Assignment on Different Types Synthetic Fibers
Synthetic fibers are fibers made by humans with chemical synthesis, as opposed to natural
fibers that humans get from living organisms with little or no chemical changes. They are the
result of extensive research by scientists to improve on naturally occurring animal fibers and
plant fibers. In general, synthetic fibers are created by extruding fiber-forming materials
through spinnerets, forming a fibre. These fibers are called synthetic or artificial fibers.
Synthetic fibres are created by a process known as polymerisation which includes combining
monomers to make a long chain or [Link] word polymer comes from a Greek prefix
"poly" which means "many" and suffix "mer" which means "single units".(Note:each single
unit of a polymer is called monomer).Polymerisation are of two types:linear polymerisation
and Cross-linked polymerisation. Example are Rayon, Nylon and Polyester.
Synthetic fibers are made from synthesized polymers of small molecules. The compounds
that are used to make these fibers come from raw materials such as petroleum based
chemicals or petrochemicals. These materials are polymerized into a chemical that bond two
adjacent carbon atoms. Differing chemical compounds are used to produce different types of
synthetic fibers.
Synthetic fibers account for about half of all fiber usage, with applications in every field of
fiber and textile technology. Although many classes of fiber based on synthetic polymers
have been evaluated as potentially valuable commercial products, four of them - nylon,
polyester, acrylic and polyolefin - dominate the market. These four account for approximately
98 percent by volume of synthetic fiber production, with polyester alone accounting for
around 60 per cent.
Types of synthetic fibers:
Acrylic
Acrylic fibers are synthetic fibers made from a polymer (polyacrylonitrile) with an average
molecular weight of -100,000, about 1900 monomer units. For a fiber to be called "acrylic" in
the US, the polymer must contain at least 85% acrylonitrile monomer. Typical comonomers
are vinyl acetate or methyl acrylate. DuPont created the first acrylic fibers in 1941 and
trademarked them under the name Orlon. It was first developed in the mid-1940s but was
not produced in large quantities until the 1950s. Strong and warm, acrylic fiber is often used
for sweaters and tracksuits and as linings for boots and gloves, as well as in furnishing
fabrics and carpets. It is manufactured as a filament, then cut into short staple lengths similar
to wool hairs, and spun into yarn.
Modacrylic is a modified acrylic fiber that contains at least 35% and at most 85% acrylonitrile
monomer. The comonomers vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride or vinyl bromide used in
modacrylic give the fiber flame retardant properties. End-uses of modacrylic include faux fur,
wigs, hair extensions and protective clothing.
Production
The polymer is formed by free-radical polymerization in aqueous suspension. The fiber is
produced by dissolving the polymer in a solvent such as N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) or
aqueous sodium thiocyanate, metering it through a multi-hole spinnerette and coagulating
the resultant filaments in an aqueous solution of the same solvent (wet spinning) or
evaporating the solvent in a stream of heated inert gas (dry spinning). Washing, stretching,
drying and crimping complete the processing. Acrylic fibers are produced in a range of
deniers, usually from 0.9 to 15, as cut staple or as a 500,000 to 1 million filament tow. End
uses include sweaters, hats, hand-knitting yarns, socks, rugs, awnings, boat covers, and
upholstery; the fiber is also used as "PAN" precursor for carbon fiber. Production of acrylic
fibers is centered in the Far East, Turkey, India, Mexico, and South America, though a
number of European producers still continue to operate, including Dralon and Fisipe. US
producers have ended production (except for specialty uses such as in friction materials,
gaskets, specialty papers, conductive, and stucco), though acrylic tow and staple are still
spun into yarns in the USA. Former U.S. brands of acrylic included Acrilan (Monsanto), and
Creslan (American Cyanamid). Other brand names that are still in use include Dralon
(Dralon GmbH) and Drytex (Sudamericana de Fibras, S.A.).[citation needed] In the late
1950's Courtaulds Ltd began investigating the production of an acrylic fibre later to be called
"courtelle" by a process of solvent polymerisation. Methyl acrylate (6%) and acrylonitrile
were polymerised in a 50% solution of sodium thiocyanate to produce a dope ready for
spinning into a water bath to produce "courtelle" fibre in various grades of denier. The
sodium thiocyanate solution was reconcentrated and re used. The reaction was a continuous
process with about 5% of reactants being recycled. This recycling process resulted in the
build up of pollutants in the process as did the recycling of the solvent. A great deal of
research in the Chemical engineering laboratory in Lockhurst Lane, Coventry, and on the pre
production pilot plant at Little Heath overcame the recycling problems and resulted in the
process becoming a commercial success at a new production plant in Grimsby.
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Textile uses
Acrylic is lightweight, soft, and warm, with a wool-like feel. It can also be made to mimic
other fibers, such as cotton when spun on short staple equipment. Some acrylic is extruded
in colored or pigmented form; other is extruded in "ecru", otherwise known as "natural," "raw
white," or "undyed." Pigmented fiber has the highest lightfastness. Its fibers are very resilient
compared to both other synthetics and natural fibers. Some acrylic is used in clothing as a
less expensive alternative to cashmere, due to the similar feeling of the materials. Some
acrylic fabrics may fuzz or pill easily, though there are low-pilling variants. Acrylic takes color
well, is washable, and is generally hypoallergenic. End-uses include socks, hats, gloves,
scarves, sweaters, home furnishing fabrics, and awnings. Acrylic can also be used to make
fake fur and to make many different knitted clothes.
As acrylic is a synthetic fiber, the larvae of clothes moths are unable to digest it. However,
acrylic fibers that are blended with wool or soiled may be eaten as a consequence of having
blended fibers.
Acrylic is the "workhorse" hand-crafting fiber for crafters who knit or crochet; acrylic yarn
may be perceived as "cheap" because it is typically priced lower than its natural-fiber
counterparts, and because it lacks some of their properties, including softness and
propensity to felt. The fiber requires heat to "relax" or set the shape of the finished garment,
and it isn't as warm when wet as alternatives like wool. Some hand-knitters also complain
that the fiber "squeaks" when knitted, or that it is painful to knit with because of a lack of
"give" or stretch in the yarn. On the other hand, it is machine-washable and extremely color-
fast. This makes it useful in certain items, like garments for babies, which require constant
washing. However it is much more flammable than its natural fiber counterparts, so caution
should be used when making items for babies and children.
Polyester
Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main
chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene
terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of
plant cuticles, as well as synthetics such as polybutyrate. Natural polyester and a few
synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyester are not. The material is used
extensively in clothing.
Polyester fibers are sometimes spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with
blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends (polycot) can be strong, wrinkle and tear-
resistant, and reduce shrinking. Synthetic fibers using polyester have high water, wind and
environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. They are less fire resistant and
can melt when ignited.
Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to
natural fibers (for example, China silk, which is an essentially deceptive term in the textile
industry for a 100% polyester fiber woven to resemble the sheen and durability of insect-
derived silk).
Liquid crystalline polyester are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers. They
are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are also important
in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines.
Natural polyester could have played a significant role in the origins of life. Long
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heterogeneous polyester chains and membraneless structures are known to easily form in a
one-pot reaction without catalyst under simple prebiotic conditions.
Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction. See "condensation
reactions in polymer chemistry". The general equation for the reaction of a diol with a diacid is :
(n+1) R(OH)2 + n R´(COOH)2 → HO[ROOCR´COO]nROH + 2n H2O
Azeotrope esterification
In this classical method, an alcohol and a carboxylic acid react to form a carboxylic ester. To
assemble a polymer, the water formed by the reaction must be continually removed by azeotrope
distillation.
Alcoholic Transesterification: An alcohol-terminated oligomer and an ester-terminated oligomer
condense to form an ester linkage, with loss of an alcohol. R and R' are the two oligomer chains, R'' is
a sacrificial unit such as a methyl group (methanol is the byproduct of the esterification reaction).
Acylation (HCl method)
The acid begins as an acid chloride, and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of
hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of water. This method can be carried out in solution or as an enamel.
Silyl method
In this variant of the HCl method, the carboxylic acid chloride is converted with the trimethyl silyl
ether of the alcohol component and production of trimethyl silyl chloride is obtained
Acetate method (esterification)
Silyl acetate method
Ring-opening polymerization
Aliphatic polyesters can be assembled from lactones under very mild conditions, catalyzed
anionically, cationically or metallorganically. A number of catalytic methods for the copolymerization
of epoxides with cyclic anhydrides have also recently been shown to provide a wide array of
functionalized polyesters, both saturated and unsaturated.
Uses and applications:
Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and
home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets,
upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes
are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics
and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning
and insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding. Polyester fabrics are
highly stain-resistant—in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of
polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes.
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Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays,
holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes.
Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos
and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them
ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film
thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable
finish.
Polyolefin
Olefin fiber is a synthetic fiber made from a polyolefin, such as polypropylene or
polyethylene. It is used in wallpaper, carpeting, ropes, and vehicle interiors.
Olefin's advantages are its strength, colour fastness and comfort, its resistance to staining,
mildew, abrasion, sunlight and its good bulk and cover.
Production method:
The Federal Trade Commission's official definition of olefin fiber is ―A manufactured fiber in
which the fiber forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least
85% by weight of ethylene, propylene, or other olefin units‖
Polymerization of propylene and ethylene gases, controlled with special catalysts, creates
olefin fibers. Dye is added directly to the polymer before melt spinning is applied. Additives,
polymer variations and different process conditions can create a range of characteristics.
High pressure production, which uses ten tons per square inch, creates a film for molded
materials. Low pressure production uses a low temperature with a catalyst and hydrocarbon
solvent. This process is less expensive and produces a polyethylene polymer more for textile
use.
The polymer is then melted, spun, by a spinneret into water, or air cooled. The fiber is drawn
out to six times the spun length. Gel spinning is a new method in which a gel form of
polyethylene polymers is used.
Physical and chemical properties :
Physical
Olefin fibers can be multi- or monofilament and staple, tow, or film yarns. The fibers are
colorless and round in cross section. This cross section can be modified for different end
uses. The physical characteristics are a waxy feel and colorless.
Chemical
There are two types of polymers that can be used in olefin fibers. The first, polyethylene, is a
simple linear structure with repeating units. These fibers are used mainly for ropes, twines
and utility fabrics.
The second type, polypropylene, is a three-dimensional structure with a backbone of carbon
atoms. Methyl groups protrude from this backbone. Stereoselective polymerization orders
these methyl groups to the same spatial placement. This creates a crystalline polypropylene
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polymer. The fibers made with these polymers can be used in apparel, furnishing and
industrial products
Uses:
Apparel
Sports & active wear, socks, hoodies, thermal underwear; lining fabrics.
Home furnishing
Olefin can be used by itself or in blends for indoor and outdoor carpets, carpet tiles, and
carpet backing. The fiber can also be used in upholstery, draperies, wall coverings,
slipcovers, and floor coverings.
Automotive
Olefin can be used for interior fabrics, sun visors, arm rests, door and side panels, trunks,
parcel shelves, and resin replacement as binder fibers.
Industrial
In an industrial setting, olefin creates carpets; ropes, geo-textiles that are in contact with the
soil, filter fabrics, bagging, concrete reinforcement, and heat-sealable paper (e.g. tea- and
coffee-bags).
Aramid
Aramid fibers are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in
aerospace and military applications, for ballistic-rated body armor fabric and ballistic
composites, in bicycle tires, marine cordage, marine hull reinforcement, and as an asbestos
substitute. The name is a portmanteau of "aromatic polyamide". The chain molecules in the
fibers are highly oriented along the fiber axis. As a result, a higher proportion of the chemical
bond contributes more to fiber strength than in many other synthetic fibers. Aramides have a
very high melting point (>500 °C)
Production
World capacity of para-aramid production was estimated at about 41,000 tonnes per year in 2002 and
increases each year by 5–10%.[7] In 2007 this means a total production capacity of around 55,000
tonnes per year.
Polymer preparation
Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide
group. Simple AB homopolymers may look like
n NH2−Ar−COCl → −(NH−Ar−CO)n− + n HCl
The most well-known aramids (Kevlar, Twaron, Nomex, New Star and Teijinconex) are AABB
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polymers. Nomex, Teijinconex and New Star contain predominantly the meta-linkage and are poly-
meta phenylene isophthalamide s (MPIA). Kevlar and Twaron are both p-phenylene terephthalamide
(PPTA), the simplest form of the AABB para-polyaramide. PPTA is a product of p-phenylenediamine
(PPD) and terephthaloyl dichloride (TDC or TCl).
Production of PPTA relies on a co-solvent with an ionic component (calcium chloride (CaCl2)) to
occupy the hydrogen bonds of the amide groups, and an organic component (N-methyl pyrrolidone
(NMP)) to dissolve the aromatic polymer. This process was invented by Leo Vollbracht, who worked
at the Dutch chemical firm Akzo. Apart from the carcinogenic Hexamethylphosphorous Triamide
(HMPT), still no practical alternative of dissolving the polymer is known. The use of the NMP/CaCl2
system led to an extended patent dispute between Akzo and DuPont.
Spinning
After production of the polymer, the aramid fiber is produced by spinning the dissolved polymer to a
solid fiber from a liquid chemical blend. Polymer solvent for spinning PPTA is generally 100%
anhydrous sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Other types of aramids
Besides meta-aramids like Nomex, other variations belong to the aramid fiber range. These
are mainly of the copolyamide type, best known under the brand name Technora, as
developed by Teijin and introduced in 1976. The manufacturing process of Technora reacts
PPD and 3,4'-diaminodiphenylether (3,4'-ODA) with terephthaloyl chloride (TCl).This
relatively simple process uses only one amide solvent, and therefore spinning can be done
directly after the polymer production.
Aramid fiber characteristics
Aramids share a high degree of orientation with other fibers such as ultra-high-molecular-
weight polyethylene, a characteristic that dominates their properties.
General:
good resistance to abrasion
good resistance to organic solvents
nonconductive
very high melting point (>500 °C)
low flammability
good fabric integrity at elevated temperatures
sensitive to acids and salts
sensitive to ultraviolet radiation
prone to electrostatic charge build-up unless finished
Para-aramids
para-aramid fibers, such as Kevlar and Twaron, provide outstanding strength-to-weight
properties
high Chord modulus
high tenacity
low creep
low elongation at break (~3.5%)
difficult to dye – usually solution-dyed
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Uses:
flame-resistant clothing (for example, military MIL-G-181188B suits).
heat-protective clothing and helmets
body armor, competing with PE-based fiber products such as Dyneema and Spectra
composite materials
asbestos replacement (e.g. brake linings)
hot air filtration fabrics
tires, newly as Sulfron (sulfur-modified Twaron)
mechanical rubber goods reinforcement
ropes and cables
wicks for fire dancing
optical fiber cable systems
sail cloth (not necessarily racing boat sails)
sporting goods
drumheads
wind instrument reeds, such as the Fibracell brand
loudspeaker diaphragms
boathull material
fiber-reinforced concrete
reinforced thermoplastic pipes
tennis strings (e.g. by Ashaway and Prince tennis companies)
hockey sticks (normally in composition with such materials as wood and carbon)
snowboards
jet engine enclosures
Fishing Reel Drag systems
Asphalt reinforcement
Prusiks for rock climbers (which slide along the main rope and can otherwise melt due to
friction)
Conclusion
The chemists and technicians who specialize in man-made fibres today are capable of
manufacturing customized fibres or developing completely new substances which match the
demands posed by the different applications to a very high extent. Customized fibres can be
created specifically for use in apparel, for home furnishings or for industrial uses. The
manufacturers of man-made fibres today are able, for example, to:
– Vary the fineness of filament yarns, the number of filaments and staple fibres;
– Determine the length of fibres depending on the application and mixture;
– Produce anything from a brilliant sheen to an ultra-dull look;
– Produce the cross-sections of the filaments in a round shape, in three, six, eight-sided or
any other form;
– Alter the affinity for dyes of various classes;
-- Determine the structure of yarns, be they flat, or textured or bulked yarns produced in
various manufacturing processes.
The large market share of man-made fibres underscores the advantages of man-made fibres
in processing and usage. The textile market is no longer thinkable without man-made fibres.
