Welding Defect & Inspection

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Guwahati -781039, Assam, India
 Weld Joint Defect/Discontinuities

• Misalignment • Inclusions • Base Metal

• Undercut – Slag Discontinuities
• Underfill – Tungsten – Lamellar tearing
• Concavity or Convexity • Spatter – Laminations and
Excessive reinforcement • Arc Craters Delaminations
•
– Laps and Seams
• Improper reinforcement • Cracks
– Longitudinal • Porosity
• Overlap
– Transverse – Uniformly Scattered
• Burn-through – Cluster
– Crater
• Incomplete or Insufficient – Linear
– Throat
Penetration – Piping
– Toe
• Incomplete Fusion • Heat-affected zone
– Root
• Surface irregularity – Underbead and microstructure alteration
– Overlap Heat-affected zone • Base Plate laminations
• Arc Strikes – Hot
– Cold or delayed
 Misalignment

 A joint is out of alignment at the root

• Cause: Due to Carelessness. Also due to joining of different

thicknesses (transition thickness)

• Repair: Grinding. It is difficult for Inside of Pipe /Tube.

 Undercut
• Definition: A groove cut at the toe of the weld and
left unfilled.
• Cause: Due to High amperage, long arc length,
rust.

• Repair: Weld with smaller electrode ,

sometimes must be low hydrogen with
preheat.

Note: Undercut typically has an allowable limit. Different codes

and standards vary greatly in the allowable amount.
 Plate - the lesser of 1/32” or 5%.
 Insufficient Fill
 Here the weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces of the base metal

• Cause: Improper welding techniques

• Prevention: Apply proper welding techniques for the weld type and
position.

• Repair: Simply weld to fill. May require preparation by grinding.

Insufficient Fill on the Root Side (Suck back)

Repair: Backweld to fill.
 Excessive Concavity or Convexity
• Definition: Concavity or convexity of a fillet weld which
exceeds the specified allowable limits.

• Cause: Amperage and travel speed

• Prevention: Observe proper parameters and techniques.

• Repair: Grind off or weld on.

Concavity
Convexity
 Reinforcement
 The amount of a groove weld which extends beyond the surface of
the plate

• Excessive
Face Reinforcement
• Insufficient
• Improper contour

Root Reinforcement
 Excessive Reinforcement

• Definition: Typically, Reinforcement should be flush to 1/16”(pipe)

or flush to 1/8” (plate).

• Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low

• Prevention: Set amperage and travel speed on scrap plate.

• Repair: Remove excessive reinforcement.

 Insufficient Reinforcement
• Definition: Typically, Under-fill may be up to 5% of metal thickness
or not to exceed 1/32”. Sometime it is called Root Concavity.

• Cause: On root reinforcement - Too little filler metal will

cause thinning of the filler metal.

• Prevention: Use proper welding technique. Use backing or

consumable inserts. Use back weld or backing.
 Improper Weld Contour
• Definition: When the weld exhibits less than a 1350
transition angle at the weld toe.
1350

• Cause: Poor welding technique.

• Prevention: Use proper techniques. A weave motion can

often eliminate the problem.
 Overlap
 It can be defined: When the face of the weld extends beyond the toe
of the weld. It is a contour problem.

• Cause: Improper welding technique. Typically travel speed.

• Prevention: Proper welding technique will prevent this

problem.

• Repair: Overlap must be removed to blend smoothly into

the base metal.
 Overlap
No amount of overlap is typically allowed.
 Burn-through

• Definition: When an undesirable open hole has been completely

melted through the base metal. The hole may or may not be left open.

• Cause: Excessive heat input.

• Prevention: Reduce heat input by increasing travel speed, use of a heat

sink.
 Incomplete or Insufficient Penetration
• Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the required
depth into the joint root.

• Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening, fast travel
speed, short arc length.
• Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s).
• Repair: Back gouge and back weld.
 Incomplete Fusion
• Definition: Where weld metal does not form a cohesive bond with
the base metal.

• Cause: Low amperage, fast travel speed, short arc gap, lack of
preheat, unclean base metal.

• Prevention: Eliminate the potential causes.

Fig. Lack of side-wall fusion Fig. Lack of root fusion Fig. Lack of inter-run fusion
 Arc Strike
• Definition: A localized coalescence outside the weld zone. Which
may contain cracks and are thus to be avoided.

• Cause: Carelessness

• Prevention: In difficult areas,

adjacent areas can be protected
using fire blankets.
 Inclusions
 Slag &Tungsten

Slag Inclusion
• Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld
• Cause: Low amperage. Normally by the presence of mill scale and/or rust on
prepared surfaces, or electrodes with cracked or damaged coverings

• Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out mill scale .

• Repair: Remove by grinding. Re-weld.

 Tungsten Inclusion
• Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld. (Typically
GTAW only)

• Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high, electrode

dipped into the weld pool or touched with the fill rod, electrode split.

• Prevention: Eliminate the cause

• Repair: Grind out and reweld

 Spatter
• Definition: Small particles of weld metal expelled from the welding
operation which adhere to the base metal surface.

• Cause: Long arc length, high

amperages, globules of molten metal.

• Prevention: Correct the cause. Base

metal can be protected with
coverings or hi-temp paints.

• Repair: Remove by grinding or sanding.

 Arc Craters

• Definition: A depression left at the termination of the weld where the

weld pool is left unfilled.

• Cause: Improper weld termination

techniques

• Repair: If no cracks exist, simply

fill in the crater.
 Cracks
• Longitudinal
• Transverse
• Crater
• Throat
• Toe
• Root
• Underbead and Heat-affected zone
• Hot
• Cold or delayed
 Longitudinal Crack
• Definition: A crack running in the direction of the weld axis. May be
found in the weld or base metal.

• Cause: Fast cooling problem. Also caused by

shrinkage stresses in high constraint areas.

• Prevention: Weld toward areas of less constraint. Also preheat.

• Repair: Remove and reweld.

Transverse Crack
• Definition: A crack running into or inside a weld, transverse to the
weld axis direction.
• Cause: Weld metal hardness problem
 Crater Crack
• Definition: A crack, generally in the shape of an “X” which is found
in a crater. Crater cracks are hot cracks.

• Cause: The center of the weld pool becomes solid before the outside
of the weld pool, pulling the center apart during cooling

• Prevention: Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld termination.

 Throat Crack
• Definition: A longitudinal crack located in the weld throat area.

• Cause: Transverse Stresses, probably from shrinkage. Indicates

inadequate filler metal selection or welding procedure.

• Prevention: Increasing preheat may prevent it. Use a more ductile

filler material.

• Repair: Remove and reweld using appropriate procedure.

 Toe Crack

• Definition: A crack in the base metal beginning at the toe

of the weld

• Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Indicates a HAZ

brittleness problem.

• Prevention: Increase preheat if possible, or use a more

ductile filler material.

• Root Crack: Same as a throat crack.

 Underbead Crack
• Definition: A crack in the unmelted parent metal of the HAZ.

• Cause: Hydrogen embrittlement

• Prevention: Use Low Hydrogen

electrodes and/or preheat

• Repair: Remove and reweld.

 Hot / Solidification Cracking
• Definition: A crack in the weld that occurs during solidification.

• Cause:
• Micro stresses from weld metal shrinkage pulling apart weld metal as it cools from
liquid to solid temp.
• Large depth/width ratio of weld bead

• Prevention: Preheat or use a low tensile filler material.

 Cold Crack
• Definition: A crack that occurs after the metal has completely
solidified
• Cause: Shrinkage, Highly restrained welds, Discontinuities

• Prevention: Preheat, use a more ductile weld metal

• Repair: Remove and reweld, preheat may be necessary.

 Laminations

 Base Metal Discontinuity

 May require repair prior to welding
 Formed during the milling process

 Lamination effects can be reduced by joint design:

 Uniformly Distributed Porosity

 Resulting from the entrapment of gas in

solidified weld metal
• Causes:
 Gas may originate from dampness or
grease on consumables or workpiece, or
by nitrogen contamination from the
atmosphere
 If the weld wire used contains
insufficient deoxidant it is also possible
for carbon monoxide to cause porosity
 Surface Porosity

• Reasons:
 Excessive contamination from grease,
dampness, or atmosphere entrainment

 Occasionally caused by excessive

sulphur in consumables or parent metal
END
 Welding Testing

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Guwahati -781039, Assam, India
 DESTRUCTIVE
AND
NON-DESTRUCTIVE
 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
• These can be divided into two parts:
 Tests capable of being performed in the workshop.
 Laboratory tests i.e.:
microscopic-macroscopic, chemical and corrosive.

• Why this testing is required?

 Defects occur during welding which affect the quality of the
plate.
 TYPES OF WORKSHOP TESTS

TENSILE BENDING

IMPACT HARDNES

FATIGUE CRACKING
 TENSILE
Material is sectioned and edges
rounded of to prevent cracking.

Punch marks are made to see

elongation.
 BEND TESTING
• It provides the following:
Physical condition of the weld
Also determine welds efficiency
• Tensile strength
• Ductility
• Fusion and penetration
 BEND TEST
O
 Bend through 180
 The specimen should be a minimum of 30mm wide
 The fulcrums diameter is 3 times thickness of the plate
 The bottom rollers have a distance of the diameter of
the former + 2.2 times the thickness of the plate
 Upper and lower surfaces ground or filed flat and
edges rounded off.
 The tests should be 2 different types i.e.: one against
the root and another against the face and in some
cases a side bend.
Root bend
FACE BEND
 IMPACT

 CHARPY AND IZOD

• Gives the toughness and shock loading of the
material and weld at varying temperatures with
a notch such as under cut
• The measurement is the energy required to
break a specimen with a given notch
o
• 2mm depth at a 45 bevel or a “U” notch.
Note: 300 div for Charpy Test & 168 div for Izod Test (1div =2 J Energy)
CHARPY IMPACT TEST
IZOD IMPACT TEST
 HARDNESS TESTS

• This gives the metals ability to show resistance

to indentation which show it’s resistance to
wear and abrasion.
• The tests are as follows:
 Brinell
 Rockwell
 Vickers diamond pyramid
VICKERS HARDNES
 FATIGUE

• The testing of Material that is subject to fluctuating

loads
• HAIGH Electro magnetic tester.
• Rotating chuck with weight
 CRACKING

• REEVES Test: It study the hardening and cracking

of welds.
• The compatibility of electrodes for the metal being
joined.
CRACKING

• 3-Sides Are Welded with

Known Compatible Electrodes.

• The front edge is welded with

the test electrode.

• If incompatible it will crack.

 MICROSCOPIC
 Used to determine the actual
structure of the weld and parent
metal

 A transmission election microscope

(TEM) can magnify up to
1,000,000 times. A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) can
magnify up to 200,000.

 The simple light microscope,

which only magnifies by 500
times.

 Polishing must be of a very high

standard
MACROSCOPIC

 It is examined using a
magnifying glass.

 It has magnification from 2

to 20 time.

 It will show up slag

entrapment or cracks.

 Polishing not as high as

microscopic test specimen.
 ETCHING REAGENT

• These are acids compositions used to show up different structures in

metals

• For steels the most common is “1-2 % nitric acid in distilled water
or alcohol (Nital Solution).

• Aluminum uses a solution of 10-20% caustic soda in water etc.

or
• Aluminum uses a solution of Keller’s reagent (i.e. a mixture of nitric
acid, hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid).
NON-DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
 Common methods used in NDE

• Visual Inspection (VT)

• Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT)
• Liquid (Dye) Penetrant Inspection (PT)
• X-Ray inspection (RT)
• Ultrasonic testing (UT)
• Acoustic
• Air or water pressure testing (LT)
 Visual Inspection (VT)
• Visual is the most common inspection method
• It reveals spatter, excessive buildup, incomplete slag removal,
cracks, distortion, undercutting & poor penetration.
• Typical tools for VT consist of Fillet gauges, Magnifying
glasses, Flashlights & Tape measures or calipers.

• While welding • After welding

– The rate the electrode – Under cut
melts – Lack of root fusion
– The way the weld metal – Amount of spatter
flows – Any pin holes from gas
– Sound of the arc
– Dimensions of weld
Visual Inspection (VT)

• Fillet gauges measure

 The “Legs” of the weld
 Convexity
• (weld rounded outward)
 Concavity
• (weld rounded inward)
 Flatness
 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT)

• Magnetic Particle Inspection (commonly referred to as Magna-flux

testing) is effective only at checking for flaws located at or near the
surface.

• It uses a metallic power or liquid along with strong magnetic field

probes to locate flaws. (Generally, particles will align along voids)

• It can only be used on materials that can be magnetized.

• The presence of voids or cracks in the section results in an leakage in

the magnetic field.
 Liquid (Dye) Penetrant Inspection (PT)

• It uses colored or fluorescent dye to check for surface flaws

which is not visible.
• The welded part is sprayed with or dipped into a dye containing
a fluorescent material.
• The surface to be inspected is then wiped, dried and viewed in
darkness.
 It does not show sub-surface flaws.
 It can be used on both metallic and non metallic surfaces such
as glass, ceramic, plastic and metal.
 It dose not require the part to be Magnetized.
 RADIOGRAPHIC TEST
Two types of methods used
 X-RAY
 GAMMA RAY
 It is electro magnetic radiation
of short duration

 Both of these methods are

harmful to health.
 X-Ray inspection (RT)
• Welds may be checked for internal discontinuities by
means of X- Rays.
• An X-Ray is a wave of energy that will pass through most
materials and develop the negative image of what it
passes through on film.
• A Radiograph ( X-Ray picture) is a permanent record of
a weld used for quality inspection purposes
 Ultrasonic testing (UT)
• It (UT) is a method of determining the size and location of
discontinuities within a component using high frequency
sound waves.
• Sound waves are sent through a transducer into the material
and the shift in time require for their return or echo is plotted.
• Ultrasonic waves will not travel through air therefore flaws
will alter the echo pattern.
• So, on encountering a discontinuity, the signal is reflected
back.
• The time interval between sending and reflecting signal
determine the location of discontinuity.
 Air or water pressure testing (LT)
• Pressure testing (or leak testing) can be performed with
either by using gasses or liquids.
• Voids that allow gasses or liquids to escape from the
component can be classified as gross (i.e. large) or fine leaks.
• Extremely small gas leaks measured in PPM (parts per
million) require a “Mass Spectrometer” .
 ACOUSTICS TEST

 Striking with a rounded object

 If no defect then Ringing tone

 Tone changes when object is

cracked
THE END
Worm Holes
• Resulting from the entrapment of gas
between the solidifying dendrites of weld
metal.

• Causes:
– The gas may arise from contamination
of surfaces to be welded,