Measurement[edit]

Researchers can measure the intensity of sunlight using a sunshine recorder, pyranometer, or pyrheliometer. To calculate the amount of sunlight reaching the ground, both
the eccentricity of Earth's elliptic orbit and the attenuation by Earth's atmosphere have to be taken into account. The extraterrestrial solar illuminance (Eext), corrected for the
elliptic orbit by using the day number of the year (dn), is given to a good approximation by [4]

where dn=1 on January 1st; dn=32 on February 1st; dn=59 on March 1 (except on leap years, where dn=60), etc. In this formula dn–3 is used, because in modern
times Earth's perihelion, the closest approach to the Sun and, therefore, the maximum Eext occurs around January 3 each year. The value of 0.033412 is determined
knowing that the ratio between the perihelion (0.98328989 AU) squared and the aphelion (1.01671033 AU) squared should be approximately 0.935338.

The solar illuminance constant (Esc), is equal to 128×10 3 lux. The direct normal illuminance (Edn), corrected for the attenuating effects of the atmosphere is given by:

where c is the atmospheric extinction and m is the relative optical airmass. The atmospheric extinction brings the number of lux down to around 100 000 lux.

The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and thus on the time of year. It is about 3.3%
higher than average in January and 3.3% lower in July (see below). If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the
Earth–Sun distance is 1 astronomical unit), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the zenith is about 1050 W/m2, but the total amount
(direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m2.[5] In terms of energy, sunlight at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent
infrared (above 700 nm), 42 to 43 percent visible (400 to 700 nm), and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm).[6] At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about
30% more intense, having about 8% ultraviolet (UV),[7] with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically damaging short-wave ultraviolet. [8]

Direct sunlight has a luminous efficacy of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux. Multiplying the figure of 1050 watts per square meter by 93 lumens per watt
indicates that bright sunlight provides an illuminance of approximately 98 000 lux (lumens per square meter) on a perpendicular surface at sea level. The
illumination of a horizontal surface will be considerably less than this if the Sun is not very high in the sky. Averaged over a day, the highest amount of sunlight on
a horizontal surface occurs in January at the South Pole (see insolation).

Dividing the irradiance of 1050 W/m2 by the size of the Sun's disk in steradians gives an average radiance of 15.4 MW per square metre per steradian. (However,
the radiance at the center of the sun's disk is somewhat higher than the average over the whole disk due to limb darkening.) Multiplying this by π gives an upper
limit to the irradiance which can be focused on a surface using mirrors: 48.5 MW/m2.

Composition and power[edit]

Solar irradiance spectrum above atmosphere and at surface. Extreme UV and X-rays are produced (at left of wavelength range shown) but comprise very small amounts

of the Sun's total output power.

See also: Ultraviolet, Infrared, and Light

The spectrum of the Sun's solar radiation is close to that of a black body[9][10] with a temperature of about 5,800 K.[11] The Sun emits EM radiation across most of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Although the Sun produces gamma rays as a result of the nuclear-fusion process, internal absorption and thermalization convert
these super-high-energy photons to lower-energy photons before they reach the Sun's surface and are emitted out into space. As a result, the Sun does not emit
gamma rays from this process, but it does emit gamma rays from solar flares.[12] The Sun also emits X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, and even radio
waves;[13] the only direct signature of the nuclear process is the emission of neutrinos.

Although the solar corona is a source of extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, these rays make up only a very small amount of the power output of the Sun (see
spectrum at right). The spectrum of nearly all solar electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth's atmosphere spans a range of 100 nm to about
1 mm (1,000,000 nm).[citation needed] This band of significant radiation power can be divided into five regions in increasing order of wavelengths:[14]

 Ultraviolet C or (UVC) range, which spans a range of 100 to 280 nm. The term ultraviolet refers to the fact that the radiation is at higher frequency than
violet light (and, hence, also invisible to the human eye). Ultra means beyond. Due to absorption by the atmosphere very little reaches Earth's surface.
This spectrum of radiation has germicidal properties, as used in germicidal lamps.
 Ultraviolet B or (UVB) range spans 280 to 315 nm. It is also greatly absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, and along with UVC causes the photochemical
reaction leading to the production of the ozone layer. It directly damages DNA and causes sunburn, but is also required for vitamin D synthesis in the skin
and fur of mammals.[15]
 Ultraviolet A or (UVA) spans 315 to 400 nm. This band was once[when?] held to be less damaging to DNA, and hence is used in cosmetic artificial sun
tanning (tanning booths and tanning beds) and PUVA therapy for psoriasis. However, UVA is now known to cause significant damage to DNA via indirect
routes (formation of free radicals and reactive oxygen species), and can cause cancer.[16]
 Visible range or light spans 380 to 700 nm [17]. As the name suggests, this range is visible to the naked eye. It is also the strongest output range of the
Sun's total irradiance spectrum.
 Infrared range that spans 700 nm to 1,000,000 nm (1 mm). Infra means below. It comprises an important part of the electromagnetic radiation that
reaches Earth. Scientists divide the infrared range into three types on the basis of wavelength:
o Infrared-A: 700 nm to 1,400 nm
o Infrared-B: 1,400 nm to 3,000 nm
o Infrared-C: 3,000 nm to 1 mm.

Published tables[edit]
Tables of direct solar radiation on various slopes from 0 to 60 degrees north latitude, in calories per square centimetre, issued in 1972 and published by Pacific
Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Portland, Oregon, USA, appear on the web. [18]

Solar constant[edit]
Main article: Solar constant

Solar irradiance spectrum at top of atmosphere, on a linear scale and plotted against wavenumber

The solar constant is a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane
perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to Earth). The "solar constant" includes all types of
solar radiation, not just the visible light. Its average value was thought to be approximately 1366 W/m²,[19] varying slightly with solar activity, but recent
recalibrations of the relevant satellite observations indicate a value closer to 1361 W/m² is more realistic.[20]

Total solar irradiance (TSI) and spectral solar

irradiance (SSI) upon Earth[edit]
Total solar irradiance (TSI) – the amount of solar radiation received at the top of Earth's atmosphere – has been measured since 1978 by a series of
overlapping NASA and ESA satellite experiments to be 1.365 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m²).[19][21][22][23] TSI observations are continuing today with
the ACRIMSAT/ACRIM3, SOHO/VIRGO and SORCE/TIM satellite experiments.[24] Variation of TSI has been discovered on many timescales including the solar
magnetic cycle [25] and many shorter periodic cycles.[26] TSI provides the energy that drives Earth's climate, so continuation of the TSI time series database is
critical to understanding the role of solar variability in climate change.

Spectral solar irradiance (SSI) – the spectral distribution of the TSI – has been monitored since 2003 by the SORCE Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM). It has
been found that SSI at UV (ultraviolet) wavelength corresponds in a less clear, and probably more complicated fashion, with Earth's climate responses than
earlier assumed, fueling broad avenues of new research in “the connection of the Sun and stratosphere, troposphere, biosphere, ocean, and Earth’s climate”. [27]

Intensity in the Solar System[edit]

 Sunlight on Mars is dimmer than on Earth. This photo of a Martian sunset was imaged by Mars Pathfinder.

Different bodies of the Solar System receive light of an intensity inversely proportional to the square of their distance from Sun. A rough table comparing the
amount of solar radiation received by each planet in the Solar System follows (from data in [1]):

distance (AU) Solar radiation (W/m²)

Planet or dwarf planet

Perihelion Aphelion maximum minimum

Mercury 0.3075 0.4667 14,446 6,272

Venus 0.7184 0.7282 2,647 2,576

Earth 0.9833 1.017 1,413 1,321

Mars 1.382 1.666 715 492

Jupiter 4.950 5.458 55.8 45.9

Saturn 9.048 10.12 16.7 13.4

Uranus 18.38 20.08 4.04 3.39

Neptune 29.77 30.44 1.54 1.47

Pluto 29.66 48.87 1.55 0.57

The actual brightness of sunlight that would be observed at the surface also depends on the presence and composition of an atmosphere. For example, Venus's
thick atmosphere reflects more than 60% of the solar light it receives. The actual illumination of the surface is about 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in
the daytime with overcast clouds". [28]
Sunlight on Mars would be more or less like daylight on Earth during a slightly overcast day, and, as can be seen in the pictures taken by the rovers, there is
enough diffuse sky radiation that shadows would not seem particularly dark. Thus, it would give perceptions and "feel" very much like Earth daylight. The
spectrum on the surface is slightly redder than that on Earth, due to scattering by reddish dust in the Martian atmosphere.

For comparison, sunlight on Saturn is slightly brighter than Earth sunlight at the average sunset or sunrise (see daylight for comparison table). Even on Pluto, the
sunlight would still be bright enough to almost match the average living room. To see sunlight as dim as full moonlight on Earth, a distance of about 500 AU
(~69 light-hours) is needed; only a handful of objects in the Solar System have been discovered that are known to orbit farther than such a distance, among
them 90377 Sedna and (87269) 2000 OO67.

Surface illumination[edit]

Sunlight shining through clouds, giving rise to crepuscular rays

The spectrum of surface illumination depends upon solar elevation due to atmospheric effects, with the blue spectral component dominating during twilight before
and after sunrise and sunset, respectively, and red dominating during sunrise and sunset. These effects are apparent in natural light photography where the
principal source of illumination is sunlight as mediated by the atmosphere.

While the color of the sky is usually determined by Rayleigh scattering, an exception occurs at sunset and twilight. "Preferential absorption of sunlight by ozone
over long horizon paths gives the zenith sky its blueness when the sun is near the horizon". [29]

See diffuse sky radiation for more details.

Spectral composition of sunlight at Earth's surface[edit]

The Sun may be said to illuminate, which is a measure of the light within a specific sensitivity range. Many animals (including humans) have a sensitivity range of
approximately 400–700 nm,[30] and given optimal conditions the absorption and scattering by Earth's atmosphere produces illumination that approximates
an equal-energy illuminant for most of this range. [31] The useful range for color vision in humans, for example, is approximately 450–650 nm. Aside from effects
that arise at sunset and sunrise, the spectral composition changes primarily in respect to how directly sunlight is able to illuminate. When illumination is
indirect, Rayleigh scattering in the upper atmosphere will lead blue wavelengths to dominate. Water vapour in the lower atmosphere produces further scattering
and ozone, dust and water particles will also absorb selective wavelengths. [32][33]
Spectrum of the visible wavelengths at approximately sea level; illumination by direct sunlight compared with direct sunlight scattered by cloud cover and with indirect sunlight by

varying degrees of cloud cover. The yellow line shows the spectrum of direct illumination under optimal conditions. The other illumination conditions are scaled to show their

relation to direct illumination. The units of spectral power are simply raw sensor values (with a linear response at specific wavelengths).

Variations in solar irradiance[edit]

Seasonal and orbital variation[edit]
Further information: Insolation and Sunshine duration

On Earth, the solar radiation varies with the angle of the Sun above the horizon, with longer sunlight duration at high latitudes during summer, varying to no
sunlight at all in winter near the pertinent pole. When the direct radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine. The warming of the ground (and
other objects) depends on the absorption of the electromagnetic radiation in the form of heat.

The amount of radiation intercepted by a planetary body varies inversely with the square of the distance between the star and the planet.
Earth's orbit and obliquity change with time (over thousands of years), sometimes forming a nearly perfect circle, and at other times stretching out to an orbital
eccentricity of 5% (currently 1.67%). As the orbital eccentricity changes, the average distance from the Sun (the semimajor axis does not significantly vary, and so
the total insolation over a year remains almost constant due to Kepler's second law,

where   is the "areal velocity" invariant. That is, the integration over the orbital period (also invariant) is a constant.

If we assume the solar radiation power P as a constant over time and the solar irradiation given by the inverse-square law, we obtain also the
average insolation as a constant.

But the seasonal and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation received at Earth's surface does vary. [34] The effect of Sun angle on
climate results in the change in solar energy in summer and winter. For example, at latitudes of 65 degrees, this can vary by more than 25% as a
result of Earth's orbital variation. Because changes in winter and summer tend to offset, the change in the annual average insolation at any given
location is near zero, but the redistribution of energy between summer and winter does strongly affect the intensity of seasonal cycles. Such
changes associated with the redistribution of solar energy are considered a likely cause for the coming and going of recent ice
ages (see: Milankovitch cycles).

Solar intensity variation[edit]

Further information: Solar variation

Space-based observations of solar irradiance started in 1978. These measurements show that the solar constant is not constant. It varies on many
time scales, including the 11-year sunspot solar cycle. [25] When going further back in time, one has to rely on irradiance reconstructions, using
sunspots for the past 400 years or cosmogenic radionuclides for going back 10,000 years. Such reconstructions have been done. [35][36][37][38] These
studies show that in addition to the solar irradiance variation with the solar cycle (the (Schwabe) cycle), the solar activity varies with longer cycles,
such as the proposed 88 year (Gleisberg cycle), 208 year (DeVries cycle) and 1,000 year (Eddy cycle).