Notes
Q1 Describe Xerxes family background and succession to kingship
Family Background
- His brothers were powerful satraps generals that were in charge of a
portion of the empire such as Achaemenes who was in charge of Egypt
- Herodotus accounts records that Xerxes was the son of darius and
Atossa,the son of Cyrus the Great
- If herodotus source can be relied on his reference to Atossa then this link
is significant assuming that dairius was not a direct claimant to the throne
of the death of Cyrus II
- Dairius had several other wives,including Atossa”s sister Artystone and
Phaedyme the daughter of Gobyras who was a persisn noble.
- As a result xerxes family included many brothers and half brothers
- Some were older then him giving them some claim to the throne
Succession to kingship
- This goes to how Xerxes became king
- In the persepolis treasury relief of his father Dairius I, Xerxes is shown
standing behind the throne in the role of the crown prince
- Based on this inscription Xerxes is said to have become king after darius
had left the throne
- Also scholars such as Matt Waters suggest that Xerxes showed a co-
regency with his father in the last 11 years of darius reign
- It was not straightforward that xerxes would become king because he
wasn't the eldest son
- Artobazanes was the eldest and appears to have named dairius’s
successor in 507BC
- However before dairius’s death there were generals between xerxes
supporters and Artobazanes supporters
- Herodotus tells us that the solution was provided by Demaratus an exiled
spartan king who pointed out that xerxes was the first born son to dairius
after he had taken over the throne
- Because of this Xerxes had a better claim then Artobazanes who was born
when his father was still a commoner
- J.M Cork in his book the persian empire states that xerxes had a stronger
claim due to his mother Atossa who was the daughter of Cyrus the Great
Q2 Xerxes religious policies
- The Persian Zoroastrian god Ahuramazda was the major deity worshipped
by Achaemenid kings
- First appeared in royal inscriptions from the reign of Xerxes father Dairius I
such on the Behistun rock
- The kings worship of Ahuramazda gave the religion an important political
order in justifying their claims to the throne and the activities of their reign
they could seek divine approval
- A important concept of this religion was Arta meaning truth or
righteousness
- Xerxes demonstrated his devotion of Arta by naming his son and
successor Artaxerxes
- Herodotus account of the invasion of the Greek mainland records some of
Xerxes behaviours that appear to go against this concept
- Such as the sacrifice of 9 boys and 9 girls at the river strymon that had no
justification for human sacrifice
- The Daeva inscription found at Persepolis has been used by scholars such
as Wisenhofer to support a range of opinions about Xerxes religious policy
- Xerxes aimed to strengthen the cult of Ahuramazda by removing less
important goals.
- Xerxes wanted to demonstrate his control over rebellious ports of the
empire by forbidding them to worship their own gods
- Although Granger historical account was that while temple records from
Egypt confirm that xerxes prevented excessive destruction by some
temples which would show that xerxes was tolerant of the Egyptian
practices
- Xerxes did promote the worship of Ahuramazda and Arta and in doing so
added strength to his claim to rule with fairness and power.
Q3 What was Xerxes role in the invasion of the Greek mainland 480-479
- When Xerxes decided to invade Greece in 480BC-479BC he intended to
lead the campaign
- Xerxes was to be commander in chief and he would have six field
marshals and thirty general as well as many junior officers
- Persian army depended on Mounted men and archers in contrast to Greek
hoplites who used long thrusting spears
- Herodotus states that xerxes had 1.7 million foot soldiers and an addition
of 1.8 million men from Asia
- However modern historians such as Emma bridges feel that 200 thousand
to 300 thousand would be realistic with an addition of 750 thousand from
Asia
Reasons for Invasion
- The reason for Xerxes taking such a large army is due to displaying his
empire's military might.
- It would also legitimise his position as a powerful Persian king who had
extended the Persian empire
- Also When Xerxes Father died Xerxes inherited dairius’s unfinished
business of the invasion of the Greek land
- So he wanted To punish the Athenians for their involvement in the Ionian
revolt and for the Persian defeat at marathon in 490BC
- As well as to gain Persian glory as his predecessors had done
Strategy
- Herodotus tells us that xerxes called a conference of the leading men in
the country to find out their attitude toward the war and explain them to his
own wishes
- Xerxes sent envoys to the Greek states demanding earth and water,
Although Athens and Sparta weren’t included for their previous offences
- Many of the Greek states had little choice to agree with the Persian
demands due to their overwhelming Persian force
- A vital component of Xerxes strategy was the decision to invade Greece
with a mainland and sea attack
- This was so the navy kept close contact with the army so they could
provide supplies, protection and communication
Xerxes Tactics
- Xerxes Persian battle tactics relied on the use of vast numbers of soldiers
who were thrown in wave after wave against the enemy front line.
- Although this tactic was more suitable on Persian lands with open space
then Greece with narrow spaces due to their mountains.
- Another Persian tactic was the use of archers in the initial attack. This was
to panic the opposing force and prepare way for the infantry
- The main component was their cavalry which would support the infantry
and used its mobility to enable them to harass any section of the enemy
line that tried to retreat.
Q4 Describe the circumstance of Xerxes Death
- Very little is known about Xerxes last years
- He was busy with his building program continuing the works of darius and
the administration of his empire
- 4 years before his death His Persian forces in Ionia suffered a final defeat
by Greek forces at the battle of the Eurymrdon in 460 BC
- This showed that the reputation of Persia was deteriorating and the empire
was losing faith in them
- Archaeological evidence of Persepolis archives refer to a famine in Persia
in 467 BC
- According to this evidence,the shortage of grain resulted in a dramatic
price increase and a breakdown of their economy.
- Scholars such as Peter green mention that 100 high ranking officials were
dismissed in an attempt to reserve as much grain as possible within his
inner circle
- This might suggest that xerxes reputation was in decline even within his
people.
- Crestias mentions a main source for Xerxes death was that he was
murdered in his bed in his palace
- Key corespirstors appear to be artabanus who was his advisor and had a
strong grudge against him , his chief eunuch named Aspamites and
Xerxes younger son Artaxerxes was possibly involved with the conspiracy
- Diododus own version of the story was that Artabanus attempts to
assassinate Xerxes with the chief eunuch and then sets out after Xerxes
sons where Artabanus attempts to murder Artaxerxes but then was killed
by Artaxerxes in revenge for Xerxes death but Diododus does not mention
how he soonfound out about the assassination.
- After his death he was buried at Naqsh-e Rostam in Iran where the
Achaemenid kings such as Darius would be buried there.
Q5 Impact of Xerxes on the Persian and Greek Worlds
Religious Policy
- Xerxes had a huge impact on the Persian and Greek worlds as he used
religion to influence his own empire, Started and completed many works in
his building program, Stopped revolts within his empire and Made some
successful attempts within his invasion of Greece.
- Xerxes chose to emphasize the concept of Arta in Zoroastrianism which is
truth and righteousness towards the Persian world
- According to Herodotus Xerxes only ate one meal a day which followed the
religious practices of his god Ahuramazda.
- The Daeva inscription mentions Xerxes religious policies, which mentioned
- That he was a religious extremist & intolerant of other gods and was a
religious reformer and lawgiver
- However Modern historian Weisehofer mentions that the Deava inscription
was ideological and subjects of the empire were never forced to give up
their religion
- And there is evidence of non Zoroastrianism as Herodotus’ account of
Xerxes’ invasion of Greece records several examples of Xerxes
participating in non-Zoroastrian actions such as the Sacrifice of nine boys
& girls at the river Strymon
- This suggests that Xerxes only used the worship of Ahura Mazda to
strengthen his own imperial power and to assert royal virtue within his
empire
Building Program
- By the time Xerxes became king, his predecessors had established a
tradition of a building program that became a mark of effective kingship
- Xerxes contributed the most to the program and is credited especially
within his last few years of his life
- Herodotus mentions that he had completed the Palace of Darius at Susa
and completed some buildings at Ecbatana but his main building project
was the continuation of Persepolis construction.
- Under his command, A Gateway of All Lands was constructed, a new
palace for his court was erected, and a new Hall of 100 Columns was
begun.
Administration of Empire
- Xerxes has considerable assistance in administering the empire
- The empire was divided into administrative areas called satrapies. When
Xerxes became king there were over 20, each ruled by a satrap
responsible to the king.
- The satrap collected taxes,enlisted people for military service, and
administered the economy.
- Granger mentions that the law was administered locally with a right of
appeal to the satrap or even Xerxes himself, assisted by a panel of royal
judges who formed a High Court and held office for life.
Egypt/Babylon Revolt
- It began when Xerxes became king where he had been immediately faced
with a crisis in Egypt where a revolt had overthrown Persian power due to
heavy taxes.
- He suppressed this revolt without great difficulty in 485 BC
- J.M Cook mentions that this was a fortunate crisis for them as xerxes
extended agricultural production and kept firm control over revenue which
caused trade in Egypt during xerxes reign
- This was followed by a revolt in Babylonia in 482 BC where xerxes had
destroyed the fortifications and temples and melted down there patron god
the statue of Mard
Greek World Impact
Q6: Success or failure? Assess the contributions of Xerxes as ruler of the
Persian Empire
- A Lot of Xerxes successful contributions to the empire came from Persia
such as the administration of empire, The egyptian and babylon revolt, the
building program and the religious policies put in place by xerxes.
Administration of Empire
- Xerxes was very successful and had considerable assistance in
administering the empire
- The empire was divided into administrative areas called satrapies. When
Xerxes became king there were over 20, each ruled by a satrap
responsible to the king who was a close relative or acquaintance such as
his brother Achaemenes who ruled over Egypt.
- The satrap collected taxes,enlisted people for military service, and
administered the economy.
- Granger mentions the law was administered locally with a right of appeal to
the satrap or even Xerxes himself, assisted by a panel of royal judges who
formed a High Court and held that position for life.
Egypt/Babylon Revolt
- Xerxes was also very successful when he became king where he had
been immediately faced with a crisis in Egypt where a revolt had
overthrown Persian power due to heavy taxes which he suppressed this
revolt without great difficulty in 485 BC.
- J.M Cook mentions that this was a fortunate crisis for them as xerxes
extended agricultural production and kept firm control over revenue which
caused trade in Egypt to flourish during xerxes reign
- This was followed by a revolt in Babylonia in 482 BC where xerxes had
destroyed the fortifications and temples and melted down there patron god
the statue of Marduk
Building Program
- By the time Xerxes became king, his predecessors had established a
tradition of a building program that became a mark of effective kingship
- Xerxes was very successful as he contributed the most to the program
compared to the other kings and is credited especially within his last few
years of his life
- Herodotus mentions He Had completed the Palace of Darius at Susa and
completed some buildings at Ecbatana but his main building project was
the continuation of Persepolis construction.
- Under his command, A Gateway of All Lands was constructed, a new
palace for his court was erected, and a new Hall of 100 Columns was
begun.
Religious Policy
- Xerxes was successful in emphasizing the concept of Arta in
Zoroastrianism which is truth and righteousness towards the Persian world
- According to Herodotus Xerxes only ate one meal a day which followed the
religious practices of his god Ahuramazda.
- The Daeva inscription mentions Xerxes religious policies, which mentioned
- That he was a religious extremist & intolerant of other gods and was a
religious reformer and lawgiver
- However Modern historian Weisehofer mentions that the Deava inscription
was ideological and subjects of the empire were never forced to give up
their religion
- And there is evidence of non Zoroastrianism as Herodotus’ account of
Xerxes’ invasion of Greece records several examples of Xerxes
participating in non-Zoroastrian actions such as the Sacrifice of nine boys
& girls at the river Strymon
- This suggests that Xerxes only used the worship of Ahura Mazda to
strengthen his own imperial power and to assert royal virtue within his
empire
Invasion of Greece
- Xerxes failures came much from greece where he had failed his plan to
take over greece
- Xerxes' quest against Greece did not put him in favourable light as a
successful military commander.
- Herodotus records that Xerxes was at first unwilling to invade Greece,
however, he was eventually convinced by his advisors, including
Mardonius who was his military commander.
- In the years leading up to the invasion of Greece, Xerxes made many
preparations, which initially gave promise to the Persian invasion.
- While Xerxes managed to reach his goal to burn Athens in revenge for the
burning of the temple at Sardis, Xerxes was not satisfied and was aiming
at partial success, he wanted total victory, the Greek mainland was to be
brought fully into the Empire of the Persians.
- Peter Green mentions that he might have been pressured as his past
predecessors conquered many parts of the empire such as Darius who
had conquered Macedonia, cyclades and the island of naxos.
Reputation of Xerxes
- Due to his greed to conquer the whole of Greece he had failed the battle of
salamis and was forced to retreat and his reputation was heavily shattered
- Although heavily outnumbered, the Greek Allies were persuaded by the
Athenian general Themistocles to bring the Persian fleet to battle again
after the battle of artemisium, in the hope that a victory would prevent
naval operations against the Peloponnese. The Persian king Xerxes was
also eager for a decisive battle to conquer all of greece. As a result the
Persian navy rowed into the Straits of Salamis and tried to block both
entrances. In the cramped conditions of the Straits, the great Persian
numbers were an active hindrance, as ships struggled to maneuver and
became disorganized. Seizing the opportunity, the Greek fleet formed in
line and scored a decisive victory.
- Xerxes retreated to Asia with much of his army, leaving Mardonius to
complete the conquest of Greece. However, the following year, the
remainder of the Persian army was decisively beaten at the Battle of
Plataea
- Due to his greed to conquer the whole of Greece he had failed the battle of
salamis and was forced to retreat and his reputation was heavily shattered
- Despite this it can be concluded that regardless of Xerxes’ military
blunders during his attempted expansion into Greece,he had many
successful influences within his own empire
