Chapter 3
System Model Representation
Dr.-Ing. Azmi Mohamed Yusof
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Content
Learning outcome
Transfer Function
State Space Representation
Block Diagram Representation
Signal Flow Diagram
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1.0 Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to state and apply
the fundamental principle of control system to:-
write the transfer function from block diagram
write state space representation of the systems
represent the systems using block diagram and signal flow graph
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State Space Representation
the state-space approach as an alternate method for representing the
physical systems
Important terminology
State the smallest set of variables (state variables)
state variables the variables making up the smallest set of variables
that determine the state of the dynamic system
State vector If n state variables are needed to completely describe the
behavior of a given system, then these n state variables can be
considered the n components of a vector x.
State space The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist
of the x1 axis, x2 axis, p , xn axis, where x1, x2, p , xn are state variables, is
called a state space.
State-Space Equations
Suppose the system has inputs of u1(t), u2(t),…, ur(t), output of outputs y1(t),
y2(t),…, ym(t) and the state variables: x1(t), x2(t),…, xn(t)
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State Space Representation
The system may be described by (state vector - a set of differential
equations)
The outputs (a set of algebraic equations) y1(t), y2(t),…, ym(t) of the
system may be given by
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State Space Representation
The state equation is
𝑥ሶ = 𝑨𝑥 + 𝑩𝑢 where, A = state matrix ; B = input matrix
𝑦 = 𝑪𝑥 + 𝑫𝑢 C = Output matrix ; D = Direct transmission matrix
How do we know the minimum number of state variables to
select?
The minimum number of state variable required equals to the order of
differential equation describing the system
In most cases, the minimum number of state variables is to count the
number of independent energy storage elements in the system. E.g
mass connected to springs / dampers (for mechanical system) or
inductor or capacitor (for electrical system)
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State Space Representation
Example
A dynamical system has a mathematical model of 𝑥ሷ + 3𝑥ሶ + 2𝑥 = 𝑢. Write
the state-space representation for the system.
Solution
The state variables, 𝑥1 = 𝑥; 𝑥2 = 𝑥ሶ ( x is the only output)
The state vectors, 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥ሶ = 𝑥2 ; 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥ሷ = −3𝑥ሶ − 2𝑥 + 𝑢 = −3𝑥2 − 2𝑥1 + 𝑢
𝑥ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0
Write into matrix form, 1 = + 𝑢
𝑥ሶ 2 −2 −3 𝑥2 1
𝑥1
The output, 𝑦 = 1 0 𝑥 + 0 𝑢
2
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State Space Representation
Example
Find the state equations for the translational mechanical system shown
in Figure below.
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State Space Representation
Solution 𝑚1 𝑦ሷ 1
Draw FBD 𝑏𝑦ሶ 1
𝑘(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
Obtain the equations of motion
𝑚2 𝑦ሷ 2
−𝑏𝑦ሶ 1 − 𝑘 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑚1 𝑦ሷ1
𝑘(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
𝑚1 𝑦ሷ1 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 1 + 𝑘𝑦1 − 𝑘𝑦2 = 0 --- (1)
−𝑘 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 + 𝑢 = 𝑚2 𝑦ሷ 2
𝑚2 𝑦ሷ 2 + 𝑘𝑦2 − 𝑘𝑦1 = 𝑢 --- (2)
The output variables for this system are y1 and y2 . Define state variables
as
1 𝑥1 = 𝑦1
2 𝑥2 = 𝑦ሶ 1
3 𝑥3 = 𝑦2
4 𝑥4 = 𝑦ሶ 2
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State Space Representation
Thus
𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑦ሶ1 = 𝑥2
𝑏 𝑘 𝑘 𝑏 𝑘 𝑘
𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑦ሷ1 = − 𝑦ሶ − 𝑦 + 𝑦 =− 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑚1 1 𝑚1 1 𝑚1 2 𝑚1 2 𝑚1 1 𝑚1 3
𝑥ሶ 3 = 𝑦ሶ 2 = 𝑥4
𝑘 𝑘 1 𝑘 𝑘 1
𝑥ሶ 4 = 𝑦ሷ 2 = − 𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑢 =− 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑢
𝑚2 2 𝑚2 1 𝑚2 𝑚2 3 𝑚2 1 𝑚2
The state equation
0 1 0 0
𝑥ሶ 1 𝑘 𝑏 𝑘 0
− − 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑥2 0
= 𝑥3 + 1 𝑢
𝑥ሶ 3 0 0 0 1
𝑥ሶ 4 𝑘 𝑘 𝑥4
0 − 0 𝑚2
𝑚2 𝑚2
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State Space Representation
The input
𝑥1
𝑦1 1 0 0 0 𝑥2
=
𝑦2 0 0 1 0 𝑥3
𝑥4
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State Space Representation
Example
Given the electrical network of Figure below, find a state-space
representation if the output is the current through the resistor
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State Space Representation
Solution
Select the state variables by writing the derivative equation for all energy
storage elements, that is, the inductor and the capacitor
𝑑𝑉𝐶 𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 ; 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Find ic and vl using Kirchoffian network laws
1
𝑖𝐶 = −𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝐿 = − 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑖𝐿
𝑅
𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉(𝑡)
Substitute into above equations
𝑑𝑉𝐶 1 𝑑𝑉𝐶 1 1
𝐶 = 𝑖𝐶 = − 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑖𝐿 ; =− 𝑉 + 𝑖𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 1
𝐿 = 𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉(𝑡) ; = − 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
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State Space Representation
the output is the current through the resistor, thus
1
𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑅
The state space is
1 1
𝑉ሶ𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶 0
𝑅𝐶 𝐶
= + 1 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑖ሶ𝐶 −
1 𝑖
0 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿
The output
1 𝑉𝐶
𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑅 𝑖𝐿
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State Space Representation
Class exercise
For a torsional system shown below (1 as the output)
Write the mathematical model of the system
Write the state space representation of the system
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State Space Representation
Steps
Draw FBD/KD for each mass
Apply Euler 2nd law of motion
Introduce state variables
Write the state vector
Write the state equation & output equation into matrix form
0 1 0 0
𝑥ሶ 1 𝑘 𝐵 𝐵 𝑥 0
− − 0 1 𝜏
𝑥ሶ 2 𝐽1 𝐽1 𝐽1 𝑥2
= 𝑥3 + 𝐽1 𝑢
𝑥ሶ 3 0 0
𝐵 𝐵 0 1 𝑥4 0
𝑥ሶ 4
− 0 0 0
𝐽2 𝐽2
𝑥1
𝑦1 1 0 0 0 𝑥2
=
𝑦2 0 0 1 0 𝑥3
𝑥4
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Exercise 3.1
Represent the system shown in Figure below in state space.
Output : x3(t)
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Transfer function
The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input
(driving function)
For n-th order time variant differential equation
Assuming all initial conditions are zero, it reduces into
Taking the ratio between the output [C(s)] and in the input [R(s)],
ℒ[𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡] 𝐶(𝑠)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐺(𝑠) = =
ℒ[𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡] 𝑅(𝑠)
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Transfer function
Writing the transfer function from block diagram
Consider the block diagram as shown below, write the transfer function
𝐸 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) ---- (1)
𝐶 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐵(𝑠) ---- (2)
𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐵 𝑠 = 𝐸(𝑠) ---- (3)
Substitute (2) into (3)
𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠) ---- (4)
𝐶(𝑠)
Substitute (1) into (4) 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)
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Transfer function
Simplify the equation
1
𝑅 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
+ 𝐻(𝑠)
The transfer function
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)
=
1+𝐻 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
R(s) 𝐺(𝑠) C(s)
1 + 𝐻 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
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Transfer function
Example
Write the transfer function for the following block diagram
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Transfer function
Solution
Write the equations
𝐸 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑠 a
𝐶 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 = 𝑎
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 ± 𝑎 = 𝐸(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠)
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 ± {𝐶 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 } = 𝐺
2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) 1
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝐺 ± 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) ± 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠
2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠
𝑅(𝑠)
=
1± 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 [𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 ]
R(s) 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 C(s)
1 ± 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 [𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 ]
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Exercise 3.2
Write the transfer function from each block diagram
a)
b)
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Block Diagram Representation
Many systems are composed of multiple subsystems
When multiple subsystems are interconnected, a few more schematic
elements must be added to the block diagram.
summing junctions
pickoff points
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Block Diagram Representation
Topologies for interconnecting subsystems
Cascade form
Parallel form
Feed back form
A. Cascade form
Figure below shows an example of cascaded subsystems
Intermediate signal values are shown at the output of each subsystem.
Each signal is derived from the product of the input times the transfer
function.
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Block Diagram Representation
Parallel form
Figure below shows an example of parallel subsystems
Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by the
algebraic sum of the outputs from all of the subsystems
The equivalent transfer function is shown below
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Block Diagram Representation
Feed back form
This is a closed-loop systems and the block diagram is shown below
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Block Diagram Representation
Block diagram reduction
Block diagram algebra for
summing junctions—equivalent
forms for moving a block
(a) to the left past a summing
junction;
𝑅 𝑠 ± 𝑋 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 ± 𝑋 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠)
(b) To the right past a summing
junction
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 ± 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)
1
𝑅 𝑠 ±𝑋 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)
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Block Diagram Representation
Block diagram algebra for pickoff points — equivalent forms for moving a
block. (a) to the left past a pickoff point. (b) to the right past a pickoff
point
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Block Diagram Representation
Block Diagram Reduction via Familiar Forms
Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure below to a single transfer
function
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Block Diagram Representation
Simplify / reduce the block diagram
b
𝐺𝑠 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠)
a
−𝐻1 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑠 − 𝐻3 (𝑠)
𝑏𝐺2 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠) ---(1) ; {−𝐻1 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑠 − 𝐻3 (𝑠)}𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑎 ---(2)
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 + 𝑎 = 𝑏 ---(3)
𝐶(𝑠)
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 − {𝐻1 𝑠 − 𝐻2 𝑠 + 𝐻3 (𝑠)}𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐺 (𝑠) 2 3
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺2 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠)
The transfer function, 𝑅(𝑠) =
1+ 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐺 (𝑠) [{𝐻 𝑠 −𝐻 𝑠 +𝐻3 (𝑠)]
2 3 1 2
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Block Diagram Representation
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Block Diagram Representation
Example
Simplify the block diagram
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Block Diagram Representation
Example
Simplify the block diagram
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Block Diagram Representation
Block Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure below to a single transfer
function
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Block Diagram Representation
Solution
Combining V5 & V8, the transfer function is,
𝑉5 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) ; 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠 = 𝑉8 (𝑠) ; 𝑉4 (𝑠) − 𝑉8 (𝑠) = 𝑉5 (𝑠)
Sub. 𝑉4 (𝑠) − 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻3 (𝑠) = 𝐺𝐶(𝑠)𝑠 𝑉4 (𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠) 1+𝐺3 (𝑠)𝐻3 (𝑠)
𝐺3 𝑠
3
𝐺3 (𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑉4 (𝑠) 1+𝐺3 (𝑠)𝐻3 (𝑠)
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Block Diagram Representation
Moving block at summing junction
𝐺1 𝑠
1 1
𝐺1 𝑠 𝑉4 𝑠 + 𝑉4 (𝑠) = 𝑉
𝐺2 𝑠
1
𝑉4 𝑠 +1 =𝑉
𝐺2 𝑠
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Block Diagram Representation
V 𝑠
K 𝑠
𝑉 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 = 𝑉4 (𝑠)
𝑉4 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 + 𝐻𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾(𝑠)
1
𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐾 𝑠 = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑅 𝑠 − 𝑉4 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 + 𝐻𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑉4 (𝑠)
1 1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
𝐻1 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 +𝐻2 𝑠 1
𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑉4 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠
+
𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
𝑉4 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐺1 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 +𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠
MEC 521 – VIBRATIONS : Dr. Azmi M.Yusof 38
Block Diagram Representation
1 𝐺3 𝑠
𝑉4 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
+1
1+𝐺3 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠
=𝐶 𝑠
𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
𝑅𝑠 1+𝐺1 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 +𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠
= 𝑉4 𝑠
𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 1 𝐺3 𝑠
𝑅𝑠 1+𝐺1 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 +𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
+1
1+𝐺3 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠
=𝐶 𝑠
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Block Diagram Representation
Summary : Block diagram transformation
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Block Diagram Representation
Summary : Block diagram transformation
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Exercise 3.3
Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure below to a single transfer
function
a) b)
d)
c)
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Signal Flow Diagram
Signal-flow graphs (SFG) are an alternative to block diagrams.
SFG consists only of branches, which represent systems, and nodes,
which represent signals.
SFG components:
System (a)
Signal (b)
Interconnection of systems and signals (c)
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Signal Flow Diagram
SFG Algebra
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Signal Flow Diagram
Converting Common Block Diagrams to Signal-Flow Graphs
Convert the block diagram shown below into a signal flow graph
start by drawing the signal nodes for that system. Next interconnect the
signal nodes with system branches
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Signal Flow Diagram
Convert the block diagram shown below into a signal flow graph
Solution
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Signal Flow Diagram
Convert the block diagram shown below into a signal flow graph
Solution
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Signal Flow Diagram
Example
Draw SFG for the block diagram shown below
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Signal Flow Diagram
Solution
Begin by drawing the signal nodes
interconnect the nodes, showing the direction of signal flow and
identifying each transfer function
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Exercise 3.4
Label signals and draw a SFG for the block diagram shown below
a)
b)
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Exercise 3.4
Label signals and draw a SFG for the block diagram shown below
c)
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Signal Flow Diagram
Mason’s Rule
It’s a technique for reducing signal-flow graphs to a single transfer
functions
Loop gain. The product of branch gains found by traversing a path that
starts at a node and ends at the same node, following the direction of the
signal flow, without passing through any other node more than once.
Loop gain are:-
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Signal Flow Diagram
Forward-path gain. The product of gains found by traversing a path from
the input node to the output node of the signal-flow graph in the direction
of signal flow.
Forward-path gains are:
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Signal Flow Diagram
Nontouching loops. Loops that do not have any nodes in common.
Nontouching loops : loop G2(s)H1(s) does not touch loops
G4(s)H2(s),G4(s)G5(s)H3(s), and G4(s)G6(s)H3(s).
Nontouching-loop gain. The product of loop gains from nontouching
loops taken two, three, four, or more at a time.
Nontouching loop gains are:
MEC 521 – VIBRATIONS : Dr. Azmi M.Yusof 54
Signal Flow Diagram
Mason’ rule : The transfer function, C(s) / R(s), of a system represented
by a signal-flow graph is
𝐶(𝑠) σ𝑘 𝑇𝑘 ∆𝑘
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑅(𝑠) ∆
Where :-
k = number of forward paths
Tk = the kth forward-path gain
= 1 –( loop gains) + ( nontouching-loop gains taken two at a time) – (
nontouching-loop gains taken three at a time) + ( nontouching-loop
gainstaken four at a time) -. . .
k = - loop gain terms in that touch the kth forward path: In other words;
k is formed by eliminating from those loop gains that touch the kth forward
path:
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Signal Flow Diagram
Example
Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph in Figure
below.
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Signal Flow Diagram
Solution
The forward-path gain is:
The loop gains are:
the nontouching loops taken two at a time are:
the nontouching loops taken three at a time
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Signal Flow Diagram
form
form k by eliminating from the loop gains that touch the kth forward
path:
Finally, apply Mason’s formula. Since there is only one forward path,
G(s) consists of only one term, rather than a sum of terms, each coming
from a forward path
𝐶(𝑠) σ𝑘 𝑇𝑘 ∆𝑘 𝑇1 ∆1 𝐺1 (𝑠)𝐺2 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠)𝐺4 (𝑠)𝐺5 (𝑠) [1−𝐺7 (𝑠)𝐻4 (𝑠)]
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) =
∆
=
∆
=
∆
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Exercise 3.5
Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph shown in
Figure below
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Answer
Answer (SFG)
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