Terminology

STRUCTURES: Engineering

Compression
Stress characterized by pressing together.

Dead load
The weight of the structure itself, independent of traffic or the environment, which must
be supported by the structure. Compare to live load.

Deflection
The perpendicular distance a beam bends from straight, due to load and span.

Force
External influence on an object which tends to produce a change in its shape or causes
movement.

Live load
The dynamic or moving weight, such as traffic, carried by a structure. Compare to dead
load.

Moment
The tendency of a force to cause a rotating motion.

Parallel
Positioning of a member so that it is aligned with another in such a way that if extended
the two members would not meet. Compare to perpendicular and transverse.

Perpendicular
Positioning of a member so that it projects out from or crosses another at a right angle.
Compare to parallel and transverse.

Posttension
A type of Prestressing in which reinforcing tendons are fed through tubes which are
covered by concrete poured into the form. Once the concrete cures and the forms are
removed, the tendon is clamped on one end and jacked tighter on the other until the
required tension is achieved. This produces a reinforced concrete beam with a postive
camber which is able to withstand greater loads without deflection as compared to
unreinforced beams of similar dimensions. Compare to pretension.

Prestressing
Methods of increasing the load bearing capacity of concrete by applying increased
tension on steel tendons or bars inside a beam. Types of prestressing include posttension
and pretension.
Pretension
A type of prestressing in which reinforcing tendons stretched to a desired tension and
then covered by concrete poured into the form. Once the concrete cures and the forms are
removed, the tension of tendon is transfered to the concrete increasing its compression
and creating a positive camber. This produces a reinforced concrete beam which is able
to withstand greater loads without deflection as compared to unreinforced beams of
similar dimensions. Compare to posttension.

Also, cable hangers (or suspenders) used to support a bridge deck are commonly
pretensioned before being attached to the deck.

Shear
Stress placed transversely on a member in opposite directions.

Strain
The deformation of an object caused by a force acting upon it. Compressive strain is the
shortening of an object in compression. Tensile strain is the enlongation of an object in
tension. Shearing strain is a lateral deformation caused by a force which tends to move
part of an object more than another. Compare to stress.

Stress
The resistance of an object to external force. Compressive stress develops as an object in
compression resists being shortened. Tensile stress develops as an object in tension
resists being enlongated. Shearing stress develops as an object subject to shearing forces
resists deformation. Compare to strain.

Structure
A stable assembly of components which carries a load while resisting various applied
stresses, and transfers the load though its foundation to the ground.

Tension
Stress characterized by pulling apart.

Thrust
A force caused by one part of a structure pushing outward against another. The thrust at
the abutments of segmental arch is also called drift.

Transverse
Positioning of a member so that it projects out from or crosses another, generally in a
horizontal position. Compare to parallel and perpendicular. Also, describes a
movement across the length of an object as opposed to along its length.

MATERIALS: Masonry

Aggregate
Crushed stone, gravel, or sand added to cement to make concrete.
Ashlar
Cut, squared building stone finely dressed on all sides adjacent to other stones. Requires
only very thin mortar joints.

Random ashlar uses rectangular stones in discontinuous courses. Coursed ashlar uses
rectangular stones of the same height in each horizontal course, but each course may vary
in height. Broken rangework arranges ashlar units into horizontal courses of varying
heights, which may be divided into horizontal groups at various intervals.

Belt course
A horizontal course in a masonry wall which is of different color, texture, or size.

Concrete
An artifical, stonelike building material made by combining cement with aggregate and
adding sufficient water to cause it to set and bind the materials together. There are
various mixtures to meet specific performance requirements. It is also commonly
reinforced by placing steel mesh or rods before pouring into the forms.

Dressed stone
A stone masonry unit which has been squared and shaped for precise fit with other
stones. Undressed stone has naturally rough and irregular shapes.

Joint
The place where two masonry units meet, often bound together by mortar.

Masonry
Construction method using units such as stone, brick, and concrete block which are
usually joined with a binding agent such as mortar. Mortar is a mixture of lime and/or
pulverized clay (cement) with very fine sand and water. Less often, the units are held in
place by their own weight, especially with very large stones. Also includes concrete
construction.

Reinforced concrete
Concrete which gains added strength by placing wire mesh or rods into the formwork
before the concrete it poured.

Rubble
Rough, irregular stone fragments used in construction of a wall or wall surface.

A random rubble wall has discontinuous courses and may include smaller garrets, small
stones used to wedge larger ones into position or fill gaps. A coursed rubble wall is more
organized and built to a level course at various intervals. A squared rubble wall is built of
roughly squared stones of varying size which are brought to level courses every third of
fourth stone.
Rustication
Ashlar masonry having the visible surfaces raised or textured in contrast to the finely
dressed joints.

STRUCTURES: Bridge

Abutment
Part of a structure which supports the end of a span or accepts the thrust of an arch; often
supports and retains the approach embankment.

Anchor span
Located at the outermost end, it counterbalances the arm of span extending in the
opposite direction from a major point of support. Often attached to an abutment.

Anchorage
Located at the outermost ends, the part of a suspension bridge to which the cables are
attached. Similar in location to an abutment of a beam bridge.

Aqueduct
A pipe or channel, open or enclosed, which carries water. May also be used as part of a
canal to carry boats. Sometimes carried by a bridge.

Arch
A curved structure which supports a vertical load mainly by axial compression.

Arch barrel
The inner surface of an arch extending the full width of the structure.

Arch ring
An outer course of stone forming the arch. Made of a series of voussoirs. An archivolt is
an arch ring with decorating moldings.

Ballustrade
A decorative railing, especially one constructed of concrete or stone, including the top
and bottom rail and the vertical supports called ballusters. May also include larger
vertical supports called stanchions.

Baltimore truss
A subdivided Pratt truss commonly constructed for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. It
has angled end posts and a top chord which is straight and horizontal. Compare to
camelback truss and Pennsylvania truss.

Bascule bridge
From the French word for "see-saw," a bascule bridge features a movable span (leaf)
which rotates on a horizontal hinged axis (trunnion) to raise one end vertically. A large
counterweight is used to offset to weight of the raised leaf. May have a single raising leaf
or two which meet in the center when closed. Compare to swing bridge and vertical lift
bridge.

Beam
A horizontal structure member supporting vertical loads by resisting bending. A girder is
a larger beam, especially when made of multiple plates. Deeper, longer members are
created by using trusses.

Bearing
A device at the ends of beams which is placed on top of a pier or abutment. The ends of
the beam rest on the bearing.

Bent
Part of a bridge substructure. A rigid frame commonly made of reinforced concrete or
steel which supports a vertical load and is placed transerse to the length of a structure.
Bents are commonly used to support beams and girders. An end bent is the supporting
frame forming part of an abutment.

Each vertical member of a bent may be called a column, pier, or pile. The horizontal
member resting on top of the columns is a bent cap. The columns stand on top of some
type of foundation or footer which is usually hidden below grade.

A bent commonly has at least two or more vertical supports. Another term used to
describe a bent is capped pile pier. A support having a single column with bent cap is
sometimes called a "hammerhead" pier.

Bowstring truss
A truss having a curved top chord and straight bottom chord meeting at each end.

Box girder
A steel beam built-up from many shapes to form a hollow cross-section.

Brace-ribbed arch (trussed arch)

Bridge
A raised structure built to carry vehicles or pedestrians over an obstacle.

Buttress
A wall projecting perpendicularly from another wall which prevents its outward
movement. Usually wider at its base and tapering toward the top.

Cable
Part of a suspension bridge extending from an anchorage over the tops of the towers and
down to the opposite anchorage. Suspenders or hangers are attached along its length to
support the deck.
Cable-stayed bridge
A variation of suspension bridge in which the tension members extend from one or more
towers at varying angles to carry the deck. Allowing much more freedom in design form,
this type does not use cables draped over towers, nor the anchorages at each end, as in a
traditional suspension bridge.

Camber
A positive, upward curve built into a beam which compensates for some of the vertical
load and anticipated deflection.

Camelback truss
A truss having a curved top chord and straight bottom chord meeting at each end,
especially when there are more than one used end to end. Compare to Baltimore truss
and Pennsylvania truss.

Cantilever
A structural member which projects beyond a supporting column or wall and is
counterbalanced and/or supported at only one end.

Castellated girder
A steel beam fabricated by making a zig-zag cut along its web, then welding the two
sides together at their peaks. This creates a beam which has increased depth and therefore
greater strength, but is not increased in weight.

Catenary
Curve formed by a rope or chain hanging freely between two supports. The curved cables
or chains used to support suspension bridges may be referred to as catenaries.

Centering
Temporary structure or falsework supporting an arch during construction.

Chord
Either of the two principal members of a truss extending from end to end, connected by
web members.

Column
A vertical structural member used to support compressive loads. Also see pier and pile.

Continuous span
A superstructure which extends as one piece over multiple supports.

Corbelled arch
Masonry built over an opening by progressively overlapping the courses from each side
until they meet at the top center. Not a true arch as the structure relies on strictly vertical
compression, not axial compression.
Counter
A truss web member which functions only when a structure is partially loaded.

Cradle
Part of a suspension bridge which carries the cable over the top of the tower.

Cripple
A structural member which does not extend the full height of others around it and does
not carry as much load.

Crown
On road surfaces, where the center is the highest point and the surface slopes downward
in opposite directions, assisting in drainage. Also a point at the top of an arch.

Culvert
A drain, pipe or channel which allows water to pass under a road, railroad or
embankment.

Deck
The top surface of a bridge which carries the traffic.

Deck truss
A truss which carries its deck on its top chord. Compare to pony truss and through
truss.

Elliptical arch
An arch formed by mutiple arcs each of which is drawn from its own center. Compare to
a roman arch which is a semi-circular arc drawn from a single centerpoint.

Embankment
Angled grading of the ground.

End post
The outwardmost vertical or angled compression member of a truss.

Expansion joint
A meeting point between two parts of a structure which is designed to allow for
movement of the parts due to thermal or moisture factors while protecting the parts from
damage. Commonly visible on a bridge deck as a hinged or movable connection.

Extrados
The outer exposed curve of an arch; defines the lower arc of a spandrel.

Eye bar
A structural member having a long body and an enlarged head at each end. Each head has
a hole though which a pin is inserted to connect to other members.
Falsework
Temporary structure used as support during construction. Falsework for arch construction
is called "centering."

Fill
Earth, stone or other material used to raise the ground level, form an embankment or fill
the inside of an abutment, pier or closed spandrel.

Finial
A sculpted decorative element placed at the top of a spire or highpoint of a structure.

Fixed arch
A structure anchored in its position. Compare to hinged arch.

Floor beam
Horizontal members which are placed transversely to the major beams, girders, or
trusses; used to support the deck.

Footing
The enlarged lower portion of the substructure or foundation which rests directly on the
soil, bedrock, or piles; usually below grade and not visible.

Gabion
A galvanized wire box filled with stones used to form an abutment or retaining wall.

Girder
A horizontal structure member supporting vertical loads by resisting bending. A girder is
a larger beam, especially when made of multiple metal plates. The plates are usually
riveted or welded together.

Gusset plate
A metal plate used to unite multiple structural members of a truss.

Haunch
The enlarged part of a beam near its supported ends which results in increased strength;
visible as the curved or angled bottom edge of a beam.

Hinged arch
A two-hinged arch is supported by a pinned connection at each end. A three-hinged arch
also includes a third pinned connection at the crown of the arch near the middle of a span.
Compare to fixed arch.

Howe truss
A type of truss in which vertical web members are in tension and diagonal web members
in compression. Maybe be recognized by diagonal members which appear to form an "A"
shape (without the crossbar) toward the center of the truss when viewed in profile.
Compare to Pratt truss and Warren truss.

Humpback
A description of the sideview of a bridge having relatively steep approach embankments
leading to the bridge deck.

Impost
The surface which receives the vertical weight at the bottom of an arch.

Intrados
The interior arc of an arch.

Jersey barrier
A low, reinforced concrete wall wider at the base, tapering vertically to near mid-height,
then continuing straight up to its top. The shape is designed to direct automotive traffic
back toward its own lane of travel and prevent crossing of a median or leaving the
roadway. Commonly used on new and reconstructed bridges in place of decorative
ballustrades, railings or parapets.

Keystone
The uppermost wedge-shaped voussoir at the crown of an arch which locks the other
voussoirs into place.

King Truss
Two triangular shapes sharing a common center vertical member (king post); the simplest
triangular truss system. Compare to queen truss.

Knee brace
Additional support connecting the deck with the main beam which keep the beam from
buckling outward. Commonly made from plates and angles.

Lag
Crosspieces used to connect the ribs in centering.

Lateral bracing
Members used to stabilize a structure by introducing diagonal connections.

Lattice
An assembly of smaller pieces arranged in a gridlike pattern; sometimes used a
decorative element or to form a truss of primarily diagonal members.

Lenticular truss
A truss which uses curved top and bottom chords placed opposite one another to form a
lens shape. The chords are connected by additional truss web members.
Member
One of many parts of a structure, especially one of the parts of a truss.

Parabola
A form of arch defined by a moving point which remains equidistant from a fixed point
inside the arch and a moving point along a line. This shape when inverted into an arch
structure results in a form which allows equal vertical loading along its length.

Parapet
A low wall along the outside edge of a bridge deck used to protect vehicles and
pedestrians.

Pennsylvania truss
A subdivided Pratt truss invented for use by the Pennsylvania Railroad. The Pennsylvania
truss is similar in bracing to a Baltimore truss, but the former has a camelback profile
while the latter has angled end posts only, leaving the upper chord straight and horizontal.
Compare to camelback truss and Baltimore truss.

Pier
A vertical structure which supports the ends of a multi-span superstructure at a location
between abutments. Also see column and pile.

Pile
A long column driven deep into the ground to form part of a foundation or substructure.
Also see column and pier.

Pin
A cylindrical bar which is used to connect various members of a truss; such as those
inserted through the holes of a meeting pair of eyebars.

Pony truss
A truss which carries its traffic near its top chord but not low enough to allow
crossbracing between the parallel top chords. Compare to deck truss and through truss.

Portal
The opening at the ends of a through truss with forms the entrance. Also the open
entrance of a tunnel.

Post
One of the vertical compression members of a truss which is perpendicular to the bottom
chord.

Pratt truss
A type of truss in which vertical web members are in compression and diagonal web
members in tension. Many possible configuartions include pitched, flat, or camelback top
chords. Maybe be recognized by diagonal members which appear to form a "V" shape
toward the center of the truss when viewed in profile. Variations include the Baltimore
truss and Pennsylvania truss. Compare to Warren truss and Howe truss.

Pylon
A monumental vertical structure marking the entrance to a bridge or forming part of a
gateway.

Queen Truss
A truss having two triangular shapes spaced on either side of central apex connected by
horizontal top and botom chords. Compare to king truss.

Reinforcement
Adding strength or bearing capacity to a structural member. Examples include the placing
of metal rebar into forms before pouring concrete, or attaching gusset plates at the
intersection of multiple members of a truss.

Revet
The process of covering an embankment with stones.

Revetment
A facing of masonry or stones to protect an embankment from erosion.

Rib
Any one of the arched series of members which is parallel to the length of a bridge,
especially those on a metal arch bridge.

Rigid frame bridge

Rise
The measure of an arch from the spring line to the highest part of the intrados, which is to
say from its base support to the crown.

Segmental arch
An arch formed along an arc which is drawn from a point below its spring line, thus
forming a less than semicircular arch. The intrados of a Roman arch follows an arc drawn
from a point on its spring line, thus forming a semi-circle.

Simple span
A span in which the effective length is the same as the length of the spanning structure.
The spanning superstructure extends from one vertical support, abutment or pier, to
another, without crossing over an intermediate support or creating a cantilever.
Skew
When the superstructure is not perpendicular to the substructure, a skew angle is created.
The skew angle is the acute angle between the alignment of the superstructure and the
alignment of the substructure.

Span
The horizontal space between two supports of a structure. Also refers to the structure
itself. May be used as a noun or a verb.

The clear span is the space between the inside surfaces of piers or other vertical
supports. The effective span is the distance between the centers of two supports.

Spandrel
The roughly triangular area above an arch and below a horizontal bridge deck. A closed
spandrel encloses fill material. An open spandrel carries its load using interior walls or
columns.

Splice plate
A plate which joins two girders. Commonly riveted or bolted.

Springer
The first voussoir resting on the impost of an arch.

Spring line
The place where an arch rises from its support; a line drawn from the impost.

Stanchion
One of the larger vertical posts supporting a railing. Smaller, closely spaced vertical
supports are ballusters. Also see ballustrade.

Stiffener
On plate girders, structural steel shapes, such as an angle, are attached to the web to add
intermediate strength.

Stringer
A beam aligned with the length of a span which supports the deck.

Strut
A compressive member.

Substructure
The portion of a bridge structure including abutments and piers which supports the
superstructure.
Superstructure
The portion of a bridge structure which carries the traffic load and passes that load to the
substructure.

Suspended span
A simple beam supported by cantilevers of adjacent spans, commonly connected by pins.

Suspenders
Tension members of a suspension bridge which hang from the main cable to support the
deck. Also similar tension members of an arch bridge which features a suspended deck.
Also called hangers.

Suspension bridge
A bridge which carries its deck with many tension members attached to cables draped
over tower piers.

Swing bridge
A movable deck bridge which opens by rotating horizontally on an axis. Compare to
bascule bridge and vertical lift bridge.

Through truss
A truss which carries its traffic through the interior of the structure with crossbracing
between the parallel top and bottom chords. Compare to deck truss and pony truss.

Tie
A tension member of a truss.

Tied arch
An arch which has a tension member across its base which connects one end to the other.

Tower
A tall pier or frame supporting the cable of a suspension bridge.

Trestle
While Bridge is the more general term (which may be a single span or multi-span,
typically one span is longer than the others), Trestle is a longer, multi-span structure -- a
series of shorter spans in which most of the spans are of similar length. Trestle is a more
common term in relation to railroads, while viaduct is a similar long, multi-span
structure for streets. Neither term seems to be exclusive.

Although described as a single structure, the Ohio Connecting RR bridge over the Ohio
River at Brunot Island could be described as a pair of bridges (one over each river
channel) with a trestle at each approach and a trestle connection in the center. But more
often, a long structure which does not have a predominantly larger span could be
described as a trestle.
Truss
A structural form which is used in the same way as a beam, but because it is made of an
web-like assembly of smaller members it can be made longer, deeper, and therefore,
stronger than a beam or girder while being lighter than a beam of similar dimensions.

Trussed arch
A metal arch bridge which features a curved truss.

Upper chord
Top chord of a truss.

Vault
An enclosing structure formed by building a series of adjacent arches.

Vertical lift bridge

Viaduct
A long, multi-span structure, especially one constructed of concrete. More commonly
used in relation to structures carrying motor vehicles. Trestle is the term for a similar
structure when used in relation to railroads.

Voussoir
Any one of the wedge shaped block used to form an arch.

Warren truss
A type of truss in which vertical web members inclined to form equilateral triangles. May
be be recognized by diagonal members which appear to form a series of alternating "V"
and "A" shapes (without the crossbar) along the length of the truss when viewed in
profile. Often the triangles are bisected by vertical members to reduce the length of the
members of the top chord. Compare to Pratt truss and Howe truss.

Web
The system of members connecting the top and bottom chords of a truss. Or the vertical
portion of an I-beam or girder.

Wing walls
Extensions of a retaining wall as part of an abutment; used to contain the fill of an
approach embankment

As far as provisions of LWR manual are concerned, the bridges are divided only into two
categories i.e
1. Bridges with ballasted deck (without bearings) _ As per para 4.5.6 of LWR manual,
LWR / CWR can be permitted over such bridges (e.g. slabs, box culverts and arches etc.)

2. Bridges with / without ballasted deck - (The bridge mentined by you will also fall in
this category). The provisions of LWR for this category will be governed by para 4.5.7 of
LWR manual.

In a nutshell for the bridge mentioned, LWR / CWR can not be continued , since the
LWR manual does not make any distinction between bridges with / without ballasted
deck.

This may sound to be a bit strange, as it looks to most of the Civil Engineers. But these
are the manual provisions. Lot of brain storming is being done by Indian Railways on this
subject. [As a matter of fact in most of the Sr. Prof. (P. way) or Sr. prof. (Bridge) courses
you can see one project being taken on this subject. If any body is ineterested, the project
reports can be seen on the same web site]. But we have to follow the provisions, as
exisitng on date, till any amendments are done the manual's provisions.

Of course there is one way out. Provide SEJ over all the piers and with rail free fastenings
for the track over the bridge. But how far any body will be able to get rail free fastenings
for PSC sleepers(zero toe load ERCs), is again a big task.