) in
Tucson, the firm of
Frizzell, Hill and
Figure 3-29 Arroyo House: Section at Wash. Moorehouse was very
Drawing Credit: Henry Tom. Permission: Line and Space sensitive in site analy-
sis and design, pre-
serving the pristine desert area and
selecting materials and colors that
blend with the existing landforms and
landscape.
The analysis for the Lawrence Hall
of Science (Fig. 3-32) in Berkeley in-
cluded a visibility analysis relating to Figure 3-31 Ventana Canyon Resort.
major highways and important views
in the Bay Area (Spencer 1962). The
site selected for the building is the
most visible of all sites considered, as
well it should be for such an important
public building.
In many cases, a careful site
analysis during programming will
reveal both significant external and
internal site views. It might also in-
dicate negative views or uncover
current or potential developments that
would destroy an apparently good
view. In Beirut, Lebanon one family
is reported to have built a "spite
house" on their property to destroy a
coveted view from an adjacent family
(Hall 1966). Similar things happen all
too frequently in subdivisions around
our country, where designers design
for views, only to have later buildings
interfere (Fig. 3-33).
Figure 3-30 Arroyo House: Saguaro Cactus. Figure 3-32 Lawrence Hall of Science: Visibility.
Photo Credit: Henry Tom. Permission: Line and Space Permission: William Busse of Spencer, Lee, Busse Architects
 Values Become Issues 95
94 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Figure 3-35 Thirsty Earth: House and View.

Figure 3-33 House in View of Another House.
Credit: Carl Okazaki
Geology and hydrology are also major site considerations. Will
the building sit on bedrock, sand, an historic site of archaeological
The author has designed a number of houses in the Sonoran significance, or perhaps on a large abandoned sanitary fill or dump
Desert of Arizona in which views have been a very important issue. site? This information has a tremendous impact on the type and
In one house, Thirsty Earth (Figs. 3-34 and 3-35), the client wanted form of a building that might be constructed, or it may show that it
to take advantage of spectacular views of the Superstition would be unwise to build at all. This is especially true for sanitary
Mountains, including a pinnacle called Weaver's Needle, to the east landfills, where subsiding and outgassing would be crucial problems
and the McDowell Mountains and city lights to the west. A careful for human safety.
site analysis located each far and near view precisely, so that the A building con-
design could respond to each. The final orientation provides for an structed on sand or in a
axial view of Weaver's Needle as one enters the living room of the marshy area likely will
house. The other views are similarly captured from various rooms. have a significantly dif-
ferent form than one
solidly anchored on
bedrock. It is also im-
portant to know if a
building is to be located
in an active seismic
zone, as anyone in
California or Mexico
will testify. Buildings
designed without suffi-
cient care in such areas
will fail in a major
earthquake (Fig. 3-36).
A number of build-
ing programs have been Figure 3-36 Failed Building after an Earthquake.
Credit: James Strata, Ted Canon, C. Martin Duke and Lawrence Selna (1976) Harvardian College East End,
delayed significantly Fig. 30. Permission: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Figure 3-34 Thirsty Earth: View Analysis.
96 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 97

in recent years because they were found to be located over im- Adobe construction in warm desert ar-
portant archaeological sites that had to be explored and recorded eas is also a primary response to climate,
before building could proceed. Similarly, in crowded urban areas with its usually tiny windows and thick
with very high land costs, abandoned dumps and landfills are being walls, which keep the heat out in the day-
reclaimed for higher uses, which include major building projects. time but allow it to be transferred in
In these cases, a great deal of time and money can be expended through the walls to warm the interior dur-
before building on the site can even be considered. The impact on ing the course of the cool or even cold
the resulting architecture can also be substantial. It is vitally night hours (Fig. 3-39).
important that the client and architect be informed of such An example where climate was a major
conditions prior to beginning design. A programming study by the programmatic and design issue is at Sea
author on such a site in the Phoenix area resulted in the conclusion Ranch (Figs. 3-40 and 3-41) in northern
that the site could not be used for the intended purpose because of California, where Lawrence Halprin,
excessive foundation costs and potential outgassing. Charles Moore (MLTW), and other archi-
Climate tects responded to the prevailing cold
breezes off the Pacific Ocean with shed
Climate considerations are of great importance when program- roof forms to deflect the wind over the
ming for architecture. A [ery severe climate will have profound buildings. This creates quiet eddies on the
effects on what should be builU east sides of the buildings where people can
The igloo is a clear response to gather in comfort even on cold and windy
the cold environment of the arc- days.
tic, both in its use of available The wide-brimmed sombrero and the
material and in its hemispherical shade structures of the southwestern U.S. Figure 3-38 Stilt House and Boy with Hat.
form, which maximizes internal deserts are also examples of appropriate Credit: Carl Okazaki
space and minimizes surface area responses to hot and dry climates . . .
to avoid heat loss and reflects shade! Judith Chafee's Solomon House,
interior-generated heat and light with its prevalent shade structure, is a bold
back into the interior. Here the use of this response (Fig. 3-42).
architectural form is very much in Similar illustrations can be made for
response to climate. Environment environments with plentiful rain or snow.
and human survival are clearly Even very temperate climates, such as
values of great importance in this those found in Southern California and the
case (Fig. 3-3 7). San Francisco Bay Area, impact
Similarly, a house on stilts architecture by allowing the indoor/outdoor
with a thatch roof and open lat- living relationships that are characteristic of
tice floors and walls is an ap- buildings in this part of the world. The
propriate response to a warm, Thomson House and other houses by
humid climate where shade and Calvin C. Straub in Southern California are
ample ventilation are the princi- excellent examples of the development of
pal requirements for comfort these relationships (Fig. 3-43).
(Fig. 3-38).
Figure 3-37 Igloo and Boy in Parka. Figure 3-39 Adobe House and Boy with Sombrero.
Credit: Carl Okazaki Credit: Carl Okazaki
98 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 99

oseon

Figure 3-42 Solomon House.

Figure 3-40 Sea Ranch: Wind Diagram.

Figure 3-43 Thomson Residence.

Figure 3-41 Sea Ranch Lodge. Credit: Julius Shulman
100 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 101

. .
Context traffic. Was it the
quantity of the traf-
One of the most impoifanf; bi.rt often over1ooked, focusing issues fic? Was it a charac-
of architecture is environmental context. This includes all of the teristic of the traffic?
natural landforms and built features beyond the immediate site. The study revealed
Views are often to off-site objects. Natural features or adjacent that characteristics
buildings may cast shadows over the site daily or only at certain of the traffic were
the primary reason
times of the year, influencing where a new building should be lo-
catei( Flight patterns from a nearby airport may have a noise or for success and fail- 4:
safety impact on a site. In an urban situation the height, shape, and ure of the stations,
other physical characteristics of surrounding buildings might . and were even more
influence what the designer chooses to place between them. A for- important than the
mal pattern may have been established, which would be very in- amount of traffic
sensitive to ignore. Traffic on adjacent streets might similarly passing the station
affect a site. For example, high levels of traffic on adjacent streets (Fig. 3-44).
are essential to the economic survival of many projects. Gas sta- At first glance, it
tions, shopping centers, and many other commercial facilities are appeared that there
typically located at intersections of major traffic arteries to ensure were two major
their economic survival. streams of traffic, Figure 3-44 Traffic Options through an Intersection.
The operations research group of the Wharton School at the one along each Credit Chris Barta
University of Pennsylvania study on why some gas stations suc- artery. More careful
ceed and others fail illustrates the extreme importance of context in analysis revealed that there were two lines of traffic on each artery
programming and design (Ackoff 1966). A major petroleum and that there were turning movements from one artery to the
company was baffled as to why some of their gas stations were other, some right turns, some left turns, even the possibility of U-
successful while others failed. It seemed as if there was no plau- turns. In all, there were sixteen different ways that traffic could
sible explanation for the problem, because each station was located pass through an intersection. The research group decided to focus
at the intersection of heavily traveled arterial streets in accordance on these sixteen alternatives in terms of the number of vehicles
with established company policy. But even when the amount of entering stations for service. It was. discovered that about 90
traffic passing the sites was essentially identical, one station would percent of a station's customers came from three of the 16
be very successful while another would not. alternatives. Vehicles turning right around the station accounted for
The cause of failure apparently had nothing to do with the as much as 70 percent of the use. Vehicles continuing in the same
physical design of the station, because the company had several direction accounted for an additional 15 percent. Vehicles turning
standard designs for its stations and there was no correlation be- left around the station accounted for another five percent. The re-
tween successful stations and the particular design utilized. Careful maining 13 ways of passing through the intersection each ac-
research also indicated that the friendliness of the operator or counted for less than one percent of the use of the station.
employees, the speed or quality of service, the cleanliness of the The researchers discovered that it was most important for the
rest rooms, differential advertising, or even the comparative cost of station to be located at an intersection where there was a high count
gas had little impact on success or failure. of traffic turning right around the station. This characteristic alone
There being no readily apparent reason for success or failure, could account for the success or failure of a station. A station with a
the research group decided to focus all of its attention on the ve- large number of vehicles turning right around the station would,'
hicular traffic passing the station, because traffic is obviously of succeed. A station without a large number of vehicles turning right
major importance. No station could succeed without automobile
102 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 103

around the station would fail. The

benefit from the right turns, the con- Clearly, anyone desiring to locate a
tinuing straight movements, and the gas station must place great value on the
left turns were found to be tied characteristics of traffic passing the sta-
closely to the stop-and-go lights at tion. The impact of other values of the
the intersection. People drove their client or designer would be minimal
vehicles into the station when it relative to the ultimate financial success
appeared that they could avoid or failure of the station. Traffic in this
waiting for the light by entering the case is the most important issue-all
station to get gas . They could get others pale in comparison.
gas, then continue to the right, or
straight ahead, or left to avoid the
light (Figs. 3-45 and 3-46). Resources
The persons turning right and left Environmental resources-water, air,
could avoid the light entirely by dri- fuel, building materials-can have a
ving through the station. It is not as profound influence on built form. Whole
dangerous as it might first appear to civilizations have vanished when water
make the two left-turn movements became unavailable. In climates where a
because the red light was, in fact, continuous supply of water is uncertain,
Figure 3-45 Routes to Avoid Traffic Light.
stopping oncoming traffic. In the case buildings are sometimes designed as
Credit: Nancy Cole
of the persons continuing straight collectors of water, with cisterns be-
ahead, the effect was similar, but the neath them to store precipitation for use
person had the choice after being during periods of drought. The impact
serviced of entering the arterials ei- on architectural form can be significant.
ther by a right or a left turn, In western Pakistan, the prevailing
whichever would help the driver breezes are collected and channeled Figure 3-47 Wind Collectors on Buildings.
avoid waiting for the light. Indeed, down through chimney-like stacks to Credit: Carl Okazaki
the study team discovered that drivers ventilate interior rooms (Fig. 3A 7).
select service stations to save time! Middle-Eastern and Mediterranean
What can a designer do to take cities have also developed with a con-
advantage of this information? If the sciousness to the benefits of sun and
site is located on a corner, the de- shade to create natural ventilation. The
signer can plan the station to allow courtyard house and narrow streets of
the above movements to be accom- towns in Morocco are particularly effec-
plished with ease. Perhaps the de- tive in this regard (Fig. 3-48).
signer can make it evident to Before air-conditioning was invented,
motorists that these movements are buildings in every region of the United
easy to accomplish. However, if the States were designed appropriately for
station is located on a corner with the local climate. In southern Arizona
very little traffic making right turns, there were two proto-types-the thick-
there would be practically nothing the walled and flat-roofed adobe courtyard
Figure 3-46 Non-Competing Gas Stations. designer could do to make the station houses similar to those found in the Figure 3-48 Courtyard Houses Creating Shade.
Credit Nancy Cole successful. Mediterranean area, and high-ceiling Credit: Carl Okazaki
104 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 105

sloped-roof buildings with It became mandatory to conserve energy as costs skyrocketed and
broad shaded porches on the possible unavailability of petroleum products for energy use
all sides, adapted from Eu- loomed as a distinct possibility. Indeed, the energy crisis resulted in
ropean traditions. James a completely new aesthetic expression in architecture, where large
Creighton's Old Main, the areas of south-facing glass, attached greenhouses, dark-· colored
first building on The Uni- Trombe walls, and roof-mounted solar collectors became expressed
versity of Arizona campus, parts of the architecture. This is a contemporary case in which a
is a very effective example newly held value became an architectural issue, just as it had been
of the latter tradition (Figs. for nearly all primitive buildings where energy issues could not be
3-49 and 3-50). Its large ignored. Cases in point are the cool towers and insulating shade
surrounding porches shade structures of the Environmental Research Laboratory (ERL) of The
the walls and windows to University of Arizona (Fig. 3-51).
keep out the heat of the
sun. Its high ceilings and
vented attic remove the
heat from the areas in
Figure 3-49 Old Main: Exterior.
which people work. Its
sunken lower porches take
advantage of both the
shade and the cooling
effect of the surrounding
earth, which serves as a
heat sink to draw heat
away from the area. Even
before air-conditioning
made it possible to
maintain a constant indoor
temperature, it was a very
comfortable building in
which to work.
The energy crisis of the
Figure 3-50 Old Main: Surrounding Porch. 1970s alerted the world,
and especially the architectural profession, to the prospect of a
time when conventional petroleum-based heating and cooling
technologies might not be available. Suddenly a completely new
value, energy, began to have a significant impact on the practice of
architecture. Previously, architects could build buildings without
much concern for orientation, solar penetration, and the like, and
rely on air conditioning run on cheap petroleum-based energy to
overcome the resulting high heating and cooling loads.
Figure 3-51 ERL Cool Tower and Shade Structures.
 106 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 107

The under-window
4" AJA SPACE OVER
10" INSULATION Trombe wall and vented
roof structure of the
Mittal Residence in
Tucson, Arizona, also
exemplify this
contemporary concern
(Fig. 3-52).
The availability of
building materials also
may have a significant
effect on built form.
Since time began,
NORTH
builders (and later ar-
chitects) have used the
most readily available
Figure 3-52 Trombe Wall and Vented Roof.
building materials:
Credit: Robert Hershberger and Nader Chalfoun
timber and stone in
forested mountain ar-
eas; adobe and brick in
desert environments;
reeds, mud, and thatch in tropical regions; ice and animal hides in
arctic areas. Only with modem technology and the resulting
transportation capabilities have many materials become nearly
universally available. Nevertheless, materials still have an impact
on design, depending on their economic availability and appro- Figure 3-53 Entry and Trash Conflict.
priateness relative to conditions of climate, available labor, and
other local conditions. gates, the trash area is immediately adjacent to the covered main
Waste entrance to the restaurant. This exposes customers to the obnox-
ious odors of the decaying food products and to the flies that make
Waste products from buildings and their ultimate disposition is a trash areas their home. It also results in occasional noise and traffic
design problem that rarely receives attention during the program- obstruction by vehicles collecting the trash. This is a terrible way
ming process, but can be an important issue in architecture. In site to handle restaurant waste. The program must make such things
planning, for example, the type and location of dumpsters to clear to the designer.
receive trash can have a major impact on parking and circulation Where to dispose of the collected trash is also a major problem.
layout. Every municipality has its own system for waste pickup In many cities in the southwestern United States, the urban washes
and screening which must be discovered and accommodated. The have been the location of choice for wildcat dumps and even
designer needs to know the particular requirements for locating municipal landfills. These seemed like logical places because
dumpsters so that their placement will not interfere with other occasional flooding made them poor choices for building sites. So,
more important design considerations. A particularly onerous ex- there they were, open and available to receive trash. This has
ample of the misplacement of trash containers is at golf resort created problems with water pollution as the occasional storms and
restaurant (Fig. 3-53). While partially screened behind wooden

.
108 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 109

flooding disrupt the landfill areas and leach contaminants such as Cultural issues are sometimes difficult to distinguish from hu-
TCP into the aquifers. This is not an easy problem to solve. Waste man issues. However, the reader can make the distinction by
recycling programs are one of the obvious ways to reduce the thinking of human issues as those that are immediately involved
problem. Employing only recyclable materials in both building and With the client and users of the building, while cultural issues are
manufacturing processes can also help tremendously. the expectations of society-the community at large. These issues
Similar problems are occurring in rapidly developing suburban vary widely from project to project, but no project is totally immune
and rural areas with wildcat dumping, septic systems, and even to or divorced from cultural influences.
agricultural pesticides and fertilizers that overcome the capability of How people perceive and use space, the meanings they attribute
the surface materials to absorb them so that clear water streams are to various forms, and what they expect in terms of art all relate to
being contaminated by waste products. Here again, recycling com- culture. Virtually every human institution is in some sense a product
bined with carefully planned landfills away from watercourses and of the values of the culture in which it is located. In this section, we
self-contained or development-sized sewer treatment systems can look at several aspects of culture that often have an impact on what
greatly reduce the amount of pollutants reaching the aquifer. Use of is designed.
biodegradable nutrients and biological methods of pest control can
Historical
also help to reduce pollution. In some rapidly growing urban areas,
the existing communities do not have a sufficient tax base to pro-
vide sewage disposal systems. Developers must provide their own In every place in the world, there is a history of development that
systems as part of the overall project. The location of these facilities relates to the particular region and its uman, environmental, cultural,
and their costs have a serious impact on project design. technical, temporal, economic, aesthetic, and safety traditionJ All
Similarly, airborne waste, once unregulated, has become a se- new developments must fit within this cultural context. If the place
rious concern in most states and municipalities, such that special is characterized by a free market economy, the way that buildings
systems in buildings and automobiles are often necessary to reduce are planned, designed, and built will be different from similar
waste products (pollutants) to an acceptable level. Reduction of auto facilities in a centrally controlled economy. If there is a strong
emissions is beginning to have an effect on how we plan and design central gov-
our cities and buildings. Provisions for shorter trips, carpooling, ernment, concerns for
public transportation, and charging electric vehicles may become safety and security
the norm. from unfriendly neigh-
While waste management is rarely a primary issue in the design bors may be dealt with
of buildings, managing waste is nevertheless an important issue and by an armed police
should be valued by anyone not wishing to be unpleasantly force. If there is not a
surprised by its impact on architecture or the surrounding com- strong central govern-
munity. The programmer is responsible for advising clients and ment, it might be nec-
designers about special facility needs in this area. essary to deal with
protection in a more
immediate way, such as
the castles used in feu-
3.3 Cultural Issues
dal times (Fig. 3-54).
Historical If a country has an
Institutional official religion, virtu-
ally all of the institu-
Political tions may revolve
Legal around the precepts of Figure 3-54 Manzanares Real Castle, Spain.
11 O Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 111

that faith. If a country and its people are relatively rich, how It is a much more difficult problem when architects do work in
something is made will be very different from one in which great another country, region, or culture. Without careful environmental
numbers of the people are very poor. This historical background research and sensitivity, there is a good chance that such architects
will establish the cultural context into which any new development will create something appropriate for their own place, but not for
will be placed. It will have a strong impact on what is programmed the place in which the building is to be constructed. There may be
and designed, even if some of the issues are not clearly articulated times of the year when everyone will be on vacation, so no work
by anyone (Hall 1966). can be accomplished, or rainy seasons or other conditions that
There will also be a tradition of language and art that conditions might interfere with construction schedules. Introduction of some
how people actually think, use space, and interpret architectural equipment or systems might guarantee that with the first
forms. In the words of the noted anthropologist Edward Hall, there breakdown, the entire operation would come to a standstill because
will be both a "silent language" and a "hidden dimension" to deal people from the architect's place of residence would have to be
with as the programmer and designer work to achieve architecture brought in to make repairs. This is particularly true in some of the
(Hall 1959, 1966). This is typically no great problem for architects Central and South American countries. There may also be traditions
working in the region in which they live. These traditions will of community life that should be known to the designer, so that if a
likely be an inherent part of the architect's way of dealing with departure from the norm is selected, it will be with an un-
architecture. The same is true for regional building traditions based derstanding of its likely effect. For example, what would be the re-
on available materials and labor. There will be materials that are action to a supermarket in a community accustomed to using an
much less expensive to use than others, and craftsmen available to open market or small neighborhood stores? (Fig. 3-56)
work on one kind of system, but not on another. The Arizona Inn It is important that the architectural program clearly set forth the
by Merrit H. Starkweather in Tucson, Arizona, with its adobe walls, conditions that establish the context for a project to be situated
skylights, trellises, and oasislike courtyards, is a particularly outside of the architectural designer's immediate region. Otherwise,
sensitive example of design for the Sonoran Desert region (Fig. 3- the designer will need to do research on the culture or
55).

Figure 3-55 Arizona Inn. Figure 3-56 Market Place in Curitiba, Brazil.
112 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 113

to rely on intuition appropriate in one place, but possibly not in small stores, galleries, eater-
another. This can lead to problems in getting a design approved, ies, and entertainment to
built, and then properly used and maintained. bring students from the
A particularly interesting commission relating to historical tra- neighboring university and
ditions in our own country dealt with downtown Tempe, Arizona, residents of the community
referred to as "Old Town Mill Avenue." This part of the city was back downtown, especially at
destined, by vote of the city council, for complete demolition and night.
rebuilding at the time when the author had arrived in town as a new The strategy and specific plan
assistant professor, fresh from graduate school in Philadelphia. He were adopted by the city
felt that much of what was to be torn down was quite handsome council. Improvements by the
and capable of restoration, particularly since it had been built some private sector, led by archi-
200 years after many of the still functioning buildings in tects as developers, began al-
Philadelphia. Fortunately, another young architect, Ernest Nickels, most immediately and have
felt similarly and was writing letters to the editor of the local paper continued ever since. The dis-
criticizing the shortsightedness of the decision. trict has quadrupled in size
The author met with Nickels and together they developed a and is the strongest and most
strategy to preserve the area. They helped organize the older res- attractive entertainment dis-
idents and current business owners to resist the urban renewal trict in the metropolitan area.
approach in favor of an old town revitalization program, to bring Interestingly, it has converted
back the lost qualities and to reinvigorate the business climate of a town relying on regional
the district. This group of people ultimately prevailed, and the shopping centers into one that
council reversed their earlier decision and appointed a project area now loves its "open market"
committee to see how this revitalization could be achieved. in the old downtown (Figs. 3-
A year later, the city hired the two young architects, who had 57 and 3-58).
Figure 3-57 Old Town Tempe: Area Plan.
subsequently organized a firm together, to make a thorough study
Creditl Robert Hershbe:_~er and Ernest Nickels Par 3 Studio
of the area and to draft a specific revitalization plan. This was ac- Institutional
complished after a very careful analysis of the district, including
the condition of the old structures, and extensive interaction with If the client is involved with
the project area committee members and other residents and users an activity that has a conti-
of the area. nuity or history of develop-
The proposed plan included reducing traffic on Mill Avenue, ment in society the architect
increasing the sidewalk back to its original generous width, plant- will be designing for a hu-
ing street trees, and adding street furniture and other amenities. It man institution. This is the
also included adding considerable off-street parking and bringing area of value identification to
in new city buildings, a hotel, and some other major business which the architect Louis I.
anchors. The plan included preserving many of the old structures Kahn made such a great
through careful augmentation of seismic capabilities and refur- contribution (Kahn 1961).
bishing exterior materials and finishes, including the additions of What is the nature of the in
canopies and awnings. It also specified signage appropriate to the stitution? What is its reason for
time that the buildings were constructed. The intent was to make being? What is the pur
this an active, pedestrian-oriented shopping district filled with pose for building? These were Figure 3-58 Old Town Tempe: Street Fair.
 114 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 115

important questions that values was consid- Bad Air

Professor Kahn asked ered primary for each Out
for all of his commis- design. For example,
sions, from bathhouses Stanford Hospital
to churches to great re- was conceived by
search institutions. For Edward D. Stone as a
these great research in- place for patients to
stitutions, he realized heal (Fig. 3-62). This
the importance of attitude resulted in a
differentiating between hospital only a few
served and servant stories high, with pa-
spaces, and he made an tient access to patios
architecture that on the ground floor
recognized both types of and views of trees
spaces. This is clearly from upper levels. Its
Figure 3-61 Salk Center: Systems Diagram.
Figure 3-59 Salk Center: Courtyard. the case in the Salk long halls made ac-
Credit: Nancy Cole
Center in La Jolla, cess to patient rooms
California, where he de- inconvenient for the
signed mechanical/ elec- doctors, who gener-
trical floors above and ally prefer high-rise
below laboratory spaces buildings, with eleva-
to allow supply and re- tors for quick access
moval of air, gas, water, to patient areas.
electricity, exhaust, and An even more in-
sewage at any location teresting case is that
in the laboratories (Figs. of the prison or pen-
3-59 through 3-61). itentiary. Are they
If the institution is a institutions whose
hospital, what important primary purpose is
human values are being custody-to keep the
served? Is it a place prisoner away from
where doctors operate?" society? Or are they Figure 3-62 Stanford Hospital: Model.
A place where nurses for therapy-to pre- Photo Credit Office of Communications, Stanford University Medical Center. Permission: From the coll! tion
care? Where patients pare the prisoner to of Lane Medical Library, Stanford University Medical Center
heal? Where patients return to society as
die? Where investors a better person? Or are they for punishment-to make the prisoner
Figure 3-60 Salk Center: Exterior. make a good return on pay a high price for their crime? The prison official's perception of
investment? Or some or all of the above? The institution's essential the role and function of a prison can greatly affect prison design.
place in society should be considered and ar- Robert Sommer ( 197 4) has serious concerns that society in
ticulated so that the designer can express this value in the form, general, and prison institutions in particular, do not have clearly
space, and meaning of the design. Imagine the different hospital defined.values relative to housing social misfits; hence, they
designs that would result if only one of the above institutional cannot decide upon appropriate goals for accommodating these
people (Fig. 3-63).
116 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 117

If the building is to be a city hall, it will have considerable im-

portance within the community, both functionally and symbolically.
What is the nature of a city hall in our culture? Is there a
fundamental difference between a city hall in our country and one
in Mexico, Poland, or Turkey? Is it a place of great power and cen-
tral authority or an easily accessible place to service the people of
the community? This needs to be determined so that the architect
can find an appropriate solution.
In a master planning study for the Miami/Dade County Center,
.. Robert Geddes, Architect, proposed a long, low building rather
than the typical high-rise, feeling that a government center in our
country should be close to the people. He believed that citizens
Figure 3-63 Hard and Soft Prison Spaces. should be able to get to the public service areas without having to
Credit: Goldman and Peatross (1993), 376. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser enter an elevator. Is this a correct understanding of this institution?
Apparently, few big-city governments have come to this
A mental hospital is a similar case relative to the values it realization. Indeed, the programmer for the government center in
should serve in society. If the purpose of the mental hospital is to Miami assumed it would be a high-rise, and developed all of the
prepare people to better cope in society, it seems inherently wrong floor-byfloor spatial relationships typical of high-rises found in
to remove the patients from society and confine them with other Manhattan, where the programming firm was located. And years
persons with similar or worse problems! Our society needs to later when Miami/Dade County actually built the center, it was
define more clearly the purposes of such institutions, or to change comprised of several high-rise buildings, each one for a different
them or the types of patients they house. These are cases where governmental unit. So, how should a governmental center be
established institutions of society may be products of conflicting or organized?
outmoded values. The Boston City Hall
A case for carefully articulated institutional values could be by Kallman, McKinnell
made for practically any human institution: educational, religious, and Knowles was a very
commercial, or residential. What is the true value or purpose of the bold scheme set in a great
airport, the school, the retirement community? What are the urban square (Fig. 3-64).
implications of these values relative to specific goals, objectives, The smaller Tempe City
needs? It is important that the designer know the building's reason Hall by Michael and
for being. Will it be a very important facility for the neighborhood, Kemper Goodwin was
the en_tire community, the state, or even the nation? Or is it only equally strong
intended to serve the purposes of some individual or private conceptually (Fig. 3-65).
organization? What, then, is its appropriate image in the commu- Are they appropriate
nity? Should it be a foreground or background building? Or some- designs?
where in between? What should it communicate to those who pass A very interesting ar-
by, to those who enter, to those who occupy and use the building? chitectural problem that
The programmer has an obligation to make these things clear. The the author dealt with, as
values that an institution embraces should have a strong influence both the programmer and
on its form. If made clear in the program, the designer should be designer, was a training
able to express these values in the resulting architecture. and workshop facility for
handicapped adults. The
organization had always Figure 3-64 Boston City Hall.
118 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 119

The extremely
limited financial
resources of the
organization had to be
directed to expressing
the high quality of the
operation, not just to
providing space to meet
functional requirements.
The design solution was
a simple rectangular
building with flexible
and expandable interior
spaces, but constructed
of high-quality exterior
materials, including an
Figure 3-65 Tempe City Hall.
exterior shade canopy
for breaks and lunches,
that would convey to Figure 3-66 Tempe Center for the Handicapped.
been housed in leased space in existing industrial or warehouse the public the high stan- Credit: Robert Hershberger and l<yun Kim, Hershberger-Kim Architects
facilities. These facilities lacked appropriate spaces for training dards and expectations
activities and flexibility for rapidly changing needs. They were un- of the organization (Fig. 3-66).
satisfactory in terms of convenience and safety for the handicapped The new building's impact on the community was enormous.
workers and projected an inappropriate image. Fortunately, the Tempe Center for the Handicapped became a symbol of a pro-
staff and directors of the facility were able to articulate the true gressive city, recognized for its quality design and used as a prime
nature of the institution. example in the city's successful application for All-American City
The center was not merely a place where handicapped adults . status. More importantly, it was recognized as an institution ca-
could learn to be gainfully employed. The fundamental reason for pable of delivering quality services, and its annual contract work
the facility was the belief that "the handicapped are individuals and community financial support· increased threefold. Applica-
with the potential for growth and development" and that "handi- tions for placement of the handicapped and additional services also
capped individuals have the right to self respect and deserve the increased substantially, such that in just three years the client
opportunity to be contributing members of society." This under- returned to the architect for a major renovation and expansion with
girding value system required that the facility be much more than a cash in hand to pay for it. Virtually every function had outgrown
workshop in a leased industrial space. It had to be a place where its original space allocation. Was this a problem with the original
the handicapped could reach their full potential as contributing program or design? Of course not! In the ten years of existence
members of society. It had to communicate to the occupants and to prior to the building program, the center had a very slight upward
the public at large that individuals with disabilities can be growth curve. Its rapid growth after occupying the new building
contributing and valued members of the community. And, it had to was the result of excellent programming and design.
do this within very severe economic constraints. This was a Although institutional is properly located in the cultural section
considerably different design problem than would have been the
of the HEC'I'TEAS list, the author believes that it is the most
case had the architect only received information on specific
important value area in architectural programming. Indeed, the
functional requirements for the facility.
identification of institutional purpose at the beginning of the
architectural programming activity and within the
120 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 121

program document is important to establish the direction of the rest of Legal

the programming and design activities. If a clear understanding of the Most political decisions
nature and purpose of an organization can be established early in of a community, county,
programming, it is an important step on the way to producing or state become a matter
architecture. To help ensure its place when programming, the author of law. Most states now
thinks of the overall list as "I HECTTEAS" or "I TEST EACH" with require that architects
the letter "I" standing for institutional. have an accredited
professional degree and
Political practical experience, and
that they pass a lengthy
Most communities determine the kind of place they want to be exam to demonstrate their
through political processes. Some seek to be full-service cities, others ability to design buildings
seek to be limited service places, perhaps bedroom communities. Most that will protect the public
eventually evolve general plans that include the infrastructure of the health, safety, and
community: streets, utilities, storm drains, water, sewage treatment, and welfare. This, of course,
the like Location, disposition, and costs to tie in to these services often has had an effect on both
have a strong impact on private building development. Zoning who can practice
regulations spell out the kinds of buildings that can be located in parts arc itecture and the overall
of the community, at what density, to what height, etc. In short, the quality of the built Figure 3-68 City of Tempe: Zoning Requirement
general plans and zoning regulations adopted by communities have a environment (Figs. Credit: City of Tempe, 1996. City Ordinance No. 808, Section 7, Zoning Requirements
significant impact on what can be designed. 3-68 and 3-69).
Most communities also have citizen boards to interpret the general
plans and ordinances and hear citizen and/ or developer appeals for National standards
deviations. The architectural program must identify the various and codes are also
community ordinances and procedures that will affect the design of a adopted by communities
facility. Unusual requirements such as extra large lots or setbacks, as a further means of
height restrictions, or complete storm water retention must be included. protecting the public
If the community has particular re- health, safety, and wel-
quirements for signs or fare. Building, plumbing,
landscaping, these too electrical, and mechanical
should be made known. codes are usually adopted
Communities, through by cities and other
their elected officials, governing authorities.
decide what they want Life safety and
their city to look like, and handicapped standards Figure 3-69 Old Town Tempe: Design Standards.
each building within the are also frequently Credit: Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio, 1973. Old Town Tempe-Mill Avenue Reha-
bilitation Feasibility Study, Tempe Arizona
community must con- adopted that specify how
tribute to that image, or buildings can be
the architect must con- designed and constructed. The architectural programmer must diligently
vince the leaders that a seek out and identify those that apply to the particular pro-. ject under
Figure 3-67 City of Tempe: Sign Requirement.
deviation is appropriate consideration. Here again, if some code requirements are unusual, or a
Credit: City of Tempe, 1996. Sign Regulations. City Ordinance No. 808, Section 7, page 89. (Fig. 3-67). city interprets them differently, or has modified them
122 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 123

for its own purposes, these irregularities should be pointed out in 3.4 Technological Issues
the program.
• Materials
Some architects complain bitterly that codes and ordinances
design their buildings. We are convinced that the architects who • Systems
complain loudest are the ones who did not take time to learn about • Processes
the codes and ordinances during the programming phase and,
hence, were rudely introduced to them after design decisions had Available technology, at least historically, has been one of the
already been made. They were then forced to go back major influences on architecture. If a masonry unit was the only
and redesign to ac material available for construction, the arch was the only way to
commodate the law. span openings. If wood was readily available, timbers and trusses
This hurts! If the were used to span major spaces. The form of the building directly
designer is fully reflected the possibilities of the available materials.
aware of the rules Today, what the architect selects from the tremendous variety
and regulations be- of available building materials, systems, and processes is often a
fore commencing matter of personal preference, based on availability, cost, and aes-
design, the legal re- thetic potential. Whether any of the technological selections be-
quirements become come an important part of the architectural expression is usually at
just another design the designer's discretion.
issue. Generally,
regulations to pro- Materials
tect the public
Occasionally, a client will have a very strong preference for one
health and safety are
material or another and may insist that the preferred material be
neither arbitrary nor
used in a project. This is often the case in housing, where some
capricious. Nor are
people have a strong preference for masonry and others for wood
they there to give
construction. It also occurs in other building types, depending on
architects a hard
material and installation costs and the client's previous experience
time. Indeed, as one
with particular materials. There are also preferences that relate to
of my colleagues, a
the historic availability of materials and skilled craftsmen in the
structural engineer,
region where a building is to be constructed. The programmer,
has told his stu-
while not dictating the choice of materials for the building, should
dents, "They are
include client preferences or requirements in the program so the
there because some-
designer will be able to give these materials special consideration
body got killed!"
when developing the form of the building. This includes structural
(Sheydayi 1985).
materials such as wood, masonry, steel, and concrete, as well as
They provide
finish materials such as plaster, wall board, marble, brick, tile,
important
glass, and aluminum.
programmatic
For example, the author programmed and designed a medium-
information that can
sized landscape nursery for a client who had purchased hundreds of:
have a profound im-
Figure 3-70 Uniform Building Code. used 12" x 12" Douglas fir timbers from a Central Arizona Project
pact on design (Fig.
Reproduced from the Uniform Building Code™, copyright© 1994, with the permission of the publisher, the In· 3-70).
ternational Conference of Building Officials
124 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 125

trestle bridge. The client to meet other goals and requirements of the
wanted to use them in the pro8!am.
nursery facility. What an Mechanical and electrical systems can also be
opportunity! The limited identified during programming. One client may
project budget would not have a strong preference for fluorescent over in-
have allowed the purchase candescent lighting because of the economics of
of new timbers of this size operation. Another client may prefer incandescent
(Figs. 3-71 and 3-72). over fluorescent lighting because of the quality of
the light. One client may prefer to heat and cook
Systems
with gas, while another may prefer 'electricity.
Preferences and decisions Some clients may insist on dropped, easily
about systems should be maintained ceiling surfaces for quick cleaning and
handled in a manner similar easy access to mechanical and electrical systems
to that used for construction and equipment, while others may wish to have a
materials.Structural systems more formal plastered or paneled ceiling, and still
vary depending on the others may be willing to expose all systems and
nature of the materials used. have no ceiling at all.
Figure 3-71 Greenworld Nursery: Structure. For the American Pavilion
(Fig. 3-73) at the Montreal In the Richards Building (Fig. 3-75) and the Figure 3-73 American Pavilion: Interior.
World's Fair, R. Buckmin- Salk Center, Louis I. Kahn determined that there
ster Fuller and Shoji Sodao needed to be entire structures devoted to
chose to use lightweight handling the various mechanical,
steel members to construct plumbing, and electrical systems. In
their noted geodesic dome. the Richards Building, the systems
The Cambridge Seven used were housed in separated towers and
a contrasting structure of delivered to the spaces through ex-
concrete to differentiate the posed verandale trusses supporting
internal exhibit from the each floor. The fresh air intakes were
enclosing structure. at the lower level of the towers located
Norman Foster used ex- on the south side and the exhaust was
posed structural members to at the top of dissimilar towers located
construct the exquisitely on the other sides of the building. This
detailed Hong Kong and solved the problem of possible
Shanghai Bank (Fig. 3- 7 4). contamination of the air supply and
If a particular system is expressed the differences with the bold
required by the client, it forms used in the design.
must be noted in the pro- Aldo Giurgola of Mitchell/Giurgola
gram. Generally, however, Architects saw a similar potential for
structural systems tend to be the mechanical systems in high- rise
Figure 3-72 Greenworld Nursery: Entry. selected by the designer buildings, which are often hidden in
penthouses at the tops of these build- Figure 3-74 Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank.
ings or in basement service areas. For Credit Carl Okazaki
 126 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 127

the Two INA Plaza

building in Philadel-
phia, Giurgola chose to
locate these systems
near the center point of
the building and used
the location as a
primary aesthetic ex-
pression of the building
(Fig. 3-76).
Other architects,
such as Hardy, Holz-
man and Pfeiffer, ex-
pose brightly colored
mechanical systems as
Figure 3-75 Richards Building: Systems. significant elements of
Credit: Nancy Cole architectural expres-
sion, even in major Figure 3-77 Multi-Tenant Facility.
public buildings where Photo Credit: Simon Scott. Permission: Che-Cheung Poon
all systems have traditionally been
kept hidden. The Discovery Park
Multi-Tenant Facility by Russell
Vandiver Architects Partnership in
Vancouver, British Columbia, is a
good example of mechanical ducts
being used as elements of
architectural expression (Fig. 3- 77).
If the architect is not sensitive to
the aesthetic potential of systems,
they can destroy the building's ap-
pearance. Probably the most usual
situation is one in which interior
equipment requires large and possibly
unsightly elements on the roof. The
programmer should make the
designer aware of this fact. Other- Figure 3-78 Unsightly Rooftop Equipment.
wise, the result could be disastrous
from an aesthetic standpoint. A glar- The program needs to state if the client, users, or community
ing and ironic example of unsightly prefer or require a particular material or system. The designer, hav-
unscreened mechanical equipment is ing been apprised of these preferences or requirements, can evalu-
on the roof of the Arizona State Uni- ate their appropriateness and incorporate them into the design or try
Figure 3-76 Two INA Plaza. versity Art Annex (Fig. 3-78). to convince the client, user, or community why the preferred
 128 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 129

material or system would not be appropriate. While some may ar- If an architect uses free-
gue that no one but the architect should have any say as to mate- hand sketches during the de-
rials and systems selection, the reality of who is approving the sign process, his/her buildings
design, paying the bills for construction, and ultimately main- are likely to be less rectilinear
taining the building, dictates that it is appropriate to let the de- than buildings by architects
signer know the preferences of these people. · who rely on a straightedge
while designing. Erich
Processes Mendelsohn often used
freehand charcoal or soft
The effect of process on architecture is very significant but is pencil sketches during design,
rarely consciously planned. The architect who proceeds without a which allowed
program will program the building through design. This is an in- ·.him to develop very fluid, dy-
efficient process that generally re- namic, and organic-appearing Figure 3-81 Einstein Tower: Architect's Sketch.
sults in a substantially different buildings. This was certainly Permission: Staaliche Museen PreuBischer l<ulturbezitz, l<unstbibliothek, Berlin
building than one based on a writ- true of the Einstein Tower
ten program. Similarly, the meth- (Figs. 3-81 and 3-82) designed
ods, techniques, and tools employed by Mendelsohn in Potsdam
in the design process have a pro- (Hart 1995).
found influence on the resulting ar- The author, using freehand
chitecture. A designer who really pencil sketches in the early
understands the client's and user's stages of design, often devel-
values, and who has discovered the ops irregular forms, as can be
fundamental nature of the institu- seen in the sketch plan and el-
tion, is likely to produce a very dif- evation for the Thirsty Earth
ferent building than an architect Museum project (Figs. 3-83
who is concerned only with provid- and 3-84).
Figure 3-79 Unitarian Church: Exterior. ing the required spaces, in proper Designers who use chip-
Credit: Carl Okazaki relationships, within the client's board or clay models are likely.
budget. Similarly, if a designer uses to generate forms that are in
a parallel bar and a 30-60 degree some way a reflection of these
triangle as the . principal tools for media. Similarly, the ease of
design, he/she is likely to end up drawing and building radially
with a building characterized by defined curves with computer-
right and possibly 30-60 degree aided design (CAD) systems is
angles in its form. Frank Lloyd reflected in the designs by Figure 3-82 Einstein Tower: Exterior.
Wright was known for designing firms using these systems. Photo Credit: Vaughn Hart
with a 'I'-square and a 30-60-90 The firm of Eric Owen
degree triangle. The Unitarian Moss Architects combines
Church in Madison, Wisconsin, is free-
one example of his using this com- hand sketching and computer imaging in their design process. The
Figure 3-80 Unitarian Church: Plan. bination during design (Figs. 3-79 Exhibition Hall for Imagina published in Architectural Record
Credit: Carl Okazaki and 3-80).
(Novitski 1996) involved videoconferencing to cornmu-. nicate the
design to a collaborating architect and client based in Monaco.
These methods help the firm imagine and develop the
130 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 131

highly innovative de-

signs that characterize
their work (Figs. 3-85
and 3-86).

Construction proc-
esses also can have an
impact on the form of a
building. A case in point
is the Hilton Palacio Del
Rio Hotel by Cerna and
Garza, Architects, built
along the Riverwalk in
San Antonio prior to the
1968 world's fair. It Figure 3-85 Exhibition Hall: Sketches.
was not possible to Credit and Permission: Eric Owen Moss Architects
have the building ready
for the fair using con-
ventional design and
building processes. The
architect developed a
design that allowed
room units to be com-
pleted and furnished in
advance of completion
of the building structure,
so that when the
structure was in place
Figure 3-83 Thirsty Earth Museum: Plan.
these room systems,
including furnishings,
could be inserted within
the structural
framework,
and the hotel could be Figure 3-86 Exhibition Hall: Computer Image.
ready for immediate Architect: Eric Owen Moss. Design Team: Paul Groh, Scott Nakao and Gevik Hovsepian. Computer Image
and Photo Credit: Paul Groh. Permission: Eric Owen Moss Architects.
occupancy. This fast-
tracking of construc-
tion became a dominant theme in the design of the building (Fig. 3-8
7).
A similar need for fast-tracking resulting in a very different
~:!.1,~~--- modular solution can be found in the Habitat Housing project by
Moshe Safde for the Montreal World's Fair in 1967 (Fig. 3-88).
Figure 3-84 Thirsty Earth Museum: Sketch
132 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager !lalues Become Issues 133

second phase of design and construction, and so on, until the ca-
3.5 Temporal Issues 0
pacity of the site is reached. At such time, the church faces the
Growth prospect of limiting growth; finding a new, larger site and
beginning the process of growth again; or possibly spinning off
Change
smaller mission churches to absorb additional growth. In many
Permanence cases, initial worship facilities are en-
Time has an impact on architecture in a larged to achieve greater
variety of ways (Duffy 1990; Brand 1994). capacity. In other cases,
It can impact the design and construction old worship facilities are
processes, as discussed under process converted to new uses,
issues. It can also have a very strong such as education· or fel-
influence on the design of institutions that lowship, which often re-
are characterized by growth and change, as quire less space, and a
well as for buildings that are intended to last new worship facility is
a very long time-where permanence is built. It is important that
highly valued. the growth potential in
Figure 3-87 Hilton Hotel Under Construction. churches be recognized
Growth
Credit: Carl Okazaki as an issue in the initial
Most design commissions are for buildings planning and program-
[iliat will be expanded in the future to reflect ming, so that adequate
natural growth in the organizatioriJ In fact, provision can be made
most successful enterprises will expand nu- for future additions and
merous times during their existence. Some- new facilities. If this is
times this can be done on the original site. not done, it is likely Figure 3-89 Covenant Baptist Church: Model.
Often, an organization will have to move to that future work will be
a new location because their existing site is hampered by facilities
not large enough to accommodate additional located in inappropriate
building expansion. places.
Churches can be striking examples of The master plan for
this kind of growth. They often begin with a Covenant Baptist Church
small group of people in a home, grow into a by Hershberger Kim Ar-
rented facility, and then into a first small chitects includes a future
building of their own. If they have the finan- sanctuary, classrooms,
cial resources or denominational support, and expanded parking
they generally purchase a parcel of land of (Figs. 3-89 and 3-90).
sufficient size to accommodate the projected The architectural pro-
future growth, but begin with only one or grammer must discover
two buildings of sufficient size to accommo- if the facility being pro-
date their present congregation plus space grammed has a potential
for modest growth. Once the first phase is for growth, determine in
complete and the size of the congregation is what particular areas and
Figure 3-88 Habitat Housing. near capacity, the church typically begins a what manner the growth Figure 3-90 Covenant Baptist Church: Exterior.
134 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 135

is most likely to occur, and include strategies acceptable to the client

for accommodating the growth. This is probably one of the most
glaring omissions in many traditional programs. It results in added
future costs to clients when they discover that growth is difficult or
even impossible to accommodate, given the locations of existing
facilities on the site.

change
well-designed buildings are able to accommodate changes in oc-
cupants or occupant needs.A characteristic of university buildings is
the likelihood of internal change. It is a rare academic building that
serves the same purpose for long periods of time. A
building may begin as a multipurpose
liberal arts college for a number of de-
partments, be taken over by one de-
partment as others move out to new
facilities, then be given over to still
another department as the first outgrows
the facility and moves into another
larger facility. Between actual moves,
there may be constant internal change as
the departmental focus moves from
teaching to research or service, as
equipment and furnishings are
modernized, as new faculty are fitted
into already crowded offices, and so on. Figure 3-92 Citicorp Center: Plan of Tower ..
The programmer must discover if the Adapted from the preliminary design drawings of HSA. Permission: The Stubbins Associates
need for change is characteristic of the
building being programmed.
High-rise buildings have similar Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels of Par 3 Studio designed a
needs to accommodate change. The relocatable church in which change was a crucial issue. The
Citicorp Center in Manhattan, New denomination's board for new church development wanted a church
York, designed by The Stubbins As- building that could be placed on the permanent site at the time that a
sociates Inc. (TSA), has, like most high- minister was assigned. The client believed that quality facilities for
rise office buildings, an unobstructed exclusive use of the new congregation would enhance church growth
span from the central core to the and commitment. The intent was to have this relocatable church on the
exterior wall to allow the flexible site no longer than five years, when it would be moved to another site
partition system to accommodate in the region to begin another new church. This would give the
changing tenants and uses over time founding congregation three years to establish itself, to hire an
Figure 3-91 Citicorp Center: Exterior.
(Figs. 3-91 and 3-92). architect to design permanent
Photo Credit: Edward Jacoby. Permission: The Stubbins Associates
136 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager l!alues Become Issues 137

facilities, and to have

them built and ready to
occupy before the relo-
catable facility would be
moved (Fig. 3-93).
In order to accom-
modate this program for
change, the author's firm
proposed using four
completely finished and
transportable units built
off-site, which could be
moved down the high-
way on "low-boy" trailer
units and assembled on-
site to form a 50-foot-
CHURCH SCHOOL FELLOWSHIP
square facility.
The assembled unit
Figure 3-93 Relocatable Church: Concept. further responded to
change to meet the pro-
grammatic requirement
that the church accommodate all typical activities of a congrega-
tion of 100 persons. In order to accomplish this within a very re-
stricted budget, it was necessary to have a facility that could
quickly change to first accommodate church school, then worship,
and then fellowship-all in the same morning. The design included
moveable sound partitions and furnishings that are easily stacked,
moved, reassembled, or stored to meet this requirement.
All of this accommodation for change was done in the context
of other important issues such as the functional requirements for
education and fellowship being met in a facility that is aesthetically
satisfactory for worship. The relocatable building also needed to be
attractive enough to be welcome in newly developing upscale
neighborhoods.
Jon Jerde's design for Horton Plaza (Fig. 3-94), a major shop- Figure 3-94 Horton Plaza: Mall.
ping center in downtown San Diego, also responded to require-
ments for change, but in a slightly different way. Jerde speaks
about "scripting" places in the city for a variety of uses at different ticularly successful at designing for these changes, because he rec-
times of the day, week, and year, so that changing activities can be ognized change as a crucial urban design issue.
accommodated seamlessly (jerde 1992). He has been par- Most building types are affected by the need to change inter-
nally as technologies become obsolete and new equipment and
 138 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 139

systems are introduced. It is often hard to predict the nature of this Even buildings constructed
kind of change. In addition, the demands of new technology are for world's fairs are often
often so specific that modifications of facilities are difficult to intended to remain long
make, sometimes resulting in extremely high remodeling and ren- after the event is over as
ovation costs. Making spaces more general, with free spans from functional or symbolic
exterior wall to exterior wall will help to accommodate change. parts of the city in which
Oversizing of ducts, chases, and other service systems is another the fair was held. This was
strategy that helps to mitigate such problems. Providing for ease of certainly the case for the
expansion can also be helpful. Seattle World's Faircity
Some buildings change even more dramatically. World fair ex- officials and planners
hibition buildings are often designed to be dismantled at the end of decided that the fair was a
the fair, so other uses can be made of the fairground site. Other great opportunity to de-
structures, like those for circuses, are designed to be erected and velop needed permanent
dismantled repeatedly in different locations. The tent structure buildings for the commu-
designed by Richard Larry Medlin for a ten-day concert series in nity. So, they planned
Big Sky, Montana, was intended to be this kind of temporary quite a number of struc-
structure (Fig. 3-95). tures, including the Space
The character of this Needle and Monorail (Fig.
kind of temporary struc- 3-96), for use after the fair
ture varies considerably was over. The same has
from buildings intended occurred for buildings
to remain in one planned for most of the
location. They must be fairs and Olympic celebra-
easily assembled and tions that have been held
dismantled, lightweight, throughout the world.
and made of relatively There is also a need for
short members so that certain buildings that will
they can be shipped from last a long time and the
one site to another. client or society at large Figure 3-96 Space Needle and Monorail.
will value for their perma-
nence. Key governmental
Permanence buildings or monuments
The ftip side of growth to great leaders, such as those found in the capitols of countries
and change is the issue of around the world, are excellent examples. The people of each
permanence. Most country want these buildings to be permanent symbols of their
buildings are intended to national culture. Therefore, such buildings need to be constructed of
have a long life, even materials and systems of the highest quality and permanence, so
though there may be re- they will last as long as the country itself. Clearly, the United States
peated remodelings or Capitol (Fig. 3-97) is intended to last this long.
Figure 3-95 Tent Structure. additions to accommo- What about other buildings? Which buildings in society should
Credit Richard Larry Medlin Architect, Inc. date needed change. be the most permanent? For which should the image of permanence
140 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 141

chitects will be over money-something costing more than the client

expected. The bottom line, as far as most clients are concerned, is
what the project is going to cost.
Often, clients seem to be most concerned with the initial con-
struction cost, or even the amount of the architect's fees. They want
to keep both as low as possible. However, in the 1980s the very
high interest rates for construction and permanent financing,
steadily increasing energy costs, and realization that costs for op-
erations and maintenance go on for the life of the building made it
apparent to many clients that life cycle costs are really much more
important (Crosbie 1994). Financing costs go on for up to thirty
years, usually at a constant level. The costs of operations,
maintenance, and energy continue and usually increase over the life
of a building. Thus, a building constructed of cheap materials and
systems may soon lose the benefit of low initial cost because of
substantial operations, maintenance, and energy costs.
An unrealistically low architect's fee is likely to result in in-
creases in all of these costs because of the resulting lack of careful
planning and design. It takes time to solve the functional and tech-
Figure 3-97 United States Capitol.
nical problems of building. It takes even more time to compare the
Photo Credit: Howard Olson
life cycle costs of various materials and systems. The most effective
money that the client can spend to solve these problems will be for
be an important characteristic of the architecture? Which buildings architectural services, including architectural programming.
should be readily capable of change of one type or another? Which It is also a truism that clients very soon forget their willingness
buildings will continue to grow over long periods of time? to accept lower quality to obtain a building within a fixed budget.
Programmers should give some attention to these questions for Once built and occupied, clients always expect the building to
each new design problem. perform as if only the highest quality materials and systems were
installed. It is mandatory, therefore, to precisely spell out in the
program what the owner is willing to accept initially, so that sub-
3.6 Economic Issues sequent misunderstandings can be resolved without added cost to
• Finance the programmer or to the architect.
• Construction Finance
• Operations Project financial feasibility analysis is an important pre-design
• Maintenance service for most commercial, industrial, and housing facilities. It
involves both market assessment and financial planning for the
• Energy
project. If there is no market for a particular facility, it matters little
Concern for cost may be of little interest to the student, novice how well it is designed-it is likely to fail. This is not simply a
programmer, or designer. But anyone who has been professionally matter of whether a facility can be located in a particular area.
involved for some time in either programming or design will agree Market analysis must establish the appropriate size of the facility,
that the most frequent misunderstandings between clients and ar- the acceptable level of quality, and even the types of amenities
142 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 143

that can be absorbed within the current market. The financial analysis then the client can either raise the budget to ob-
must then establish an acceptable project cost, given current costs of tain what is needed, reduce space requirements,
construction, the cost of financing, comparable property costs/rental quality of materials or systems, or use other
rates, expected profitability, and the like. Such studies are not always strategies to allow the project to proceed. The
a direct part of programming, and if not, usually precede costs of making adjustments are less during pro-
programming to determine if the project is feasible and, if so, to help gramming stage than in any other stage of the
establish the size and quality of the project. design/construction process. A simple and direct
For example, a financial feasibility study for a speculative office statement of maximum construction cost such as
building would identify the current market conditions; the likely the one below can do much to keep both the
types and numbers of tenants; the lease rates that can be expected; client and the designer from attempting to obtain
availability of financing, including points and interest rates; the Figure 3-98 Construction Cost Card.
more than the budget will allow (Fig. 3-98).
square footage costs allowable for construction; typical square
footage requirements for prospective tenants; reasonable bay sizes to
accommodate typical tenants; and various amenity requirements such Operations
as exterior windows and landscaping.
It is advisable for the novice programmer to retain professionals Costs of operating a facility are not independent of either program-
capable of conducting market studies and developing financing ming or design. In programming, it is necessary to understand and set
packages in order to be certain that various assumptions made in the forth information that directly relates to operating costs. If a client
programming studies are credible. intends to retain one doorman to monitor all ingress and egress from
the building and parking, this must be clearly stated. A design
Construction requiring several doormen or sophisticated electronic equipment to
monitor a facility could seriously jeopardize the financial feasibility
A building whose cost exceeds budget can be devastating to both the of a project. Inefficient planning of office or industrial space,
client and the architect. if discovered during programming, excessive requiring additional personnel or causing extra time to be consumed
building costs can be eliminated by reducing either the size of the in developing a product, could also seriously impact operating costs.
project or the quality of materials and systems. On the other hand, this Ineffective programming relating to the client's plan for operating a
can involve the architect in a substantial amount of redesign if not facility can have a serious negative financial impact. This is
discovered early in the design process. If excess costs are discovered important information that must be included in the program!
during bidding, after many months have been spent in developing
detailed construction documents, it can cost the client considerably in
terms of lost time, temporary facilities costs, land holding costs, Maintenance
financing costs, or inflation of construction costs. It can cost the Maintenance, like operations, is often overlooked in programming
architect, too, if the agreement stipulates that redesign will be at the because of the client's desire to obtain a building at the least initial
architect's expense. If discovered during the course of construction cost. However,with many materials and nearly all systems, initial
because of inadequate programming or construction documents, costs are inversely related to maintenance costs. if inexpensive, low-
increased costs can be disastrous, sometimes resulting in bankruptcy quality materials or systems are used in design, they typically require
for the client and lawsuits against the programmer and the architect. greater maintenance and earlier replacement than higher quality
Careful delineation of the building budget and accurate assess- products. Roofing systems, for instance, vary greatly in initial cost
ment of probable construction costs in the architectural program are and in durability over time, but almost invariably those which cost the
the most beneficial and least costly ways to ensure that a project can least require the greatest maintenance and earliest replacement. On
proceed within the client's budgetary limitations. If, at this point, it is the other hand, elaborate landscaping or luxurious interior materials
clear that the desired facility cannot be built within the budget, and treatments may require care beyond the owner's maintenance
budget.
144 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 145

If a client absolutely must obtain a facility of a certain size for a the heat gain on the east-, south-, and west-facing walls, they de-
very limited construction cost, it may be necessary for the designer signed a number of sun control devices that also provide the pri-
to utilize some high maintenance systems to stay within the mary aesthetic expression for the building. The energy savings
construction budget. In this case, the responsibility in program- resulting from this design feature resulted in the elimination of a
ming is to clearly set forth that the value of the size of the facility 1,000-ton chiller and all of the accompanying annual energy costs
exceeds the value of potential maintenance costs, and that the (Larson 1997).
client is willing to assume the liability for the increased mainte- The cost of construction is a one-time event or, more typically, is
nance costs. Or, perhaps in so stating in the first draft of a program, spread over a number of years with a constant monthly mortgage
the client(s) will realize that they are unwilling to carry such high payment. The costs of operations, maintenance, and energy, . on the
maintenance costs, and they will either reduce the amount of space other hand, continue for the life of the building and, in an
required or increase the budget to a level where the needed space •inflationary economy, can increase to become major costs. It is
can be obtained at an acceptable level of maintenance cost. important that both client and designer know the relative impor-
tance and magnitude of each of these costs, so that no misunder-
Energy standing will be manifested in the design. The best time to make
In Section 3.2 we discussed energy as an environmental issue. In these determinations is during the programming process. It can be
the context of this section, however, energy costs are considered as very costly to make them later.
a subset of operating costs. A recent project in which the author
served as both programmer and designer brought home the
seriousness of energy costs. In an effort to reduce initial con- 3.7 Aesthetic Issues
struction cost, client, architect, and engineer decided to use pack-
age air conditioning equipment with electrical heat strips instead • Form
of heat pumps or gas-fired heat- • Space
ing. While the initial building
• Meaning
costs were somewhat lower, the
heating bills were so high that Although most clients consider economics to be the bottom
the owner decided to retrofit the line, many architects see aesthetics as the bottom line. This con-
original units with gas to reduce cern for aesthetics separates architects from most engineers and
the operating costs to an afford- other participants in the building. industry. The "art" of architec-
able level. Here, the operating ture is what motivates most designers. This comes from the archi-
costs were shown to be much tect's view of self as artist and relates to the architect's developed
more important than the initial preferences for form, space, and meaning when responding to the
project costs. The client should other issues affecting design. However, most architects also want
be made aware that lower oper- to understand and express the aesthetic preferences of clients,
ating costs are sometimes pur- users, and society in the design. And, nearly all clients and users
chased with higher initial costs! have legitimate goals and needs relative to the physical appearance
Langdon Wilson Architecture of the buildings they occupy. They may wish to express the nature
Planning Interiors, designers of of their enterprise to the rest of the community; prefer certain
the new Phoenix City Hall, were materials, shapes, and colors; have strong preferences as to
concerned with the operating how the building should relate to its context; and so on.
Figure 3-99 Phoenix City Hall.
costs of this high-rise building This does not mean that the architect must utilize all of the,
Photo Credit: Timothy Hursley, The Arkansas Studio. Permission: Langdon Wilson Archi-
tecture Planning Interiors
(Fig. 3-99). In order to control client's aesthetic preferences in the design. It means only that the
146 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 147

architect should know about these preferences and make an effort to

understand them, so they can be taken into account during design. The
responsibility of the programmer relative to aesthetic concerns of the
client, user, and community is to communicate the preferences to the
architect.

Form
Many communities have ordinances that are quite specific in terms of
the acceptable form of buildings, signs, parking, and landscape areas.
They define maximum heights, setbacks, land coverage, and the like,
all of which have important effects on building form. Some
municipalities even specify acceptable openings on facades relative to
neighboring land or buildings. Signs are often limited in terms of their
size, shape, color, and location. Parking is similarly restricted in terms
of location and requirements for lighting and screening. Landscape
areas are sometimes specified in terms of size, location, and
acceptable planting materials. Some planned communities go still Figure 3-100 Seaside: Street View.
Photo Credit: Xavier Iglesias. Permission: Duany/Plater-Zyberk & Company
further, in specifying acceptable materials and colors for buildings.
At least one planned community in Arizona permits only earth
tone colors for building materials, prohibits roof-mounted air con-
ditioning equipment including evaporative coolers, specifies how
solar collectors must be placed and screened, and dictates location,
height, and style of fences and freestanding walls within setback
areas. These restrictions on form are quite common and need to be
described in the program.
Building owners and clients also have preferences for form. If
there are existing buildings to which the new building will relate,
many owners will insist that the new building conform in terms of
color, materials, or configuration. This is often the case for university
campuses. The administration or regents determine if a consistent
design image for buildings is desirable. Indeed, clients responsible for
a large number of buildings in one geographic area will often have a
design review policy, which typically requires that individual
buildings conform in some respect to a larger design idea.
Seaside, a new community in Florida planned by Andres Duany
and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, is a case in point (Figs. 3-100 and 3-
101). They developed not only the planning and urban design scheme,
but also a set of design guidelines that they refer to as an "Urban
Code"-relating to yard setbacks, height requirements,
Figure 3-101 Seaside: Yard View. Photo
Credit: Duany/Plater-Zyberk & Company
 Values Become Issues 149
148 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

parking, and even specific

elements such as porches,
balconies, and roof slopes,
in order to ensure that the
community's desired char-
acter would be achieved
and maintained.
The clients may also
have preferences for spe-
cific forms. Some will in-
sist on pitched roofs
because of an earlier bad
experience with leaks from
flat roofs. Some will insist
upon certain materials and
appearances because they
want to appeal to a certain
market. Occasionally, a
client will insist on a
specific product because
Figure 3-102 Rollo Industrial Building: Plans.
they make it, own it, or
have special reason to use
it. Each desired product
will, of course, have im-
Figure 3-104 Rollo Industrial Building: Pipes.
portant formal implications
for design. The program
must clearly articulate all
formal preferences so that
the architect can consider
them in design.
The design for the I-3
Industrial Building by Her-
shberger Kim Architects
utilized giant concrete
pipes for the window
openings at the request of
the owner, an underground
contractor (Figs. 3-102
through 3-105). The
designers considered this
an opportunity to do Figure 3-105 Rollo Industrial Building: Court.
Figure 3-103 Rollo Industrial Building: Exterior.
 150 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 151

something more figural than normal in a speculative industrial

building. The large pipes became part of a facade stretching the
entire width of the property in order to provide more presence to
the building, following some of the thinking of Robert Venturi
(1977). The balance of the building is less than half of the site's
width, as can be seen on
the site plan diagram
(right side) and court
view.
Frank Gehry has
proven to be a contem-
porary master of form,
with many of his innov-
ative structures using
materials, systems, and
form in new and un- Figure 3-107 Guggenheim Museum: Exterior.
usual ways. The Norton
Residence at the beach
walk in Venice, Califor- rior as moving as the art being exhibited.
nia, is one of many of The exterior form as a reflection of the in-
his very fresh and excit- terior spatial organization gives a preview
ing designs (Fig. 3- of the form to be found in the interior.
106). Le Corbusier showed his mastery of
both space and form in a beautiful chapel
Space at the small nunnery in Ronchamp,
Space preferences can France. The dramatic form of the build-
be very important to ing's exterior, said to resemble a nun's cap,
some clients. That space created an implied exterior spate at the
is the essence of archi- crown of the hill for outside services.
tecture is argued eff ecti Inside is one of the most potent, moving,
vel y by Bruno Zevi spiritual spaces the author has ever expe-
(1957) and shown dra- rienced, with its floating roof form and the
matically by some of mysterious play of light created by the
the masters of modem splayed openings at the windows
architecture. Frank (Figs. 3-109 through 3-111).
Lloyd Wright is Architects like Mies van der Rohe
considered the master treated space in a very different way, cre-
of masters in this ating universal spaces (Hoag 1977) that .
regard. His can be used in a variety of ways and, with
Guggenheim Museum interior furnishings, adapted to the
Figure 3-106 Norton Residence. (Figs. 3-107 and 3-108) particular needs of the occupants. This is Figure 3-108 Guggenheim Museum: Interior.
is the extreme case-the
spatial experience on
the inte-
152 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 153

to adapt their spaces to fre-

quently changing educational
approaches. CRS's Fodera
School in Columbus, Indiana,
is an excellent example of the
freedom and architectural
interest of open space planning
(Fig. 3-112).
In both offices and resi-
dences, some clients prefer an
open plan, while others are
more comfortable in clearly
defined rooms. Some people
enjoy high, lofty spaces while
others prefer lower, more inti-
Figure 3-109 Ronchamp: Exterior. mate spaces for essentially
identical activities. It is appro-
priate to advise the designer as
to the type of person(s) who
Figure 3-111 Ronchamp: Plan.
will be occupying the build-
Credit: Carl Okazaki
ing. There is perhaps nothing
more troubling to a designer
than to return to a building
where the aesthetic qualities
have been destroyed by users
who violate the spatial order
of the original design.
One of the author's profes-
sors in graduate school, a
highly respected designer, told
the story of a house for which
the client had given him a free
hand in design, but who in oc-
Figure 3-110 Ronchamp: Interior. cupying the house had subdi-
vided the major rooms with
a very sensible approach in many office and institutional settings, partitions and painted the
where the only constant is change. In these cases, a very special- previously white sculptured
ized space will soon be outmoded and likely will be expensive to walls chartreuse and pink. He
alter to meet the changing needs of the organization. lamented that he could have
CRS, through their programming activities, took a leadership designed a very nice building
Figure 3-112 Fodera School.
position in the design of open classroom schools which allow with smaller spaces and even
teachers
 154 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Values Become Issues 155

using those colors, if the client had let him know what she preferred. Some companies have an
Once constructed and occupied, the architect has little or no control image that they try to main-
over changes to the design. The designer's best defense is to know tain wherever they locate
and respond to what the client values in such a way that the client new buildings. This is par-
will not want to alter the aesthetic statement. ticularly true of some hotel,
motel, and restaurant chains.
An architect agreeing to
Meaning
design one of these buildings
Some clients have a desire to communicate a spe- must accept and express
cific image to the community and perhaps to the these required symbols in the
building's users. Sometimes the image involves a design of the new · building.
level of quality or concern that needs to be con- Still other building types are
veyed to the users. At other times, the image re- characterized by more or less
. lates to specific referential meanings. Occasionally, traditional typologies which
the desired meaning is more emotional or affective come to have a particular
(Hershberger 1969). meaning. This is true for
certain religious Figure 3-115 Plazzetto Zuccari: Entry.
Many clients simply want a building that ap-
pears to have been designed and constructed with denominations, and was once Credit: Belinda Watt

care. This sort of meaning is easy to achieve and the case for banks, theaters,
gives the architect great freedom in determining and many other institutions.
which other values to express. Other clients want If there is some desired
to make a unique statement that conveys the spe- referential meaning, then the
cial qualities of their organization or product. The designer needs to be
Lever House by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill; the informed in the program. It is
Seagram Building by Mies van der Rohe; and the still within the architect's
General Motors Technical Center by Eero Saarinen power to decide how this
Figure 3-113 AT&T Headquarters. meaning will be interpreted
Credit: Carl Okazaki were all such buildings and
in the design.
have brought great public
The meaning of the entry
recognition to their companies.
at the Plazzetto Zuccari is
More recently, the American
one of the most direct and
Telephone and Telegraph
potent referential uses of the
Headquarters building by
human figure to convey an
Johnson and Burgee, with its
idea about what it would be
"Chippendale" top, has served
like to enter a building (Fig.
the same purpose (Fig. 3-113).
3-115).
The broken facades of the
Best Company buildings by Eero Saarinen' s TWA Figure 3-116 TWA Terminal: Exterior.
SITE Architects, even with
Terminal at LaGuardia Air-
great individual variety, have
port in New York City has been characterized as an eagle about to
also served to produce a na-
take off, as is evident in the exterior view. Its curving sinuous lines
tional image for this company
Figure 3-114 Best Company Building: Entry. and ample skylighting convey the image of loftiness and even flight
(Fig. 3-114).
Credit: Carl Okazaki on the interior (Fig. 3-116 and 3-11 7).
 Values Become Issues 157
156 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Affective meaning is
also highly prized by some
clients. Certain church
clients want worship spaces
that will move people to-
ward a more spiritual feel-
ing. Some governmental
monuments commemorat-
ing heroes of one kind or
another should instill some
sense of reverence or awe in
observers. The Vietnam
War Memorial by Maya
Ying Lin is a special exam-
ple of such a monument
Figure 3-117 TWA Terminal: Interior. (Fig. 3-118).
The Franklin Court Bi-
centennial Exhibit by Ven-
turi, Scott Brown and
Associates is a case where
the design project has been
reduced to a silhouette of
the original Franklin House.
This proved to be an effec-
tive and memorable way to
convey the shape and scale
of the original house while,
at the same time, allowing
thousands of viewers to Figure 3-119 Franklin Court.
pass through the courtyard
each day to see the archeo- turi 1977). This is evident in the complex and contradictory exterior
logical and other exhibits of Fire Station 4 in Columbus, Indiana, by Venturi, Scott Brown
situated around the court- and Associates (Fig. 3-120).
yard area (Fig. 3-119). A more subtle use of meaning in architecture was intended by
Unlike Mies van der Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels of Par 3 Studio in the de-
Rohe, with his philosophy sign of the chancel area of the Church of the Palms in Sun City,
that "less is more," Robert Arizona. In this case, the firm designed a high window with a cross
Venturi prefers "complexity in it to the east of the chancel in order to obtain a shadow of the
and contradiction'' in cross on the center of the chancel wall during Easter morning
architecture and believes services. The shadow works its way across the wall during the
Figure 3-118 Vietnam War Memorial.
that "less is a bore" (Ven- Lenten Season (Figs. 3-121 and 3-122) .
Photo Credit and Permission: Howard Olson
158 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 159

Figure 3-120 Fire Station 4.

Figure 3-123 Church of the Palms: Interior.

Credit Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio

In addition, the window's brilliant white light on the chancel

contrasts with the very soft light of twelve candles mounted on the
chancel wall, to symbolize for the congregation the great light of
God and the halting and sometimes failing light of believers.
The architect also provided a subtle distinction in meaning for
F'rio those parishioners who wanted to gather around the communion
table setting as shown on the previous illustration, and those who
Figure.3-121 Church of the Palms: Section. wanted to sit in traditional straight-on style as shown below. They
Credit Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio all sit under the soft, warm light of a stained glass clerestory, in
contrast to the white light on the chancel (Fig. 3-123).
Sometimes the designer will be more interested in the meaning
of pure form or geometry. For example, in the design for an
artist's studio, Hersh-
berger and Nickels
sought to express the
client's desire for natural
light, complexity, and
inexpensive con-
struction in abstract
form (Figs. 3-124
through 3-126).
The designer must
know in which area(s) Figure 3-124 Waddell Studio: East Elevation.
Figure 3-122 Church of the Palms: Chancel. Credit of meaning the client/ Credit Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio
Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio
160 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 161

sign, because the architect will be held accountable if the building

is unattractive or lacks appeal in some way. As William Pena
noted when lecturing about programming, "The person to be held
responsible for a decision must have authority to make it" (Pena
1980).
3.8 Safety Issues
• Structural
• Fire
• Chemical
• Personal
• Criminal
If the bottom line for clients is economics and for architects,
aesthetics, the bottom line for the government is the protection of
Figure 3-125 Waddell Studio: Exterior. the "public health, safety, and welfare." This is why architects are
licensed professionals. We must be qualified practitioners so that
we will not design buildings that threaten the health, safety, or
welfare of the public. Therefore, architects must be carefully edu-
cated and pass extensive licensing examinations to protect occu-
pants from harm, illness, injury, even death!

Structural
The first consideration is, of course, the strength of the structure. It
must not fall down under its own weight or the weights that might
be imposed upon it. These loads include the dead load (the load of
the building itself including all fixed materials, systems,
equipment, and other permanent parts of the building) and the live
loads (the estimated weight of unfixed materials, equipment,
furnishings, wind, snow, and seismic, as well as the weight of the
expected human occupants). The programmer is not responsible for
identifying typical dead and live loads. These are a matter of code
with which the architect must be familiar.
The programmer's responsibility is to identify any unusual
Figure 3-126 Waddell Studio: Interior. loads. These might include loads imposed by special equipment or
furnishings, unusually high occupant loads, or external loads
associated with wind, earthquake, snow, or other similar condi-
user is most interested, so that appropriate attention can be given to
tions. This must be done so that the architect will not underdesign
communicating these meanings effectively. It is important to
the structure and, thus, introduce the possibility of failure and
remember that it is the purview of the architect as designer to de-
consequent injury or death.
termine how such preferences will be incorporated into the de-
 162 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 163

Bridge structures are designed almost totally in response to the

structural and traffic loads which they must carry with primary building on the same cam-
attention to safety. Even so, they can be great works of art as is pus, by Scogin, Elam and
evident in this concrete bridge in Switzerland designed by Robert Bray with Leo E. Daly
Maillart. (Fig. 3-128).
Note: Structural issues for more complex buildings were cov- Once again, I would
ered in Section 3.4 Technological Issues. caution the reader that
while an issue like safety
may have a significant im-
Fire pact on the design of a fa-
cility, other issues will also
Buildings must also be safe in case of fire. The programmer should come into play. For the
discover and let the designer know if there are any especially law library, as an example, Figure 3-128 Law Library: North Side Fire Exit.
hazardous situations in the building(s) to be designed. The designer the architects were
should be aware of normal exiting requirements, but the
interested in creating a
programmer must reveal any unusual situation. For example, how can sensitive relationship with
suitable exits be provided in high-rise buildings for persons
nearby buildings. They
incapable of safely descending many flights of stairs? This is not
also responded to the cam-
easy to accomplish. However, one method that is required in some
pus context in the use of
codes is the design of safe zones, or places of refuge, on each floor
materials, to the climate of
of a building. These allow the elderly, infirm, or handicapped (and
Arizona with sun con-
all others) to go from one section of a floor to another through a
specified fire separation. Those unable to do so need not go down a trolling features, and, of
flight of stairs or seek the help of someone else-they can move course, to their own aes-
horizontally to reach a safe place. thetic preferences (Figs. 3-
129 and 3-130).
In places of public assembly such as major auditoriums and sta-
diums, the need for safe egress in unusual situations must be The architects also
Figure 3-129 Law Library: South and East Sides.
thoroughly explored, requirements documented, and potential so- showed a keen regard for
lutions outlined, so that the designer is made thoroughly aware of and understanding of the
the nature of the fire safety problem. It may even become an op- inner workings of a law li-
portunity for architectural expression. Frank Lloyd Wright used exit brary in the formal and
ramps to parking areas as an opportunity for formal expression in spatial development, as
Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium at Arizona State University well as in the daylighting
of the interior spaces (Fig.
in Tempe, Arizona
3-131).
(Fig. 3-127).
A similar use of
required fire exiting Chemical
as part of the aes- Other threats to the health
thetic expression of of building occupants can
a building can be be important for a pro-
found at the John C. grammer to recognize. Is
Ross-William C. the site downwind from a
Figure 3-127 Memorial Auditorium Ramp. Blakley Law major industrial polluter? Figure 3-130 Law Library: West and South Sides.
Library
164 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 165

the "closed building syndrome." The aforementioned and now

carefully regulated asbestos products are good examples. However,
other products still in use can pose problems in tightly sealed
spaces or in cases of fire where contaminants are created as a by-
product of burning. If it is known that such products must be used
in a project, then the programmer should point out the potential
hazards so that the designer can make proper allowances in design
to mitigate against the potential hazard.

Personal
Other threats to the safety of occupants are dangerous equipment
and situations within the building and on the site. If a building is
expected to house equipment with moving parts in which a person
could be caught and injured, the program should make a note about
Figure 3-131 Law Library: Interior. each such piece of equipment, along with acceptable safety
precautions and required spatial separations. Similarly, if
conditions of the site or surroundings could be a threat to user
Dairies have been relocated because of possible contamination of safety, these should be pointed out in the site analysis. Abandoned
milk by chemical pollutants. Some forms of air or water pollution mine shafts, wells, and cisterns can collapse under the weight of
could, of course, directly threaten the health of occupants, when vehicles or other heavy objects, and people can fall into
long-term exposure might result in diseases such as cancer and unprotected openings. If adjacent streets are heavily used or have
emphysema. blind spots due to configuration or topography, these conditions
The building being programmed could, itself, be a producer or should be noted so the designer can avoid introducing traffic at
user of products that might damage the health of the occupants or unsafe locations.
even of persons off-site. The now familiar problem of carcinogenic
If a site is directly in the path of low-flying aircraft, this must be
building products containing asbestos is such an instance. What if
mentioned because of the dangers of aircraft crashing into the site
an existing facility with such products must undergo a major ren-
and any tall structures on it. Indeed, in more than one major city,
ovation? The programmer should point out such products, so that
proposals for very tall buildings have been rejected by aviation
the architect can deal with the problem appropriately in designing
authorities because of alignment with existing flight paths. Another
the new facilities.
consideration is the danger of damage to hearing and nerves
If by-products of activities within the facility are hazardous, associated with low over-flights of jet aircraft. There are, in fact,
this should be documented so that suitable means can be designed numerous federal and municipal regulations about development in
for their containment, destruction, or removal and appropriate dis- high noise zones with which the programmer should become
posal. Here, a concern should be manifest not only for the building familiar, if a site is located in such a zone. For instance, housing
occupants, but also for people off-site. If pollutants are to be dis- developments may be prohibited in some higher noise zones. If not
posed of into the atmosphere, waterways, or aquifers, they must be prohibited, it may prove difficult to obtain financing.
within acceptable limits, generally as specified by governmental
authorities. The designer(s) needs to be advised of these limits.
Similarly, many commonly used building products and equip-
ment give off chemical or biological contaminants to such an ex- Criminal:
tent that they become a threat to the occupants of buildings in Even chetharacteristics of the building occupantiS_g of people in the
which they are used. This phenomenon has been referred to as immediate vicinity may create design problems. In a prison, both
 166 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 167

guards and inmates must be protected from injury by inmates. A to influence the aesthetic
more typical situation, however, is in ordinary living environments character. Similarly, it
where criminals prey on residents. Oscar Newman (1972) and a should also be understood
number of other architects and social scientists have studied ways that while specific build-
that architecture can help make living and working environments ings were used throughout
safe for users. the chapter to show how
Lighting of public walkways and courtyards, surveillance of one issue or another can
such places from surrounding windows, and direct access from be expressed in design,
housing units to pedestrian walkways increase the safety of public the architect(s) consider
areas-in effect making these places semipublic in nature by several issues at various
allowing residents to monitor the activities occurring within them. stages of the design
Physical and psychological barriers such as fences, grade changes, process. It is important for
surface texture changes, and the like can also be used to help the programmer to iden-
residents develop feelings of ownership and undertake territorial tify what issues the client,
behavior in the surveillance, maintenance, and defense of spaces. users, and community be-
lieve should influence de-
The architect must know if sign. It is important for
there are likely to be problems the architect to deal with
that threaten the physical these issues responsibly
safety of users so that strate- and creatively when de-
gies can be employed to mit- signing the building.
igate these problems. The
Richard Allan Homes Site
Safety and Security Analysis by
Walter Moleski of ERG/En-
vironmental Research Group 3.9 Exercises
with Roberts, Wallace and 23. Examine your fa-
Todd (architects) is a particu- vorite building to
larly good example of how re- see if you can de-
search can be used to develop termine the values
recommendations for improv- that became design
ing planning and design deci- Figure 3-133 Richard Allen Homes: Objectives.
issues and, there-
sions (Moleski 1990) (Figs. 3- fore, dominated the
Credit: Walter Moleski with Wallace Roberts and Todd, 1990. Richard Allen Hames Analysis and Objectives.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Permission: ERG/Environmental Research Group.
132 and 3-133). design decision
Each of the above issues is making.
important to consider for
SITE SURVEILLANCE & ~ Drives Too Narrow ::=> Angle of Vision r:Lm?J Areas Not in View inclusion in an architectural 24. Read about the theories and methods of your favorite de-
PATROLLING From Streets
program. Several of the archi- signers to see if you can discover the dominant values that
tects of the buildings shown in become issues and influence their designs.
Figure 3-132 Richard Allen Homes: Analysis.
this section considered safety 25. Examine the building you are in at the moment to see what
Credit: Walter Moleski with Wallace Roberts and Todd, 1990. Richard Allen Hames Analysis and
Objectives. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Permission: ERG/Environmental Research Group. issues to be important enough values are expressed in its design. Compare the outside
168 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 169

with the inside. What values would you like to see more Duerk, Donna P. 1993. Architectural Programming: Information
vividly expressed? Which ones should have lower priority? Management for Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Which values should become design issues? Duffy, Francis. 1990. "Measuring Building Performance." Facili-
4. List what values should become design issues for the fol- ties. May: 17.
lowing: EDRA. 1969-96. Proceedings of the Annual Conference. Publisher
A. an artist's studio varies.
B. a small doctor's clinic Feerer, Michael. 1977. Family Services Ward: Environmental/
C. a branch bank Architectural Programming. Program for Atascadero State Mental
D. a major hotel Hospital, Atascadero, Calif.
E. an industrial building Goldman, Mark, and Frieda D. Peatross. 1993. Planning for a
Captive Audience. In Professional Practice in Facility Programming,
5. Would a set of value areas different than HECTTEAS work edited by Wolfgang F. E. Freiser. New York: Van Nostrand
better for you? Are any important values missing in the Reinhold.
HECTTEAS set? If so, prepare an alternative list of value Hall, Edward T. 1959. The Silent Language. Garden City, N. Y.:
areas for you to use when beginning to program. Would this Doubleday.
list be modified for some projects? ____ . 1966. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, N. Y.:
5. Try to think of buildings in which the design expression has Doubleday.
been dominated by just one issue. Can you think of any such Hart, Vaughan. 1995. "Erich Mendelsohn and the Fourth Dimen-
building(s)? If you can, ask a colleague if they agree with sion." ARQArchitectural Research Quarterly. 1(2): 50-59.
you. Will they be able to identify other issues that they feel Hershberger, Robert. 1969. ''A Study of Meaning and Architec-
had an impact on the design of the building? ture." Ph.D. diss., The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Hoag, Edwin, and Joy Hoag. 1977. Masters of Modern Architec-
ture: Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe, and
Walter Gropius. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
3.10 References House Beautiful. 19 5 5. The Character of the House is the Begin-
ning of Architecture. November: 248, 292.
Ackoff, Russell. 1966. Classroom lecture and discussion in Oper- International Conference of Building Officials. 1994. Uniform
ations Research at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- Building Code: Administrative, Fire- and Life-Safety, and Field
phia, Pa. Inspection Provisions. Volume 1 of Uniform Building Code.
ANSI. 1996. New York: The American National Standards Insti- Whittier, Calif.: ICBO.
tute. Jerde, Jon. 1992. Public lecture in the College of Architecture at
Brand, Stewart. 1994. How Buildings Learn: What Happens After The University of Arizona.
They're Built. New York: Viking. Kahn, Louis I. 1961. Masters design studio discussions at the
Brown, Denise Scott. 1967. "Planning the Powder Room." A1A University of Pennsylvania.
journal. 47(4): 81-83. Lawton, M. Powell. 1975. Planning and Managing Housing for the
Crosbie, Michael J. 1994. Green Architecture: A Guide to Sustainable Elderly. New York: Wiley.
Design. Rockport, Mass.: Rockport Publishers. Marans, Robert, and Kent Spreckelmeyer. 1981. Evaluating Built
Deasy, C. M. 1974. Design/or Human Affairs. Cambridge, Mass.: Environments: A Behavioral Approach. Ann Arbor: Survey Re-
Schenkman Publishing Company. search Center, University of Michigan.
Diffrient, Niels, Alvin R. Tilley, and Joan C. Bardagjy. 1974. Hu- Moleski, Walter, with Roberts, Wallace and Todd. 1990.:
manscale 1/2/3: A Portfolio of Information. Cambridge, Mass.: Richard Allen Homes Site Safety and Security Analysis.
MIT Press. Philadelphia, Pa.
170 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Newman, Oscar. 1972. Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through

Urban Design. New York: Macmillan.
Novitski, B. J. 1996. "Telecommuting Design: Merging Technolo-
gies Change the Rules of Collaboration." Architectural Record.
184(10): 46-51. Preparing to Program
Pastalan, Leon A., and Daniel H. Carson, eds. 1970. Spatial Behavior
of Older People. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute of Gerontology,
University of Michigan; and Wayne State University.
Pena, William. 1980. Lecture at continuing education seminar at the
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Ramsey, Charles George. 1994. Ramsey/Sleeper: Architectural
Graphic Standards. New York: J. Wiley.
Sheydayi, Yury. 1985. Lecture by faculty colleague at Arizona State
University, Tempe.
4 .1 Pre-Design Services
Sommer, Robert. 1969. Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of 4.2 Architectural Programming
Design. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
4.3 Discovering Crucial Issues
____ . 197 4. Tight Spaces: Hard Architecture and How to Humanize It.
4. 4 Program Planning
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
4. 5 Exercises
Spencer, Eldridge. 1962. Site Location Analysis for Lawrence Hall of
4. 6 References
Science. Spencer and Lee, Architects, San Francisco, Calif.
Straub, Calvin C. 1970. Design studio discussion at Arizona State
University, Tempe.
Stratta, James L., Ted J. Canon, C. Martin Duke, and Lawrence G.
Selna. 1976. Reconnissance Report Mindanao, Philippines
P re-design services occur at a number of times and places, be-
ginning with the client's first thoughts about a project. Com
mercial projects often begin with a financial feasibility study. Some
Earthquake, August 17, 1976. Oakland, Calif.: Earthquake En-
gineering Research Institute. projects also require a site suitability study to determine if an owned
Venturi, Robert. 1977. Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. or desired site will accommodate the contemplated project. Wise
New York: Museum of Modem Art. clients will then want a master planning study to determine how best
Wilson, Forrest. 1984. A Graphic Survey of Perception and Behavior to utilize the selected site. The next pre-design service, referred to as
for the Design Professions. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. architectural programming, typically consists of developing
Wineman, Jean D., ed. 1986. Behavioral Issues in Office Design. information necessary to complete schematic design and to begin
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. design development for a project.
Zevi, Bruno. 1957. Architecture as Space: How to Look at Archi-
tecture. New York: Horizon Press. 4.1 Pre-Design Services
• Planning
• Programming
Several services are conducted prior to design studies in archi-
tecture. Generally, these pre-design services are accomplished by
different people at different times. Occasionally, they are done by
one programming team at the beginning of a project.

171
172 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 173

Planning risky financial venture. Will the required interest rate and points
• Financial Feasibility keep project costs low enough to offer competitive rental rates to
tenants? The same question is relevant for costs of land and con-
• Site Suitability
struction. If your client is planning to purchase an overpriced site,
• Master Planning that alone may compromise the potential success of the project. The
Three different types of planning studies may be required before financial feasibility study should show this to be the case, and it
commencing architectural programming. All such studies require might be possible to use the study to convince the seller that the site
development of at least some programmatic information. However, is overpriced. Similarly, the probable cost of construction must be
the architectural programmer is frequently only a minor participant determined. If market conditions are leading to very high construc-
or possibly not even involved in the first type of planning study. tion costs, it might be wise to delay the project until construction
costs come back into line so that a feasible project can be devel-
FINANCIAL FEASIBILITY
oped. The following four-way financial feasibility analysis was
done as part of a larger study by the author for a site that he planned
A financial feasibility study may be conducted even before a site to develop. It showed that the project would not be feasible given
has been selected. This involves predicting if the market conditions, the asking price for the land, current interest rates, construction
available financing, site situation, and building costs will combine costs, and rental rates (Fig. 4-1).
in such a way as to lead to a successful project, one that will pro- All of this information is
vide a favorable return on investment. This is an important pre-de- oriented toward the prediction
sign activity when developing plans for speculative developments. of future events. Developing
It makes little sense to do architectural programming for a facility some of this information may
until it is certain that what is being proposed is economically not be what a person with an
viable. architectural background is best
Financial feasibility studies involve collecting demographic in- prepared to do. Architects are
formation about the market situation in the targeted area. Is there a typically well prepared to dis-
need for a new hotel, shopping center, or other venture? Do too cover information on the site
many exist in near proximity? Is another in the planning stage? and surrounding physical fea-
Will another similar facility have a definite market advantage be- tures, as well as on site and
cause of a more favorable location? Is there, or will there soon be, building costs. Fortunately,
enough traffic past the site to ensure that customers will be avail- there are other people available
able to purchase the product, whatever it may be? Will the traffic with marketing, real estate, and
be passing the site at such a time and in such a manner that it will financial skills to aid in the de-
be easy, even desirable, to stop and take advantage of the services velopment of the financial
available? As was shown earlier, it is even important to know on feasibility study. Their services
which comer of an intersection a gas station should be located. The should be sought and utilized
same is true for shopping centers and grocery stores. If a street- by a programmer involved in
oriented business is located on the morning rush hour side of the such a study. There are also
street, it may not get as much business as one located on the return several books, articles, and so-
trip side, when the people passing by are running errands on their phisticated computer programs
way home. that address financial feasibility
It is also necessary to determine the availability and cost of analysis (Rushman 1986; Bar-
money. Will local financial institutions provide the necessary fi- rett and Blair 1988). A team of Figure 4-1 Four-Way Financial Feasibility Analysis.
nancing? They may not be willing to support what seems to be a
17 4 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 175

knowledgeable persons with varying interests, skills, and resources MASTER PLANNING
will be required to do an effective financial feasibility study. The program for a master plan is only one step removed from that
of the site suitability study. Once the site has been selected and
purchased, it is common practice to prepare a master plan for the
SITE SUITABILITY development of the site. Such a plan ordinarily shows the various
Once a project has been determined to be feasible, it is important to stages of the proposed development so that an orderly and eco-
discover if the intended use can be accommodated on the nomical growth pattern can be maintained throughout the life of the
prospective site. This can be accomplished with a site suitability enterprise. To do this requires information on the immediate and
study. If the owner does not currently own the site, it is wise to do long-range needs of the organization, so that the designer can
this study before the site is purchased. Unlike the financial explore how the site can be arranged to accommodate the planned
feasibility study, a person with a design education is generally well phases of development (Rubenstein 1987; Daber 1963). The pri-
prepared to undertake site suitability studies. mary programmatic data required for master planning relates to
The information required for a site suitability study tends to be major development, growth, and change over time. It is still a
more limited and general than that required for a master plan or planning activity, where prediction of what might or should occur
schematic design study, because the end product is simply one or in the future is important.
more two-dimensional diagrams, rather than a plan with strong In order to prepare a master plan, the designer needs information
three-dimensional implications or an actual design for a building. about the client's values, goals, and expectations relative to site
The site suitability study needs only to demonstrate that a site is development, the type and overall size of facilities to be provided,
large enough and configured properly to allow a number of suitable the probable order in which they will be built, and an approximation
plans to be developed. The study need not articulate a particular of their size, both initial and ultimate. It is not necessary to develop
plan that will satisfy all of the requirements of the client or detailed information about each building facility, internal space
architect. It does need to verify that the necessary infrastructure of needs and relationships, or specific building technologies. It is
streets and necessary to include basic information about the nature of the site-
MIKVAH FOR ORTHODOX JEWISH CONGREGATION
utilities are available to its drainage patterns, soil conditions, and existing structures-as well
IDEAS EXPLORATION
as the characteristics of traffic on adjacent streets, including where
1.

A.
Locate the Mikvah off of the existing courtyard.

SOUTH SIDE IN PLAYGROUND EAST OF OPENING

Oponvlowlromontrancu1ocounyard;111dsynagoguopo1ch. Vary
close to existing utllilles (power, waler, Gower, !las).
Can hldo all mechanical oquipmont In lnncod yard east of Mikvah.
CandovelopMikv11hlorcookingu1onsilsingardansoulholMikvah. Can
-- support the proposed de-
SITE LOCATION PLAN

velopment. It also needs to

verify that city codes, ordi-
automobiles, service vehicles, and pedestrians can enter and leave
the site; the general character of the surrounding area; major
collactrainwatoroflroofofoxistingbuik:ling.
C11nus1101dstingroo!lorlnconspicuoussolarwatorhoaling. nances, and services will neighboring structures; site orientation; views; prevailing breezes;
PLAYYARD
Usesandundovclopedarcaolplayground.
lackolprivacyforwomennsmustpass1hroughcourtyard.
Dillicult to as~uro personal salety from vehtcte lo and Imm Mlkvah.
allow the development to average and extreme temperatures; and so on. Other considerations
smau bulldable urea, m:iy fon::o MilM1h 10 extend into ccunynro.
Novisu11lpros11ncofrcmSthStro11t.
take place (Lynch 1971). SERVICE
B
include zoning ordinance requirements such as types and sizes of
8. SOUTH SIDE JN PLAYGROUND WEST OF OPENING
Vlowovorlandi;c:aplnglncourtyard1oon!rancoolMikvah. • I The following study by SEA~ICE
buildings allowed, set-backs and height restrictions, on-site storm
FunhorlmmcxistingutiUlios(powor,water,i;cwor,gas)
Can hldo all mechanical equlpmem In lone ed yard wost or Mikvah. Can
dovo!op Mlkvah for cooking utunslls In garden south ol Mikvah. the author for a small reli- water retention, fire access to all buildings, and parking and
Cannotcollectrainwatoroflroo1ofoxistingbuildlng.
Connel use o~s1ing roct !or Inconspicuous solar wator h11allng.
Disrup!sdcvolopodorcaolplaygmund. COURTYJ~ ..• gious building to be landscaping requirements. The overall human, cultural, and
can provide private access Imm wast parking area.
Can develop a sceure route from parking to Mlkvah.
Largerbuildab!oamawithlnplaygmund. located near an existing environmental issues must also be considered.
Novisualprosencolrom51hStroot.

courtyard explores the pros

SYNAGbGUE
-- PARKING
The program should articulate desired images or meanings for
C. WEST SIDE IN PARKING NORTI-1 OF PLAYGROUND FENCE
Vlnwcvnrlnndscapinglnccurtya1dtaon1rancoclMlkvah.
Further from exis11ng ull~itias (powm, water, sewer, gns.) and cons of three the development so the architect can consider appropriate three-
Canh!doallm11chanlcal11qulpmentlnl11nccdyardscu1hclMlkvah.
C11ndovelcpMlkvahlo1cookiflgulansilsing11rdonwostolMikvat1.
Cannotcolloctraillwa!orc!froololoxlstingbui!ding alternative locations. For dimensional design in the layout of buildings, parking, etc. Aes-
Can use sou1h mecn. yard for Inconspicuous solar water hoa11ng.
Canprovi<1oclosc,privateaccesslmmwes1parkingnrea.
Candcvolopasccu1erou11lfmmpr.ll<ing10Mlkvah major projects, like a new thetic issues can and should have an impact on a master plan. The
Doosno1disruptplaygroundaroaso!all
May limit synagoguogrowthtowastcfcourtyard.
Stmngvlsual presencc Jrcm sth sncm. hotel, three or more
FIFTH STREET
only issues of little importance for master plan programming are
completely different sites those that relate to specific human and technological requirements
Figure 4-2 Site Suitability Study. with much more complex for the buildings.
conditions may need to be
analyzed (Fig. 4-2).
 176 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 177

A transition can be for a developmental problem in which new, three-dimensional

!I seen from the almost form will be the result. There are three types of programming that
r pure planning informa- relate to the corresponding phases of design services.
I tion needed for a finan-
cial feasibility study to SCHEMATIC DESIGN
the combination of both
planning and design in- Programming for schematic design must provide the information
formation needed for the the designer needs in order to decide on the basic formal and spa-
site suitability and mas- tial organization and aesthetic character of the proposed build-
ter planning studies. ing(s). It must provide information on the human and cultural
This is to be expected. It issues essential to making appropriate design decisions about
is a rare occasion when building organization and relationships. It must set forth the client's
any architectural pro- expectations relative to building image and any other aesthetic
gramming activity has requirements. It should also include information on environmental
an exclusive need for issues, urban or rural context, growth and change, special material
just the planning, design, or system needs, and economic opportunities or constraints. The
or selection levels of in- purposes of schematic design programming are very much like
PLAN
formation. For example, those of master planning, but schematic design programming
the master planning requires additional information relating to the specific performance
Figure 4-3 Covenant Baptist: Master Plan.
study for the Covenant and design requirements for architectural development.
Credit: Hershberger - Kirn Architects.
Baptist Church by Her- Schematic design programming need not focus on particular
shberger Kim Architects products, systems, or equipment that can be accommodated within
shows the physical configuration of the first phase of development, a range of potential architectural concepts or solutions. The
but also shows how subsequent phases of development might schematic design program should provide information on the
occur to fully utilize the site (Fig. 4-3). performance requirements of materials, products, equipment, fur-
nishings, and systems that would meet the needs of the client user
Programming group. The type of information needed is that which could affect
the basic spatial and formal decisions made during schematic
• Schematic Design
design.
• Design Development If needed equipment will require an elaborate chimney or ex-
• Construction Documents haust system that might be seen above the roof, this information
should be evident in the schematic design program so the designer
Programming for schematic design begins where master plan- can deal with it. If a certain space will require extensive windows,
ning leaves off. It requires much of the same information needed this must be stated, because such spaces cannot be buried in the
for master planning, but considerably more information on the interior of the building. If a particular type of material or system
specific facilities to be designed. Design programming tends to be will provide the required level of comfort, but others will not, this
more extensive and complex than master planning, because in- should also be made known. It is also necessary to know the
formation must be provided that will influence the specific three- specific activities and furnishings that must be accommodated, as
dimensional development and character of each building, and well as their configuration and size, in order to make an accurate
especially the size and relationships of the spaces within them. It estimate of the size and character of each space. The key question
may or may not involve considerations for growth or change over in schematic design programming is:
time. It is programming for "design" rather than for "planning";
Can the information make a design difference?
178 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 179

If the answer is yes, program sheets in the

the information belongs program document and
in the schematic design the balance can appear
program. in an appendix.
A good example of Space program
schematic design pro- sheets typically include
gramming was for the the special values, goals,
author's Thirsty Earth facts, needs, and ideas,
house. The clients indi- as well as the spatial
cated a strong desire relationships for each
during programming to identified space in the
have their house placed· schematic program. In a
into the land. As the sense, each space pro-
Figure 4-4 Thirsty Earth House: Design Drawing. husband said, "Critters gram sheet is a micro-
in the desert keep cool program for a particular
by burrowing into the space (Fig. 4-5).
ground." This informa
tion went into the architectural program and the resulting CONSTRUCTION
schematic design concept was for a house dug into a ridge and
DOCUMENTS
completely covered by earth and desert plants. This allowed for
The detailed program-
spectacular views from either side of the house, but with a building
ming required for con-
form that appeared to be part of the earth itself (Fig. 4-4).
struction documents is
most often accomplished
DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
informally by the per-
It is essential for design development programming that the de- son(s) charged with pro-
signer be aware of requirements for material finishes, illumination ducing the construction
levels, lighting control, electrical outlets, conditioned air documents. This aspect
distribution and control, plumbing fixtures, built-in cabinets or of programming
shelves, and fixed and moveable furnishings and equipment for involves obtaining the
each required space. There may also be specific requirements for information necessary to
other systems needed to satisfy the client, users, or community. A select particular
design development program typically includes all such re- building ma-
quirements that differ from or exceed accepted standards. If this terials, equipment, fur-
information is gathered after the schematic design has been ap-
nishings, and systems Figure 4-5 Space Program Sheet.
proved, it typically will be collected by members of the design
needed to complete con- Credit: Kelly Angell, 1997. Architecture Expansion Program. College of Architecture, The University of
team in a secondary programming effort (Pena et al. 1977). In this struction documents. Arizona.
case, only the persons involved with particular aspects of the The selections are often
proposed facility will be consulted for the supplementary in-
made in direct consultation with the client's staff or with profes-
formation.
sional engineers and other specialist consultants who have devel-
If design development information is collected as part of the oped expertise in the building type being designed. The
initial programming effort, much of it can be included on space information can also be obtained directly from manufacturers'
product catalogs and in such sources as the Sweet's Catalog Files
(1997).
 180 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 181

This information might ment phases of architectural services. Whether the programmer
make a design difference will collect information for financial feasibility, site suitability, or
in the details of a build- master planning depends on how the problem has developed up to
ing, but generally not in the time the architectural programmer is hired by the client. Some
its overall formal or spa- of these studies may have been accomplished before architectural
tial organization. It is, of programming is initiated. If not, the architectural programming
course, important to most process can be expanded to include them. On the other hand, it is
architects that the detailed rarely necessary or desirable in architectural programming to
development of the collect all of the detailed information necessary to make final
project be in accordance selections of products, equipment, and furnishings for construction
with the major conceptual documents. This information will be more appropriately generated
thrust of the architecture, after schematic design and design development decisions have
so that the project as a been made.
Figure 4-6 Product Manufacturer Literature. whole will be consistent
Credit: Catalog #197 in 1997 Sweet's General Building & Renovation Catalog File, The McGraw-Hill in projecting the desired
Companies. Permission: McGraw-Hill
image to the community 4.3 Discovering Crucial Issues
(Fig. 4-6).
At each level of architectural programming, the objective is to iso-
Why is this information not collected during design development
late the crucial issues, the areas of knowledge that are most likely
programming? Actually, some of it is. However, the great amount
to make a design difference. In other words, the objective is to de-
of detailed information necessary to make final material and equip-
velop a better understanding of those areas where the costs of de-
ment selections when preparing working drawings and specifica-
signer error could be great. If it is too expensive to relocate
tions is not gathered during design development programming. It is
left out to avoid encumbering the designer with information that is buildings to a new site in order to expand, the initial building(s)
not required to make schematic design and design development must be located in such a way as to allow future expansion on the
decisions. Furthermore, there generally are many ways to solve a present site. If it is crucial that a certain image be maintained to
design problem and each way will require different equipment, ensure continuing patronage for a commercial enterprise, then it is
furnishings, and systems. There is little point in collecting detailed important to communicate this image with clarity. If it is important
information during design programming that will not be needed as that operational costs not rise substantially over the life of a
the design is developed. It is better to leave this information out of building, materials and systems selected must be either very
the program, so that the designer can obtain a clearer picture of the durable or inexpensive to replace.
major design issues which need to be resolved. Detailed infor- Interestingly, the cost of error is rarely the same in both direc-
mation collected during design programming need not, of course, tions. If a room is too small, it may not accommodate the intended
be discarded. It should be documented and placed in an appendix equipment and personnel. The cost of error of a room being too
or filed for possible use in preparing the construction documents small can be substantial-a new room or addition might be required
to rectify the problem created. On the other hand, if a room is
designed to be somewhat larger than required, the cost for this
additional space might be comparatively small, consisting only of
the extra cost of the additional floor area and surrounding surfaces,
4.2 Architectural Programming and perhaps a very small increase in utility costs. The additional
space would definitely be advantageous as the enterprise expands
Architectural programming typically involves the collection of in- or requires new equipment, storage, or personnel. In short, it is
formation relating to the schematic design and design develop- often less costly in the long run to err in the direction
182 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 183

of over-sizing a space. Similarly, a modest increase in the initial

cost of roofing materials may save a great amount of subsequent
cost in roof repairs as well as costs of possible damage to interior
systems and furnishings. The programmer should consider the po-
tential cost of error, and tailor the program information to mini-
mize the cost of error (Ackoff 1968; Brill et al. 1984).
The same is true in matters of public health and safety. Engi-
neers typically allow for a margin of error in the systems they de-
sign, over-designing them by a factor of two or three to allow for
occasional imperfections in materials and equipment, or poor
workmanship in the field. The cost for the margin is quite low in
comparison with the costs of a building system failure. Architects,
on the other hand, often provide no more than the minimum
number of exits required by code, even though the added initial
cost of providing more exits would be low in comparison to the
cost in human lives that could result in case of fire or panic. Ar-
chitects need to change their mind-set in this regard. Wherever cost
of error is likely to be very high, the architect, both as programmer
and designer, must learn to pay attention and to err in the direction
where added costs will be small. If moral compunction is not an
adequate argument, perhaps major liability problems will be
convincing.

4.4 Program Plarmlng

• Schedule
• Costs
In order to plan a programming activity, it is necessary to have
a preliminary understanding of the scope and complexity of the
design problem. If the project is to be a small house or studio, a
few visits with the client and to the site may be enough to under-
stand and describe the design problem, particularly if the pro-
grammer will also be the designer. If the project is significantly
larger, it will be necessary to develop a complete programming
plan, such as the one below, detailing all of the activities that must
take place to produce the program document. The following
diagram by Walter Moleski for The Philadelphia Orchestra Hall
Project is a verbal and graphic illustration of typical information
gathering activities used to arrive at an architectural program for a
complex building project (Fig. 4-7).
184 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 185

Schedule dicating when each activity will

be conducted, and indicates the
Program scheduling is a process requiring the programmer to
number and type of personnel to
estimate the time needed to do a responsible program, before the
be involved for each task. This
nature of the problem is known. Sometimes the programmer has
process is helpful in determining
the benefit of a financial feasibility study and/or a completed
how long the programming will
master plan which sets forth the scope of the project. Often, the
take and what it will cost (Figs.
budget restricts the size of the project. Sometimes the continuing
4-9 and 4-10).
nature of the institution makes clear the level of complexity to be
expected. Occasionally clients will have prepared a brief or a call
for proposals which spells out their thinking about the nature and
Costs
scope of the programming project. The programmer must develop
the schedule based on this information. Like most other architectural ser-
Scheduling first involves preparation of a list of all of the ac- vices, the costs of programming
tivities necessary to develop the program, such as shown in Figure will vary depending on the type,
4-7. For complex projects, this list might include interviews with size, and complexity of the pro-
the client(s) and other knowledgeable persons, review of relevant ject, and with the scope of ser-
literature, observation of existing and similar facilities, site and vices. A normative figure for an
climate analysis, preparation and administration of questionnaires, architectural programming bud-
get for most projects is between Figure 4-9 Simple Programming Schedule.
sampling and data analysis, client/user work sessions, and
preparation of the program document. one-quarter and three-quarters of Credit Nancy Cole

The following illustration from "Programming the Third Di- one percent of the construction
mension" (Goldman and Peatross 1993) indicates the percentage of cost, or between $2,500 and $ 7,
time spent on information gathering tasks for correctional facility 500 for a million dollar con-
programming. Be aware that much of this struction project (Pena et al.
work is done by a few 1987; Freiser 1993a; Moleski
firms that specialize 1997; Farbstein 1997; Pan 1997).
in these facilities, so Programming for a tenmillion-
that previous research dollar project might run between
is often applicable to $25,000 and $75,000. The exact
new commissions, and amount will, of course, vary
thus does not need to depending on the building type
be repeated (Fig. 4-8). and size.
After deciding on The costs of programming for
the programming activ- a residence would likely be ab-
ities, a time allocation sorbed within the normal fee of
schedule is formulated. the architect and might actually
This schedule typically involve no more than three or
itemizes every activity, four extended meetings with the
sets up a bar chart in- client family-one or two at their
Figure 4-8 Data Collection Methods. existing home, one on the Figure 4-10 Complex Programming Schedule.
Credit See Tustler et al 1993. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
prospective site, and perhaps Credit See Tustler et al.1993. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
186 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 187

one in the architect's office. The results might then be prepared as a pital, there are many unique spaces with particular requirements,
short program document (or brief) for confirmation by the client and a relatively high cost of error if each space is not satisfactory
that they agree with what the architect has stated. The costs of such in most respects. For the high-rise office building, there may be
a program, usually prepared by the design principal of a small firm, only a few space types that must be programmed, and they will
if billed at an hourly rate of between $ 7 5 and $100 per hour, tend to be general in nature. This is particularly true for speculative
would run between $1,200 and $2,000 for 16 to 20 hours of work. office buildings, where unknown tenants will come in later and
If projected as a percentage of construction cost, this would imply a program and design their own spaces within the framework
construction cost between $160,000 and $800,000 if the normative provided. The programming cost for such a development may be
figures of one-quarter to threequarters of one percent were to be very small, since most developers use a number of space standards
used. In actuality, the programming costs for a small custom house repeatedly. The program may need only to relate to specific
are very similar to those for a larger custom house. Therefore, the conditions of site and climate, city codes and ordinances, and the
percentage rate should be greater for the smaller house-one-half to particular market image desired. Financial feasibility studies may
three-quarters of one percent for the $160,000 house ($800 to already have determined the appropriate size and particular nature
$1,200 fee) and onequarter to one-half of one percent for the and characteristics of the project. In any case, the programmer
$800,000 house ($2,000 to $4,000 fee). In other words, to make $75 must become familiar with programming costs associated with the
per hour on the least expensive house, the programmer would have various types, sizes, and complexities of a project in order to make
to charge three-quarters of one percent and complete the program- an appropriate estimate for the cost of programming services.
ming in 16 hours. To make $100 per hour on the most expensive Similarly, a program intended only for master planning pur-
house, the programmer could charge one-quarter of one percent and poses will cost much less than one intended for the schematic de-
complete the programming in 20 hours. Obviously, the larger the sign of a building. A program that includes some detailed
fee, the more time that can be spent on programming and still make information needed for design development will cost more than
the desired hourly rate. In other words, the potential for profits one intended only for schematic design. How to determine the ex-
increases with the size of the project, given a standardized act cost of programming is not easy for the novice programmer.
percentage-based fee structure. Most programmers use a standard percentage fee to begin with,
The same situation holds true for other building types-the then develop a history of actual costs from which to make more
smaller the project, the larger the percentage for the architectural precise programming cost estimates.
programming fee. This is because there is a minimum level of ser- It should also be possible for the programmer to develop a
vice required, regardless of the size or expense of a project. In the breakdown of costs based on the expected programming proce-
case of the house, there is the need to meet with the family at their dures to be used, including costs for gathering information on val-
home and at the site, at least one more meeting to discuss what was ues and goals, discovering factual information, negotiating and
programmed, analysis of the particular site, search of local codes coming to agreement with all programming participants relative to
and ordinances, and time to document the results so that no specific facility needs, and preparing and publishing the pro-
misunderstandings will occur later. Sometimes a smaller project, gramming document. The comparative costs for preparing rela-
particularly those operating under tight budgetary constraints, will tionship matrices and diagrams, determining and illustrating space
cost more to program because a lot of time will be necessary to sort sizes, and setting forth specific requirements for each space in a
out aspects of the project which the client desires, but cannot programming document can also be established. Developing costs
afford. for each service will, of course, relate to the amount of time and
Costs for programming also range considerably for projects of effort required by personnel at each pay scale.
different levels of complexity. Programming costs for a hospital Wolfgang F. E. Preiser (1993), in a survey of architectural firms
will likely be very high in comparison to programming costs for an found that the vast majority did not bill programming separately
equally expensive high-rise office building. In the case of the hos- from their overall fee, with only 11 percent of the firms
 188 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 189

billing programming produce the program-

as a separate service. ming documents. Or
These firms reported they produce the best
that one-half to over program that they can
five percent of within their standard
billable time is fee, simply by sitting
devoted to program- down with the client
ming (Fig. 4-11). and trying to resolve
In this same re- what is needed
port Preiser found, through the interview-
as would be ex- ing process. Is this an
pected, that pro- adequate way to pro-
gramming was much gram? Sometimes it
more intensive for appears to be-or at
institutional projects least the architects
(Fig. 4-12). and clients seem satis-
He also found fied with the results. Figure 4-13 Methods of Data Gathering.
Figure 4-11 Comparative Programming Costs. that less than ten Often, however, it is Credit: See Preiser 1993, 17-20. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
Credit: See Preiser 1993, 17-20. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
percent of the ar- not. In these cases,
chitectural firms the client gets much
responding to the less than hoped for or even major problems requiring complete re-
survey conduct any design and alteration of recently completed facilities. This is un-
information gather- fortunate and costly in many ways. These problems can be avoided
ing activity beyond by first completing a competent architectural program.
interviewing (Fig. 4- What would the added costs be to have architects or professional
13). programmers prepare
Is it any wonder better programs? They
that many architects are relatively small
have such a poor compared to design,
reputation relative to construction, and pro-
programming? ject costs. They are
The fact is, the extremely small when
education of many compared to life cycle
of today's architec- costs. This is shown
tural firm leaders clearly on the follow-
predates the teach- ing diagram from a
ing of programming study relating to cor-
in architectural rectional facilities
schools, so these (Fig. 4-14).
Figure 4-12 Programming Intensive Projects. firms tend to rely on The savings to the Figure 4-14 Percentage of Life Cycle Costs.
Credit: See Preiser 1993, 17-20. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser the client to client for competent Credit: See Preiser 1993, 380. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
190 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 191

architectural programming can be substantial because programming 3. Without reference to either of the above master planning
mistakes have major impacts at every subsequent phase of the ideas, develop a short list of crucial issues for schematic de-
project, often involving considerably greater costs to overcome the sign of the new family life center. Would responding to these
mistakes than the total cost of preparing the architectural program. issues cause you to re-assess the location of this center?
Architects should make this case clearly when considered for
architectural commissions. It will add a small amount to the archi- 4. Given the characteristics of the existing development, of the
tect's fee, but will save everyone a great deal of time, money, and neighborhood, and the local climate and conditions, what
good will in the long run. would be the appropriate systems and materials to use for the
new family center? Would they relate to existing materials
and details? Would they be different?
4.5 Exercises 5. Assume that you have been asked to master plan the site and
prepare an architectural program for the family life center.
1. Visit an older existing church or synagogue site near where
you are located. Is there adequate automobile access and
parking? Are the various units of the facility appropriately Develop a list of all of the information gathering techniques
related to each other? Is pedestrian circulation clear and that you would need to use to become knowledgeable enough
unimpeded by driveways or excessive stairways? Are there to prepare a competent program for a completely new facility
provisions for handicapped individuals in the parking areas for the church or synagogue.
and throughout the buildings?
Develop a bar chart schedule showing when all of these ac-
Prepare a sketch drawing of the site including all buildings, tivities would be accomplished and who would be doing
parking, and landscape areas. Pace off the perimeter of the them.
site and of the various buildings to make the drawing roughly
What would you charge the church for your programming
to scale.
efforts? How would you determine your costs? How long
Imagine that the owners now need to add a new "Family Life would it take you to do the programming? Is this a good way
Center" and related parking to provide for daily activities, to estimate your costs? Are there better ways?
particularly for the old and young of the congregation. Where
What would be your personal hourly take home pay based on
would this facility best be located on the existing or on an ad-
the fee and time needed to do the study? Would it be ad-
joining site? Assume that they could purchase an adjoining
equate to make a good living? What do you think is a good
site if no room is currently available on the owned property.
living?
If you were to start over, where would you have located the
existing facilities and the family life center? Would they be in
different locations from the present locations? Why? 4.6 References
4. Develop a short list of crucial issues and related goals for Ackoff, Russell L. 1968. Scientific Method: Optimizing Applied
master planning the above site again, assuming that there was
Research Decisions. 1st corrected edition. New York: Wiley.
no existing development.
Barrett, G. Vincent, and John P. Blair. 1988. How to Conduct and
After having done this, reassess where you would locate the Analyze Real Estate and Market Feasibility Studies. New York:
various facilities, including the family life center. Would they Van Nostrand Reinhold.
be in different locations than your original placement? If so, Brill, Michael, Stephen T. Margulis, Ellen Konar, and BOSTI.
why? Did the crucial issues and related goals make a 1984. Using Office Design to Increase Productivity. Buffalo, N.Y.:
difference? Workplace Design and Productivity.
192 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Dober, Richard P. 1963. Campus Planning. New York: Reinhold

Publishing Corp.
Farbstein, Jay. 1997. Discussion by telephone.
Goldman, Mark, and Frieda D. Peatross. 1993. Planning for a
Captive Audience. In Professional Practice in Facility Programming,
edited by Wolfgang F. E. Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand
Information Gathering
Reinhold.
Lynch, Kevin. 1971. Site Planning. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T.
Press.
McGraw-Hill Construction Information Group. 1997. Sweet's
General Building & Renovation Catalog File. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Moleski, Walter. 1997. Discussion by telephone.
Pan, Solomon. 1997. Discussion by telephone.
Pena, William, William Caudill, and John Focke. 1977. Problem 5 .1 Literature Search and Review
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. Boston, Mass.: 5.2 Diagnostic Interviewing
Cahners Books International. 5.3 Diagnostic Observation
Pena, William, Steven Parshall, and Kevin Kelly. 1987. Problem 5 .4 Questionnaires and Surveys
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 3rd ed. Wash- 5. 5 Site and Climate Analysis 5.
ington, D.C.: AIA Press. 6 Exercises
Preiser, Wolfgang F. E. 1993a. Recent Developments in Facility 5. 7 References
Programming. In Professional Practice in Facility Programming,
edited by Wolfgang F. E. Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
Preiser, Wolfgang F. E., ed. 1993b. Professional Practice in Facility
N o matter which method or approach to architectural pro
gramming is used, it will feature techniques and tools for
gathering information about the client, users, site, and other
Programming. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. factors in order to define the nature of the architectural
Rubenstein, Harvey M. 1987. A Guide to Site and Environmental problem. If the data gathered is extensive, -then various
Planning. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley. techniques and tools of analysis will be necessary to distill the
Rushman, Stephen. 1986. How to Perform an Economic Feasibility raw data into useful information. This chapter covers the most
Study of a Proposed Hotel/Motel. Chicago: American Society of basic and frequently used information gathering and data
Real Estate Counselors. analysis techniques and tools. It does not cover every approach
Tustler, Wilbur H., Frank Zilm, James T. Hannon, and Mary Ann currently used by professional programmers. However, careful
Newman. 1993. Programming: The Third Dimension. In Pro- reading and application of the materials presented should allow
fessional Practice in Facility Programming, edited by Wolfgang F. the programmer to develop the information needed for most
E. Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. commissions. It will also advance the beginning programmer to
the point where other techniques and tools can be evaluated
and used as appropriate for a particular programming problem.
A person can learn a great deal about architecture by reading and
going to lectures, as well as from conversations, movies, and
television. Much can also be learned by general observation of

193
194 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 195

people interacting with their physical and social environments. The ageable amounts for the designer to assimilate. These are signifi-
more diverse and varied an architect's experience with the cant problems that will be discussed.
environment, the more knowledge that person can draw upon in The procedures covered in this chapter should prove sufficient
any architectural programming or design situation. But what one for most small- to medium-scale programming problems. Persons
has experienced and learned may not apply to a particular problem. wishing to expand their understanding of programming to include
What we think is true may not be true. What we think is false may more advanced or specialized information gathering or data
be true. It is important to study the particular situation for which a analysis techniques and tools should review books such as Facility
new building is being considered before deciding what the new Programming (1978) and Programming the Built Environment (1985)
building should be. Information should be gathered on client and edited by Wolfgang F. E. Freiser, The Architect's Guide to Facility
user values, goals, and needs as well as on facts about the site, Programming (1981) by Mickey A. Palmer, Methods of Architectural
climate, context, and existing facilities in order to understand what Programming (1977) by Henry Sanoff, Problem Seeking (1987) by
is required. William Pena et al., and Architectural Programming:
The most obvious, but often overlooked, approach to obtaining Creative Techniques for Design Professionals (1995) by Robert
information about a particular architectural problem is to see what Kumlin. These books contain case studies and detailed examples of
others have written about it. Literature search and review programming procedures used by professional programmers, and
techniques can be employed to uncover a great deal of useful in- include references to a number of other texts and articles that
formation about a project. The problem is doing this in an efficient contain even more detail on specific procedures. Methods in En-
and reliable fashion. Several successful techniques of literature vironmental and Behavioral Research (1987) edited by Robert
search are covered in this chapter. Bechtel, Robert Marans, and William Michelson; Inquiry by Design
There are also likely to be a number of people available who (1981) by John Zeisel; and Creative Design Decisions (1988) by
have not written about or published their experiences, but never- Stephen J. Kirk and Kent F. Spreckelmeyer are examples of lit-
theless have a wealth of knowledge concerning the problem at erature that concentrates on some of the more useful advanced in-
hand. Certainly the client will have much to share. So will the users formation gathering procedures.
of the existing facilities, if there are any. Others who would have
knowledge to share include persons responsible for similar
enterprises and the users of similar facilities. There are also experts 5.1 Literature Search and Review
in particular building types, and other design and engineering • Information Needs
professionals, social scientists, and public officials who should be
consulted. These people can be interviewed or asked to respond to • Literature Sources
questionnaires to obtain the knowledge they can contribute. It is • Library Search Procedures
also possible to observe persons in existing facilities or • Non-Library Search Procedures
environments similar to the proposed project to discover more
about actual behavior patterns. Several strategies for gathering • Literature Review Procedures
firsthand information through interviews, questionnaires, and ob- • Matrix Summary
servation techniques are also covered in this chapter.
• Sampling Plan
If large numbers of personnel or settings are involved and time
or budget is limited, as is almost always the case, then it will be Nearly all architectural students that the author has encountered
necessary to select exactly who and what should be studied. A feel that they have learned quite enough about literature search and
sampling plan will be needed to select representative persons from review in their freshman English courses. But few of these students
whom to gather the information. It will also be necessary to have been effective in finding information appropriate for
develop procedures to reduce the gathered information to man- programming a particular architectural project. This is
196 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 197

not because the information is unavailable in print, but because it is After all, not much of what follows is very important if you do not
typically not found in the same libraries and reference sources get the commission!
appropriate for English or history research papers. Indeed, in many Where do you obtain this information? Visit their offices. Re-
cases the information needs, sources, and requirements are so quest copies of their printed materials. Show your interest in them
different in architectural programming that the strategies for search and the proposed project before the formal interview. This will
and review must be revised significantly to be effective. help to ensure that your firm will stand out from others being
interviewed.
Likewise, it is important to familiarize yourself with the general
space vocabulary and facility requirements of the organization.
Information Needs Nearly every business or institution has a particular jargon with
• Precommission which the architect should be familiar during the interview. If you
are trying to get a commission to do a church for an unfamiliar de-
• Programming nomination, will the members of the building committee refer to
• Design the primary meeting space as the "church," "sanctuary," "worship
center," or will they use
The above list indicates three distinct time periods or phases another term? Similarly, there
when literature resources can be of great value to the architect. may be a particular arrange-
Each phase requires different types of information and involves ment of spaces about which
somewhat different search strategies in order to be successful. you should be aware. Lack of
familiarity with their organi-
zation may result in losing the
PRECOMMISSION
commission.
For the architectural firm seeking a commission for a project type Most institutions belong to
that team members have not previously programmed or designed, it larger groups, such as church
is vitally important to know as much as possible about the potential denominations, that publish
client and the client's facility needs prior to the first meeting or guidelines for appropriate
interview. Literature on or by the particular organization is very physical development.
useful: its own publicity, news releases, newsletters, etc. The Sometimes these can be found
information contained in these documents can be most helpful in in the local offices. If not,
obtaining a feeling for the organization, its manner of operating, correspond directly with the
financial resources, and potential as a client. It can provide a organization headquarters to
preliminary understanding of the purposes and goals of the obtain the appropriate litera-
organization as well as the potential for growth and facility ture. This literature will typi-
development. It can also be helpful in securing the programming cally provide both the typical
commission. vocabulary and space stan-
Clients, like most people, typically are flattered and impressed dards. Strategic Planning and
when others show a sincere interest in their particular concerns. Building Planning for New
Familiarity with the client's organization is a concrete demonstra- Congregations (1990) of the
tion of this interest and can make the difference in being hired or Board of Church Extension
not hired-it can be an effective marketing tool for architectural of Disciples of Christ is an figure 5-1 Planning and Design Guide: Cover.
firms that specialize in or offer programming as a primary service. excellent example (Fig. 5-1). Permission: Board of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ
198 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 199

An excellent job interview strategy is to bring up the special tion find to be of enough importance to pub-
vocabulary, typical space standards, or unique relationships which lish? It may be possible to identify the prin-
the organization prefers to demonstrate your interest in discovering cipal purposes or "institutional values" of the
the special character of their institution. Time-Saver Standards for organization, as well as primary goals and
Architectural Design Data (Callender 1982) and other similar directions for advancement and/ or change.
standards can also serve as helpful beginning points to obtain basic Guidelines for space size may be provided in
information on the building types that reoccur in our society. some degree of detail as shown in Fig. 5-2.
Monographs on particular building types are available in many Information on the site and its surround-
libraries and can serve to familiarize the architect with special ings, as well as on the urban infrastructure,
requirements of the building type and provide an understanding of can be obtained from various governmental
precedent. Are there particular formal arrangements that occur agencies. Cities typically have extensive files
repeatedly in different times and places, even at very different containing plans and other documents relat-
sites? It is important to understand the reasons behind such formal ing to specific sites that are available to the
arrangements, to determine if some strong institutional value is developers of new projects. They also have
being expressed, and to show your awareness of these values, planning and development documents such
should the potential client show an interest. as general plans, zoning ordinances, design
review policies, building permit guidelines,
PROGRAMMING and the like. The key provisions of these
should be documented in the program. Cities
Once the commission is obtained, programming can begin in
also develop or adopt building codes
earnest. The same information obtained earlier can be reviewed for
(building, mechanical, plumbing, fire safety,
applicability to the problem at hand. Further vocabulary building
etc.) which contain information that is im-
and understanding of the organization can go on as well. An
portant to include in the architectural pro-
examination of the records and archives of the organization can
gram. Current versions of all of these
also be very fruitful. Is there a program for the existing facilities?
documents are likely to be available at city
What were the goals and objectives then? What projections were
offices. They may also be available in the
made for growth and change? Was there a master plan showing
government documents section of the local
where future facilities were anticipated? What about the actual
public or university library. Those that
construction documents? Were specific provisions made to
contain useful information should be ob-
accommodate growth and/ or change in the organization or
tained for reference during both program-
facilities? Were some walls designed as knockout panels to allow
ming and design. The Tucson Historic
additions? Were certain utilities extended in anticipation of future
Districts: Criteria for Preservation and De-
expansion? Is there an organizational chart showing how various
velopment (City of Tucson 1972) is typical of
departments and people relate to each other? Are there annual
this kind of document (Fig. 5-3).
reports or files which reveal special developments? This can be
As pointed out in earlier sections of the
useful information at the beginning of the programming stage and
text, information about the needs of special
should be sought out in cooperation with the organization's staff.
user groups applying to a particular problem
If the organization has a library, it might include trade journals
can be obtained in the literature. There is also
containing special information about this and similar organizations.
an abundance of environmental design
If it is a subsidiary of a larger entity, the headquarters may have a
research available covering the territorial, Figure 5-2 Organization Desfgn Standards.
more comprehensive library that can be accessed for additional
privacy, community, safety, and Credit: Board of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ, 1990. Strategic
information. What concerns do the people in the organiza- Planning & Building Planning for New Congregations. Permission: Board
of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ.
200 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 201

other social and psycho- During the design

downtown tucson logical needs of various development phase of
user groups: the elderly, architectural services, there is
young, handicapped, in- a whole body of information
carcerated, and so on. that can be obtained from
This type of literature reference books such as
typically is available in Architectural Graphic
major public and univer- Standards (American Institute
sity libraries. of Architects 1994) and
monographs on particular
DESIGN building materials and
Prior to or during design, systems such as the excellent
an entirely different body one on Metal Design and Fab-
of printed information be- rication by architects David
comes important to the Frisch and Susan Frisch
(1998). Manufacturer's liter- Figure 5-4 Sweet's Catalog File in Library.
architect. The journals of
the architectural profes- ature on building products
sion, such as Architecture and equipment are also available. This literature typically is not
and Architectural Record, available within a university or public library system, but is readily
as well as related publica- available to architectural or programming firms upon request. There
tions dealing with values are also general catalog files that include the products of many sup-
and design methodologies pliers, such as Sweet's Catalog File (McGraw-Hill Construction In-
such as Oppositions and formation Group 1997), which are updated yearly and may not be
the DMG Newsletter, are of available in public libraries. They will be found in most
continuing interest to the architectural libraries and in the offices of most practicing architects
designer. Issues devoted (Fig. 5-4). Sources
Literature
to particular building • Building and Planning Standards
types may be of
considerable interest in • Historical Documents/ Archival Materials
terms of the spatial and • Trade Publications
formal organization of the
• Research Literature
facility. Books and other
publications on the his- • Professional Publications
Figure 5-3 Planning and Development Guide. tory of a building type or • Codes and Ordinances
the architecture of partic-
Credit: Tucson Historic Districts: Criteria for Preservation and Development, 1972. City of Tucson,
Department of Community Developmen1/Planning Division, Tucson, Arizona.City of Tucson, Depart- ular places, such as Prece- • Government Documents
ment of Community Developmen1/Planning Division
dents in Architecture • Manufacturers' Publications
(Clark and Pause 1996), • Popular Literature
might also be of interest, as they can aid in the analysis and evalu-
ation of potential solutions to the architectural problem. • World Wide Web
 202 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 203

As is evident from the above discussion, the types of literature coverage of events relating to
and printed material available and useful to the architectural pro- the proposed development; le-
grammer are diverse both in nature and location. Each of the ten gal descriptions and restric-
categories of printed materials may contain useful information. A tions; records of street and
brief description of each of these information sources is included in utility alignments and ease-
the following paragraphs, along with their most likely location and ments; zoning and design re-
the areas of programming in which they would be of benefit. view decisions; and the
Representative titles are also noted. client's records of building
programs, plans, and
BUILDING AND PLANNING STANDARDS specifications, and plans for
development.
Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data (Callender
1982), Architectural Graphic Standards (American Institute of Ar- Newspaper archives may
chitects 1994), and Interior Graphic and Design Standards be in a public library or the
publisher's office. Most legal
(Reznikoff 1986) are exam
descriptions of property can be
ples of printed documents
located in a county recorder's
that contain standards for
office. City documents are
site development, building
usually available through the
types, space types, and
public works, engineering,
systems within buildings.
and/or planning offices. The
These and other similar
client's records are sometimes
documents can be found in
carefully stored in files, but
most architectural libraries
quite often are within the
MAIN FLOOR and should be part of an
client's dead storage areas or
architect's reference library.
MAIN FL.OOR

lost forever because no one

They can be useful in
thought they were worth
developing a general
saving. Occasionally, formal
understanding of a building
archives are established to
type or system in the early
preserve the records of an
stages of programming or
establishment or an area of
even prior to obtaining the
knowledge. Information
commission, and the more
located in all of the above
specific systems-oriented
areas can be valuable during
standards can be useful for
programming and design. The
design development and
adjoining plate is from the
construction documents
architect's drawings for the Figure 5-6 Pima County Court House.
(Fig. 5-5).
Pima County Court House that Credit Roy Place Architect, Pima County Court House, Tower Details. Permission: From the
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS/ Arizona Architectural Archives, College of Architecture, The University of Arizona
are being preserved in the
ARCHIVAL MATERIALS Arizona Architectural
Figure 5-5 Planning Standards.