THE EDUCATION SYSTEM OF ZAMBIA

AFTER INDEPENDENCE

by

MARGARET SANDLANE

BA (UNIZUL), [Link]. (WITS). S.E.C. (VISTA)

SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF

MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS

in

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

AND EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
IN THE
FACULTY OF EDUCATION

<~I the

POTCHEf"STROOM UNIVERSITY
lor
CHRISTIAN HIGHER EDUCA liON

leader: Prof. Dr. H.J. S!eyn

December 1989
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that THE EDUCATION SYSTEM OF ZAMBIA AFTER

INDEPENDENCE is rny qwn work and that all the sources I lmve used or
quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete
references.

M. SANDLANE (Mrs.)

December 1989

Potchelstroom
 DEDICATION

I heartily dedicate this dissertation to my husband Mxolisi Hnrvey, my son

Sibusiso and my daughter Lindiwe Nomarnpomlomise.

II is especially dedicated in memory ol my lnte f<dher Clenpns Suhm11111i

Ngerna and my late mother Grace Mapilso Ngema who always stnrmJied to
see me through my schooling.

Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to my thoughtful brother Chmlr.s Sombu7.i

Sipho Ngema who sacrificed his education for mine.

[Link]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely wish to thank Prof. Dr. H.J. Steyn lor his endless and professional
guidance throughout the entire research.

My special thanks to Dr. A.M. Kanduza who made my trip to Znmhia

materialize. arranged accommodation lor me and tmnsporled me to all in-
terviews conducted.

I am grateful to the Zambian Education Research Burenu for listing all the
people to be interviewed; and making my research meaningful by granting
me permission to use the Library of the University of Zambln <tnd the
Zambian National Archives.

My blessings go to S. Kalilllo for his unfailing support and patience in

checking and finding all the relevant information needed.

I send my deserved thanks to Miss G.G. Smith, Mrs. J.M. Nkgonng. Mrs. T.J.
Magalakanqa and Mrs. N.A. Mazibu for typing the drafls of this document.

My greatest gratitude Is extended to Mrs. M. Coetzee for establishing pride

In me by typing this text so efficiently.

I thank Prof. A.L Combrlnk for editing this document.

To my husband and children, I would be falling not to thank them for the
sacrifice, encouragement, supporl and love they have shown during my study
and my absence from home.

[Link]
 PREFACE

The Lord is my strength and rny shield.

my heart trusted in Him, and I am helped:
therefore my heart greatly rejolcelh.
and with my song will I praise Him.

Psalm 28:7

I thank God for guiding and protecting me throughout this resenrch nnd also
for giving me the necessary strength and patience.

[Link]
ABSTRACT

Chapter 1 looks into the following matters:

• Problem or Research

The problem of research is:

to determine the changes that look place with reg;ml to the structure or
the Zambian Education System with respect to the Educational Reform
and needs of the people after Independence.

to determine the changes in educational policy. orgnnizational structure.

school system and supportive services as a result of the Educntionnl
Reform in the post independence era.

• Aims of Research

The purpose or this study is:

to describe !he development ol the Zambian Educnlion System in a

historical perspeclive.

to define the concept or Education lor Development (Draft Sl<tlement)

and Educational Reform <tnd its influence on the educnlion11l policy.

to determine the ch<tnges In the organlzationnl structures <tiler

Independence,

to determine the changes with regard to the school system and

supportive services after independence.

• Methods ol Research

The following rnelhods or research were used: literature study and inter-
views.
• Demarcation of the field of study

This study is confined to the education system of Znmbia in the pre-

independence and post-Independence periods.

The theoretical structure of the education system has been discussed in

chapter 2 as well as general information about Zambia.

• The definition of the education system is given in this chapter as well as the
components, namely, the educational policy, educational administration,
school system and supportive services of the education system.

• The general description of Zambia Includes the geographical situation, the

political history, peoples of Zambia, economy and political structure.

The historical development of the education system of Zambia is given in

chapter 3. The following represent the main eras:

• Missionary education

The Missionaries took a keen interest in the writing of the African languages
and started leaching people to read and write.

• Involvement of the British Government in African Education

The native schools proclamation of 1918.

According to this proclmnation schools had to be registered with the

administrator and teachers be certiried competent.

The educational policy of 1925

The educational policy of 1925 urged that education should be adopted

to the needs of the people.

Creation of African Education Department in 1925.

ii
 G.C. LAtham was appointed the first director of AfricAn Education
Department. He issued mission schools with a school code according
to which all mission schools had to function.

Education under the Federal Era 1953- 1963.

The Federation of the North and South Rhodesia and Nyasalilnd brought
about changes in the education system.

• Education in Post Independence Zambia

AI independence the government aimed at giving educAtion the first priority.

The Education Act of 1966

In terms of the Act, racially segregated schools had to be abolished and

non-free paying schools introduced.

Chapter 4 of this study will look into the formulation of the educational
policy.

The following are the main issues:

• Formulation and content of the educa![Link] policy.

The entire nation was involved in the formulation of educational policy in a

form of a "National Debate" launched by Dr. K.D. K<wnda in May 1976.

the Educational Reform aimed at providing 9 years of compulsory basic

education.

• The third nationnl development plan

The plan aimed at increasing educational facilities.

• The fourth national development plan

iii
 This plan aimed at improving the technical and agricultural aspects of
education as well as the standard of Mathematics nnd Science subjects.

The organisational structures in Zambian Education System are

discussed in chapter 5. Attention is given to:

• Different Education Ministries

The Ministry of General Education and Culture and the Ministry of Higher
Education are responsible for the implementation of the educalionnl policy
in Zambia.

• Control of education

AI the head of each Ministry there is a Minister who is also a member of the
cabinet.

The Inspectorate is the professional wing of the Ministries with the

responsibility of control and co-ordination of education.

The school system and supportive services are exposed as follows in

chapter 6:

• The School System

the functional pattern in Zambia is 7 years of primary education, 2 years of

junior secondary and 3 years of senior secondary education. The idea is
that the quality and quantity of services still leave very much to be desired.

• Supportive Services

The educational system in Zambia uses various supportive services to

facilitate effective leaching and learning.

iv
Chapter 7 summarises all ideas discussed in the afore chaplers. Findings
and recommendations are made.

v
OPSOMMING

In hoofstuk 1 word aan die volgende aspekte aandag gegee:

• Navorsingsprobleem

Om die veranderinge van die Zambiese onderwysslelsel na

onalhanklikheid le bepnal.

Om die veranderinge van die onderwysbeleid, orgrmisasieslruklure,

skoolslelsel en ondersleuningsdiensle, wal pln11sgevind he! ns 'n gevolg
V(ln onderwyshervorming in die lydperk na ormllmnklikheid, vns le slel.

• Die doe! van die ondersoek

Die doe! van die ondersoek bestryk die volgende terrein:

Om 'n hisloriese oorsig van die ontwikkeling van die Z(lmbiese

onderwysstelsel te gee.

Om die invloed van onderwys op die beplande onlwikkeling ("draH

statement") en hervorming van die onderwysbeleld le omskrywe.

Om die veranderinge van die organisaloriese slruklure, na

onalhanklikheid, vas te slel.

Om die veranderinge na onalhanklikheid. ten opsig!e van die

onderwyskundige struklure en ondersteuningsdiensle. te bep(lal.

• Metode van ondersoek

Die melodologie van hierdle ondersoek slen soos volg daaruit:

'n Toepaslike literatuurstudle en onderhoudvoering mel belrokke instansles.

• Albakening van die stmlie

vi
 Hierdie sludie is beperk net tot die onderwysstelsel van Zarnbie voor en na
die land se onalhanklikheidswording.

Hoofstuk 2
In hoofstuk 2 word die beskrywing van die onderwysslelsel sowel as die
komponenle daarvan, naamlik die onderwysbeleid, -adminislrasie, skoolslelsel
en ondersteuningsdienste van die onderwysbeslel behandel. Hierdie hoolsluk
verskaf ook die algemene aglergrondinligling van Zambie. Die
aglergrondinligling verwys onder meer na d'~ geografiese Jigging, die politieke
geskiedenis, die inwoners, die ekoromie en die regeringstruktuur.

Hoofstuk 3
In hoofsluk 3 word die hisloriese onlwlkkeling van die onderwysstelsel behan-
del. Die belangriksle lases in die historiese onlwikkeling van die
onderwysstelsel is die volgende:

• Tradisionele onderwys

Tradisionele onderwys was daarop ingeslel om die kullurele erfenis te

beskerm en le hernu.

Sendelingonderwys

Westerse sendelinge hel 'n groot belangstelling geloon in Afrika tale en

het begin om die ongelelterde inwoners le leer lees en skryf.

• Die betrokkenheid van die Britse Regering

Die nalurelleskoolproklamasie van 1918

Volgens die proklarnasie moes skole geregistreer word by die

Adminislraleur en rnoes onderwysers as bevoeg vir die onderwys ver-
klaar word.

Die Onderwysbeleid van 1925

vii
 Die Onderwysbeleid van 1925 hel die aandrang dat onderwys by die
behoefte van die mense rnoes aanpas vooropgestel.

Die daarstelliog van 'o Departement vir Swart Onderwys in 1925

G.C. latham is aangestel as die eerste Direkteur van die Deparlement

vir Swart Onderwys. Hy hel 'n sisteem ontwerp waarvolgens al die
sendingskole rnoes funksioneer.

• Onderwys tydens die Federate Tydperk 1953-1963.

Die Federasie van Noord- en Suid-Rhodesie en Nyasalancl he! veranderinge

aan die onderwysstelsel gemaak.

• Onderwys in Zarnbie na onafhanklikheid.

Mel onafhanklikheidswording van Zarnbie was dil die doel van die regering
om onderwys prloritelt le gee.

• Die Onderwyswet van 1966

Volgens die wet moes skole wal op rassegrondslag gefunksioneer het, plek
maak vir onderwyslnriglings waar gratis onderwys aangebied word.

Hoofstuk 4
In hoofstuk 4 word die lormuleting van die onderwysbeleid ondersoek. Die
volgende is die belangrlksle aspekte daarvan:

• Formulering en inhoud van die onderwysbeleid

Die hele bevolking was belrokke by die lormulering van die onderwysbeleid
by wyse van 'n "Nasionale debat'' wat deur dr. Kaunda geloods is op 24 Mel
1976.

Die onderwyshervorming hel as doel gehad om verpllgle basiese onderwys

wat nege jaar sou duur, in le slel.

viii
• Die Oerde Nasionale Onlwikkelingsplan

Die doel van die plan was om die onderwysfasilileile le verbeler en te ver-
meerder.

• Die Vierde Nasionale Onlwikkelingsplan

Hierdie plan hel gemlk om die tegniese en landboukundige aspekte van die
onderwys te verbeter asook die standaard van Wiskunde en Welenskap.

Ole organlsaslestruktuur van die Zambiese onderwysslelsel word in

hoofstuk 5 bespreek.
Aandag is gegee aan die volgende sake:

• Verskillende rninisleries van onderwys

Die Minlslerie van Algemene Onderwys en Kultuur asook die Minlslerie vir
Hoer Onderwys is veranlwoordelik vir die implemenlering van die
onderwysbeleid in Zambie.

• Beheer van onderwys

Aan die hoof van die ministerie staan 'n minister wal ook lid is van die ka-
binet.

Die lnspektoraat Is die professionele arm van die Ministerle mel die opdrag
om die beheer en koordlnasie van die onderwys te beharlig.

Die skoolstelsel en ondersteuningsdienste word in hoofstuk 6 soos volg

toegelig:

• Skoolslelsel

Ole onderrigpatroon op skoolvlak in Zambie lyk soos volg: sewe jaar

primere onderwys. I wee jaar junior sekondere en drie jaar senior sekondere

ix
 onderwys. Verskillende soorte onderwyslnriglings op die verskillende
onderwysvlakke word aangelref. Oil word algemeen <~anvaar dal die kwali-
leil en kw<~nlileil v<~n die onderwysdiensle steeds veel le wense oorlaal.

• Ondersleuningsdiensle

Die onderwysslelsel in Z<~rnbie gebruik verskillende ondersleuningsdiensle

om onderrig-leer genwkliker en doellreflender te rna<~k.

Hoofstuk 7
Hoofsluk 7 is 'n sarnevalling van aile Idees wal In die vorige hoofslukke be-
handel is. Bevindings en <~anbevelings word uil die verworwe
navorsingsgegewens gemnak.

X
Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1
ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY ....... .. ..... . ........... .
1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................... .
1.2 PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH .................. .
1.3 AIMS OF RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , .. , . 2
1.4 DEMARCATION OF THE FIELD OF STUDY ....................... 2
1.4.1 GENERAL ............... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , .... . 2
1.4.2 DEMARCATION OF THE FIELD OF STUDY IN TERMS OF THE
EXPLANATION OF THE MAIN CONCEPTS CONTAINED IN THE TITLE OF THIS
STUDY .... . .... . .... ......... . ....... . 2
1.4.2.1Zambia .... ....... ..................... 2
[Link] The Educational System ........ .. 3
1.5 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5.1 LITERATURE STUDY .. ....... .. .... .... .. .. ........ . 3
1.5.2 INTERVIEWS .......... ......... ... .... .. .. . .... .. ... . 3
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY 3
1.7 ABBREVIATIONS ................................... . 4
1.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY . 6
CHAPTER 2 ......... , .. . ,,,. 7
THEORETICAL STRUCTURE OF AN EDUCATION SYSTEM AND THE GENERAL
DESCRIPTION OF ZAMBIA 7
2. 1 INTRODUCTION .............. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION SYSTEM 7
2.3 COMPONENTS OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS ...... . 7
2.3.1 THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY ........... . ,,,, 7
2.3.2 EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION . . . . .... . ,,,,,, 8
2.3.3 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ,,,,,,,, 8
2.3.4 SUPPORTIVE SERVICES ....... .... . ... ,,,,,,,, 9
2.4 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ZAMBIA ,, ......... 9
2.4.1 GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION ................. . ,.,,,,, 9
2.4.2 SHORT GENERAL HISTORY .. , , . , .... , .. , .... ' . , .. ' . ' . , 10
2.4.3 PEOPLES OF ZAMBIA ... ............... .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.4 THE ECONOMY .... .. .. ... ......... . .. .. ... .... .... . .. .. 14
2.4.5 THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ... ... 15
2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . 16
CHAPTER 3 .... ... ................ .. .... .. .. ..... ... 18
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE ZAMBIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM 18
3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2 EDUCATION FROM THE 17TH TO THE EARLY 20TH CENTURIES 18
3.2.1 TRADITIONAL EDUCATION ........ ..... ........ .... .. . 18
3.2.2 MISSIONARY EDUCATION AND THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA
COMPANY 1883-1924 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
[Link] General . . . . .... ... .. .. ......... .... ....... ..... ... . 21
[Link] The Barotse National School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
[Link] General Missionary Conference of 1914 .. .... ..... . . ....... 22
3.2.4 THE NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION 1918 . .. .... ... . 23
3.2.5 GENERAL MISSIONARY CONFERENCE ON EDUCATION, 1922 24
3.3 MISSIONARY EDUCATION AND THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT
1924-1952 . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.2 THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY OF 1925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 CREATION OF AN AFRICAN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT AS A RESULT
OF THE PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION IN 1925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 EDUCATION UNDER FEDERAL ERA: 1953-1963 .. ... . ........... 30
3.6 EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENCE ZAMBIA: 1964-1976 ......... 32
3.6.1 GENERAL .... .. ...... ..... .. .. .. ..... .... 32
3.6.2 THE TRANSITIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN: 1965-1966 33
3.6.3 THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1966 . .. ... .... ... .. .. 33
3.6.4 FIRST NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN: 1966-1970 . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6.5 SECOND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN (SNDP) 1972-1976 36
3.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY .... .. .. ... ....... .... .... .... . 38
CHAPTER 4 .... ........ . .. .... ........ .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
THE EDUCATION POLICY AFTER INDEPENDENCE: EDUCATIONAL REFORM 40
4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2 ORIGIN OF EDUCATIONAL REFORM . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

ii
4.3 PREPARATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL REFORM IN ZAMBIA 40
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION 40
4.3.2 FORMULATION OF PROPOSALS . .. ... .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.3 EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT: DRAFT STATEMENT . . . . . . . . 42
4.3.4 THE NATIONAL DEBATE . .... ....... .. ..... .... ... ... . 45
4.3.5 THE OUTCOME OF THE DEBATE: EDUCATIONAL REFORM ........ 47
[Link] Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3.6 MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... . 47
4.4 CONTENTS OF EDUCATIONAL REFORM ... .. . . 48
4.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 52
4.5.1 FULL-TIME EDUCATION: FIRST STAGE . .. ..... ..... .... . 52
4.5.2 SECOND STAGE ...... .. .. .. .. ... ........ .... .. . .. ... . 52
4.5.3 THIRD STAGE .............. . 53
4.6 EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT AS AGAINST EDUCATIONAL REFORM 53
4.7 INFLUENCE AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF EDUCATIONAL REFORM 54
4.8 PROBLEMS OF THE EDUCATIONAL REFORM ........... . 55
4.9 THE THIRD NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.10 THE FOURTH NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN 60
4.11 NATIONAL POLICIES FOR THE DECADE 1985-1995 .. ........ 60
4.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................... . .. ...... ... 61
CHAPTER 5 .............................. . ..... .. . ...... 62
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES IN THE ZAMBIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 62
5.1 INTRODUCTION .... ......... .. .. .... .. . ........... . 62
5.2 MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION ......................... . 62
5.3 THE POWERS AND DUTIES OF BOTH MINISTERS OF EDUCATION 62
5.4 MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION AND CULTURE 63
5.4.1 GENERAL ...... . 63
5.4.2 INSPECTORATE 65
5.4.3 SPECIAL EDUCATION UNDER THE MINISTRY OF GENERAL
EDUCATION AND CULTURE ...... . 66
5.5 MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION .... 67
5.5.1 GENERAL .. . . ..................... . 67
5.5.2 ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION ................. . 68
5.5.3 INSPECTORATE: MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION 69
5.5.'1 SPECIAL EDUCATION UNDER THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION 70
5.6 RELATIONSHIP AND ANOMALIES BETWEEN THE TWO MINISTRIES 71
5.7 INFLUENCE OF THE SPECIFIC ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURING .... 72
5.8 NODAL STRUCTURES 73
5.8.1 BOARD OF GOVERNORS ................... . 73
5.8.2 PARENT TEACHER ASSOCIATION (PTA) 74
5.8.3 TEACHING SERVICE COMMISSION ................. . 74
5.8.4 TEACHING UNION ...... .... ........ .... . ......... . 75
5.9 FINANCING OF EDUCATION 75
5.9.1 GENERAL ................... . . ........... 75
5.9.2 CLAIMANTS ON THE EDUCATION BUDGET 76
5.9.3 EXPENDITURE BY LEVELS OF EDUCATION 78
5.9.4 UNIT COST OF EDUCATION 79
5.10 CONTRAST IN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES: PRE-INDEPENDENCE
AND THE PRESENT .............................. . 80
5.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
CHAPTER 6 ....................... . 84
THE SCHOOL AND SUPPORTIVE SERVICES 84
6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................ . 84
6.2 PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.2.2 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS 84
6.2.3 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS AND STATISTICAL PROFILE ... 86
6.2.4 CURRICULUM ... 86
6.2.5 TEACHERS' QUALIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.3 PRIMARY SCHOOLS .. .. .. . . ..... . 89
6.3.1 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS .. 89
6.3.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS AND STATISTICAL PROFILE ........ 90
6.3.3 CURRICULUM ...................... . 90
[Link] Introduction ...... ... .. . ........ .... . 90
[Link] Grade 1-4, Lower Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. 92
[Link] Grades 5-7, Upper Primary .. ........ ......... ..... ... . .. 93
6.3.4 TEACHERS' QUALIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6ASECONDARYSCHOOLS 94

iv
6.4.1 GENERAL ORANIZATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS .. 94
6.4.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENT AND STATISTICAL PROFILE 94
6.4.3 CURRICULUM ... . .................. . 94
[Link] INTRODUCTION 94
[Link] Grades 8-9, Junior secondary .... .. ... ... . 96
[Link] Grades 10-12, Senior Secondary .. .... ... . .. .. .... 98
[Link] Optional Subjects .. ........ . .. .... .... ... .. . ... ... . 99
[Link] Comments on the subject production work ................ . 99
6.4.4 TEACHERS' QUALIFICATIONS . . . . . . ........ . 101
6.5 SPECIAL EDUCATION ...................... . 101
6.5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.5.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS AND STATISTICAL PROFILE 105
[Link] Enrolment And staffing of special schools .. 105
6.5.3 FOREIGN ASSISTANCE FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION ..... . 105
6.5.4 USE OF "UNITS" FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION .............. . 108
6.6 TEACHER TRAINING 109
6.6.1 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF TEACHERS' TRAINING COLLEGES 109
6.6.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS AND STATISTICAL PROFILE .. ... .. 109
6.6.3 CURRICULUM ........................................ . 111
6.6.4 STAFF QUALIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.7 TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING . . . . . . . . . 112
6.7.1 GENERAL ORGANIZATION 112
6.7 .2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS 113
6.7.3 CURRICULUM ..... . 113
6.7.4 ENROLMENT .. 115
6.8 THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA 117
6.8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . ....................... . 117
6.8.2 GENERAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 117
6.8.3 ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS (University Calendar. 1986-1987:52) 118
6.8.4 STAFF QUALIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.9 CONTINUING EDUCATION 121
6.9.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.9.2 DEPARTMENT OF CORRESPONDENCE STUDIES ... 121
[Link] General org<lllizalion And functioning 121

v
[Link]. Entrance requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
[Link] Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.9.3 DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION -UNIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . 123
[Link] Geneml Organization 123
[Link] Entrance requirements ................................ . 123
[Link] Curriculum for adult education .......................... . 124
6.9.4 DEPARTMENT OF EXTENSION STUDIES AND CONFERENCES . . . . . 124
6.10 SUPPORTIVE SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.10.1 THE ZAMBIA LIBRARY SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.10.2 THE ZAMBIA CULTURAL SERVICE (ZCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.10.3 EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING SERVICE (EBS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.10.4 EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL OF ZAMBIA ..................... 121
6.1 0.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.1 0.4.2 Overseas examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
[Link] Examination unit for the disabled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.10.5 PSYCHOLOGICAL SERVICES . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.10.6 BURSARIES COMMITTEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.10.7 KENNETH KAUNDA FOUNDATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.10.8 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CENTRE (CDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.11 COMPARISON:PRE-INDEPENDENCE AND POST-INDEPENDENCE ... 132
6.11.1 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
[Link] Entrance requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
[Link].1 Primary school . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
[Link].2 Secondary schools .................................. 132
[Link] School structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
[Link].1 Primary schooling (first level) .. . 133
[Link].2 Junior Secondary Course (second level) . . . . . . . 133
[Link].3 Senior Secondary (third level) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
[Link].4 Fourth Level . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
[Link] Curriculum ...................................... 135
[Link].1 Primary Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
[Link].2 Secondary Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
[Link].3 Points of criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY ... 138

vi
CHAPTER 7 ..... .... ..... .......... ...... ..... .. .... . ... .. 139
SUMMARY: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 139
7.1 INTRODUCTION .... ....... ... ....... ...... ..... ... .. .. . 139
7.2 MOTIVATION .. ...... ......... ....... ...... .... 139
7.3 AIMS OF RESEARCH .......................... . 139
7.4 METHODS OF RESEARCH 139
7.5 STRUCTURAL OVERVIEW .... .......... .... ...... ... 1t10
7.6 GENERAL OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1t11
7 .6.1 PRE-INDEPENDENCE ........ ......... ..... ..... .... ... .. 1t11
7.6.2 EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENCE ZAMBIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1t12
[Link] The introduction of Educational Reform (Zambian Education Policy) 1t12
[Link] The new slruclure according to Educational Reform . . .. . . . . . . . 1t13
[Link] Organisation and administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1t13
7.7 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..... .. ... .. .. .... .. 1t11\
7.7 .1 GENERAL
7.7.2 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO SHORTAGE
OF GRADE I AND 5 PLACES ........ ...... ...... .... .. .... ... 1t11\
7.7.3 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO SHORTAGE
OF GRADE 8 PLACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.7.4 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONf WITH REGARD TO SHORTAGE
OF TEXTBOOKS .... .. ......... ... ....... .. ... ... ..... .... 1t16
7.7.5 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO BASIC
SCHOOLS 146
7.7.6 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO FREE
EDUCATION ........ ........ ............ .. .. .. .... ..... ... 1t16
7.8 FIELDS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH .......................... 1t17
7.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1t17
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
LIST OF INTERVIEWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS, TABLES AND ORGANOGRAMS ............ 156
LIST OF MAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
LIST OF TABLES ... ...... ..... ...... .... ..... .... ...... .. .. 156
LIST OF ORGANOGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

vii
CHAPTER 1

ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION
At the time of independence in October 1964, Zambians inherited an
exceptionally weak education profile. It was woefully inadequate to meet the
challenges of the post-colonial society. There were few trade schools and no
University Institution. A vexing feature of the Zambian Educational System at
Independence was the racial segregation of the students (Lungu, 1985:289).

The Education Act of 1966 abolished racial segregation in the education system,
introduced non-fee paying school registration in Mission-controlled and Public
Schools, nationalized several Mission Schools and abolished the Sixth Form or
Advanced Level Cerlificate programmes. The Act increased access to
education. 'Educational Reform' became the national ideal. The changes were
brought about because Zambia, like many other developing countries, is
addressing itself to the challenges of old and new problems of educational
development, for example, a shorlage of trained teachers, especially in Science
subjects, and the lack of suitable and adequate teaching and learning materials
such as textbooks and the availability of educational facilities (Kaluba,
1982:159). The government and the different functionaries of the education
system were therefore determined to build a sound and efficient education
system for Zambians as advocated by the Phelps-Stokes Commission
(Mwanakalwe, 1968:20).

1.2 PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH

The problem of research is located in the question as to what changes have ta-
ken place with regard to the structure of the Zambian Education System with
respect to the Educational Reform and needs of the people after Independence.
Have the education policies, organizational structure, school system and
supporlive services changed as a result of Educational Reform?
1.3 AIMS OF RESEARCH
This study intends to investigate the education of Africans in Zambia. Most
importantly the research will trace the educ11tional changes brought about by
independence and point out how these changes were necessitated by the
educational needs of the people, as reflected in Educational Reform.

The aims of the research can therefore be put as follows:

• To describe the development of the Zambian Education System in a

historical perspective;

• to define the concepts of Education for Development (Draft Statement) and

Educational Reform (Functional Policy) and their influence on the
educational policy;

• to determine the changes in the organizational structures after

independence; and

• to determine the changes with regard to the school system and the
supportive services after independence.

1.4 DEMARCATION OF THE FIELD OF STUDY

1.4.1 GENERAL
This study confines itself to the Education System of Zambia in the pre-
independence and post-independence periods, with special emphasis on the
post-independence period.

1.4.2 DEMARCATION OF THE FIELD OF STUDY IN TERMS OF THE

EXPLANATION OF THE MAIN CONCEPTS CONTAINED IN THE TITLE OF THIS
STUDY

[Link] Zambia
Zambia, formerly Northern Rhodesia and a British Colony, became politically
independent in 1964, with Dr. Kenneth David Kaunda as the first president. The

2
name Zambia is derived from the Zambezi River. It lies in the heart of Southern
Africa and entirely within the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer with an Mel'l of
752,614 sq km. The main ethnic groups include Bemba, Nyanja, Barotse,
Mambwe, Jumbuka and Swahili. English is the official language (Britannica VoL
12. 1988:890).

[Link] Tile Educational System

The term system of education refers to a society's total pattern or formal
Institutions, agencies and organizations that transmit knowledge and the
cultural heritage and that influence the social and Intellectual growth of the
Individual (Britannica VoL 18, 1988:115).

1.5 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

The following methods of research have been used:

1.5.1 LITERATURE STUDY

In this project a literature study was undertaken. The sources were obtained in
the libraries of the Potchefstroom University lor Christian Higher Education. the
Universlly of South Africa, the University of the Witwatersrand. Zambia National
Archives and finally largely at the University of ZambiA.

An extensive literature study included secondary and primary sources, the

latter in the form of Annual Reports, Circulars, Journals and Newspapers.

1.5.2 INTERVIEWS
During a research visit to Zambia, unstructured interviews were conductmf with
officials of the Ministry of General Education and Culture, the Ministry of Higher
Education and other people concerned with a view to verifying the inlormalion
gained from the literature study.

1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY

Chapter 1 is mainly an orientation to the whole study.

To understand the theoretical structure of an education system, Chapter 2

3
discusses the components of an education system. This sec!ion also provides
a general description of the country investigated in !he study.

The historical perspective on the Zambian Education System is rliscussed in

Chapter 3.

Chapter 4 deals with the formulation of tht educational policy in Zambia and
indicates how Educational Reform 'unctions.

The organizational structures involved in the implementation of the educational

policy are rliscussed In Chapter 5.

Chapter 6 discusses the school system, from pre-primary school to tertiary

level, and it also discusses the Supportive Services in the Zambinn Education.

The summary of the study is given in Chapter 7. Findings and

recommendations are clearly set out in this chapter. The structural and general
overview is briefly discussed.

1.7 ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations used in this study are set out below (Coombe & Per Lauvas,
1984:ii-iil).

ABBREVIATIONS

AVS Audio-Visual Aids Service

BSAC British South Africa Company
CDC Curriculum Development Centre
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DTEVT Department of Technical Education
and Vocational Training
EBS Educational Broadcasting Services
ERB Educational Research Bureau
ERS Educational Radio Service
ETVS Educational Television Service

4
FINN IDA Finnish International Development Authority
FNDP First National Development Plan
GCE General Certificate of Education
GNP Gross National Producl
GRZ Government of the Republic of Zambia
K Zambian Kwacha
MEC (Former) Ministry of Education and Culture
MGEC Ministry of General Education and Cullure

MHE Ministry of Higher Education

MOE {Former) Ministry of Education

NECZAM National Educational Company of Zambia
NEDCOZ National Educational Distribution Company of
Zambia
NOR AD Norwegian Agency for International Development

PS Permanent Secretary

PTA Parent-Teacher's Association

PU Production Unit

SID A Swedish International Development Authority

SHOP Second National Development Plan

SSG Supervised Study Groups

TNDP Third National Development Plan
UNESCO United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNIP United National Independence Party
UNZA University of Zambia
ZBS Zambia Broadcasting Services
zcs Zambia Cultural Services
ZEMP Zambian Educational Material Project
ZPA Zambia pre-School Association
ZPC Zambia Primary Course
ZNS Zambia National Service

5
1.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter the reader has been orientated to the whole study. The
problems, aims and methods of research, demarcation of the field of study and
the structure of the disserlation have been discussed.

6
CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL STRUCTURE OF AN EDUCATION SYSTEM AND THE

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ZAMBIA

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the theoretical structure of <:m education system is discussed
together with an explanation of the concepts Educational Policy. Educational
Administration, School System and Supportive Services. This clwpter
highlights the situation in Zambia, the country studied, hy briefly ~Jiving its
geographical situation, general history, peoples. economy and the political
structure.

2.2 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION SYSTEM

The education system is an interwoven structure in which soci<~l structures of a
given society combine with educational institutions so that, by the co~ordination

with education of each one's contribution to education. <~nd by orgm1izalion.

they may bring about the accelerated devek pmenl of the young in the territory
of a specific s!LJ!e, in compliance v. ith the cultuml and natural dem<~rHis of lime
and place (Slone, 1981:130).

2.3 COMPONENTS OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS

2.3.1 THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY

The education of the child Is a responsibility to be assumed by every community
and, as a result, the nature of education envisaged for the non~adull of any
target group is determined by the ground~molives or philosophy of life of that
particular cormmrnily. Viewed in this light. the community rnay decide !hal
education of its youth must be of a religious nature. or it m<~y prefer either a
differenliLJied or integrated education, or it can require a merely voc<~lionally

centred or an ncademic educ;,tion. These educaliorwl desires or expectations

arise from man's philosophy of life and are expressed in some .!J;Jfm of
education<~l policy which is rut into effect by legislation on educr~lion (Viln
Schalkwyk, 1986:6-1).

The education<JI policy is therefore the expression of the mmmer in which the
identified erlucation<JI needs of the target group can be met. It is binding in
nature and entails the fix<Jtion of decisions in respect of the structures to be
created, the facilities to be provided, the -;ervices to be rendered ilnd the
<Jclions to be carried out. The educ'ltional policy therefore represents the b<1sis.
the points of depilr1ure for the institution and composition of the educ<~tion

system in order to meet the educatiorwl needs of the t<~rget group (Steyn.
1988:19).

The education<~l policy is therefore the product of the community. and Steyn
(1988:19) succinctly defines it as "die instrument wa<~nleur verseker moet word
dat die gestelde doelstellings en doelwitte vr~n 'n bepar~lde ondcrwysstelsel in
die praktyk n<Jgeslreef en bereik word".

2.3.2 EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

"Educational administration" is Fl very geneml term which refers to executive
or implementary org<Jns as well as their functions. The rn<~in r~nd indeed the
all-inclusive task of educational administration can be seen <IS the interprctr~tion

and detailed specificntion of enactments of legislature in order to supply

educ<Jtional practice with useful and necessary guidelines (Ruperti, 1976:57).

In the education system the officials are usually divided into groups responsible
for educational management and for carrying out certain identified tasks.
Another important task of the functionaries in the educ<~tion system is to see to
it that funds for the financing of education are used effectively. Ustmlty the
organizational structures are referred to as control structures. and in such
cases structures such as Ministries of Educntion and Departments of Educntion
are included (Steyn, 1988:?6-27).

2.3.3 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM

The "School System" refers to nil educationnl institutions such as pre-primary,
primary, secondmy and tertimy educational institutions (Steyn, 1988:32). Such

R
institutions alford the learners an opportunity to be reseralcd dillerentialedly.
that is. according to their differentiated educational needs and in accordance
with their levels of development.

The primary task of the school system is therefore the creation of a leaching-
learning situation in such a way !hal provision if made fur the learner's
divergent aptitudes and interests. II is also of vital imporiance that in the school
system facets such as learning opportunities, learners. teachers. medium of
instruction and physical facilities should be taken into account (Sieyn, 1988:32).

2.3.4 SUPPORTIVE SERVICES

The school as a place where formative education lakes place and where the
educator and educand meet each other in a pedagogical-didactical situation, is
never self-sufficient. II is part and parcel of the continuously chanqinq worlds
and as a result the teacher's knowledge, skills and methods evcnlu<~lly become
outdated. On the basis of this fact. formative education depends entirely on
organised external help given to Individual schools so lh<~l leaching <~nd

learning can proceed more efficiently In them (Van Schalkwyk, 1986:157).

"Supportive Services" can be categorised as supporting services to the learners

such as medical services, guidance, school library services, school music
services and school transport services. The second category is supporiing
services to the teachers, including services like curricular services, examination
services, subject advisory services and professional services (Sieyn, 1988:39).

2.4 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ZAMBIA

2.4.1 GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION

Zambia is a large land-locked country in the heari of Southern /\!rica. II has an
area of 752 614 sq km, and is one of the largest producers of copper in the
world. II Is situated entirely within the tropics. Zambia has no fewer than eight
neighbours. II is bordered to the west by Angola: to the northwest by Zaire; to
the noriheasl by Tanzania; to the east by Malawi: to the. southeast by
Mozambique; to the south by Zimbabwe and a small ill-defined border with
Botswana and to the southwest by a thin strip of South West Africi1n territory
called the Caprivi Strip. The nnme Zambia is derived from the Zrunhezi River,
which forms a common border with Zimbabwe. The wpitnl is lu!lakn (J<ny,
1967:15-17) (see Mnp 2.1).

2.4.2 SHORT GENERAL HISTORY

Slightly more thnn two thousand years ago, Zmnbia was inhabited by a few
thousAnd people. probably Bushmen and Pygmies, who lived in whnl is cnlled
the cullurnl em of the late Slone Age. These Stone Age inlmbitnnt~ began to
be replaced by different peoples with different cultures or wnys of life around
!he lime of the birth of Christ. These newc-mers, called Africnns, did not, like
the Bushmen, live in the Stone Ag"l. They grew their own food, kept domestic
animals, made tools out of iron and lived in settled villnges. It is importnnt to
note that the history of Zambia is cut off from outside influences (lnngwot thy,
1972:8).

In 1798 and 1831-1832 Pot1uguese trading missions from Tete reached Mwakl
Kazembe's capilnl fust south of lake Mweru. In 1835 the Ngoni. in fli~tht from
Zululand, crossed the Zambezi in a northeasterly direction. One section of this
tribe finally sellled on the lake Nyasaluangwa watershed tmar the future site of
Fort Jameson (Chipata). In the West, the Kololo, a Sotho people UJHler their
chief Sebiluane crossed the upper Zambezi and made themselves mnsterf: of
Barotseland (Britannica Vol. 27, 1988:975).

David Livingstone reached the upper Zambezi in 1851 and in 1855 he

discovered the Victoria Falls. He subsequently explored the whole Zmnhezi
Basin and the plateau to the south of Lake Tanganyika_ Dming the clo!'ing yenrs
of the 19th century the British South Africa Compnny extended its sphere of
influence by obtaining numerous treaties and concessions from chiefs north of
the Zambezi. The most important and most famous of these is the Lochner
Treaty signed in 1890 by Lewanika Paramount Chief of the Barotse nntion. This
treaty conceded all mineral rights throughout the extensive Barotse dominions
lo the British South Africa Company and promised lewanika British protection.

10
In this way Barolseland acquired Hs special status which it retained until the
country bec<~me independent (K<~y, 1967:Hi).

The outline ol Northern Rhodesia (ZambiA) had been largely mapped out on
paper by treaties signed by European countries, but the British South Africa
Company (BSAC) favoured a division of the area info North-Eastern and North-
Western Rhodesia because the two par1s had different histories. The latter had
been occupied by expansion from the soul'., and all ils communications were
with Rhodesia and Botswana: the former was associated with routes from the
east and north and was administered from Malawi. This division and company
rule were formerly proclaimed in the North-Western Rhodesia Order in Council
of January 1900. Barotseland remained a protectorate within Nor1h-Weslern
Rhodesia. Fort Jameson became the capital of North·Easlem Rhodesia unlit
1907, when Livingstone became the capital. In 1911 Northern Rhodesia was
created as a political entity by the amalgamation of the two territories ;md II was
administered from Livingstone until 1935, when Lusaka assumed the seal of
government. Company rule ended in 1924 and the Country then became a
British protectorate. From 1953 to 1963 II formed part of the Federation ol
Rhodesia and Nyasaland but the Federation was dissolved on 31 December
1963 and Northern Rhodesia became an independent republic on ~tl October
1964 under the name of Zambia (Kay, 1967:15-16).

The United National Independence Party (UNIP) became the party in power and
Kenneth Kaunda became President. In 1973 he cemented one-party (UNIP) rule
with a new constitution. Kaunda has remained the domin<~nl politic<~! figure in
Zambia well Into the 1980's.

2.4,3 PEOPLES OF ZAMBIA

Zambia's population is small in relation to its area, with over 75 per cent of the
population living close to subsistence level In the rural areas and a Wf!ak mass
educational structure. Zambia's human resources had also been neglected
during colonial rule. Inevitably 11nd rightly therefore the key word In the
national vocAbulary since independence hAs been "development" (Di'lvies,
1912:10).

12
Radio broadcasting employs seven languages: Bemba, Tonq<~. Nyanja. Lozi.
Kaonde, Lunda and Luvale of which the first four 11re under~tood far beyond the
mother tongue boundaries. The extended lies of kinship involved in the
traditional system or society lmve continued to exer1 a powm1ul influence even
in the urban areas.

The traditionr.~l regions wilhin the country approxim;~tely coincide with the
administrative division into provinces. The Western (formerly B;~rotse) Province
Is dominated by the Lozi, who chiefly came to live on the flood plain of the
Zambezi River. During the 1600's, after conquering the local peoples, they hnd
an unusually mixed economy, based on garden culture, caltle ownership.
fishing and hunting (langworthy, 1972:24). They also had n strong trncli!ion of
government and law and a distinct aristocracy (Aidrid~,e. 1978:55).

The Northern Province Is dominated by the Bemba, who tr<:tcc their oriuins to
the Luba-Lunda kingdom ami have a strongly centrall?'ed chieflninship. Bemha
Is the lingua-franca of the Copperbelt. The Northern Province is genornl!y poor
In soil and there is no tradition of callle-owning (Aldridge. 1978:69).

The Eastern Province Is Inhabited by four tribes of which three, the Tsenga,
Chewa and Lunda. originated In Zaire. These three were conquered by the
fourlh, lhe warlike Ngoni, who are related to the cattle-owning Zulus of South
Africa. Many Ngonl customs have dlsappenred and the Ngoni language has
been entirely replnced by Nyanja (Aldridge, 1978:69).

The Copperbelt (formerly the Western Province) is tim location of the mining
industry. There the populnlion, both densely concentrated nnd diversr~. is
composed primarily of Africmts from all pnrts of Zambia. with nhout a tenth of
the total from neighbouring countries. This paltern is repented among the
populations living alonu the railway that slr etches from the Copperbelt to
Livingstone.

Most of the while population lives in Kitwe, Ndola and Lw;aka or other towns
of the railway belt. Since independence restrictions on permanent residence
by aliens and the introduction of a contract system of employment lor new
residents h:we engendered instability among the while popui11Hon. The
government policy of Zarnhianizalion, 11icled by the r11pid development or
education and trnining, h11s brought about the gradu<1l decline in the nwnllf~r of
whites. There Me several thousnnd Indians. two-thirds of whom <~rc Hindu <~nd

the rest Muslim. Most of them arrived in Zambia between 19<'15 <~nd 1954 nfler
which lndi11n immigration was severely restricted. There <Jre 11lso a few
thousand persons of mixed race, moslly European-Afric1111. who me chiefly
setlled in Ndola, Lusaka and Chipata (Brllannica Vol. 27. 1988:972).

2.4.4 THE ECONOMY

The Zambian government is comrnilled to a policy of mpid socinl 11nd economic
change. In 1964 economic independence was the first pr·iorily. II is nssumed
that the people hnve an interest in an increased standard of living. even where
it signals the end to their traditional way of life, and lh1ll the state has 1111 interest
In a secure economic base and enhanced economic power Cil!Jilcily. The
government also seeks to use economic development as a menns of extending
its control and of identifying the Interests of the people with the stale through
the distribution of material rewards (Pellman, 1976:14).

Zambia has a mixed economy in which both the public ;mel priv11tc sectors
par1icipale. II is heavily dependent on the production and export of copper. The
government acquired 51 per cent of the copper industry in 1969. Zambia has
been one of the few African countries that, since Independence. lws had·
sufficient income to linance most of its economic and social development. As
the fourth largest copper-producing country in the worl(l, Zombin·s copper out-
put is exceeded only by thnt of the United Stntes, the Soviet Union nml Chile.
There are len producing mines Luanshya. Mufulira. Chihuhmm, Ch<~mhishi,

Rok<1nn (near Kitwe), Nchangfl (near Chlngol11), Bwmm Mkuhwa. Konkola.

Lufubu and Bnluba, with ore reserves r' over 882 000 000 tons, which
constitute about one-eiqhl of the wnrld's known and exploited copper reserves.
Significant qunlilies of coal, zinc. ore find lead ore are mined (Britnnnica Vol.
27, 1988:973).
The government's effort to increase agricultural and industrial output have had
only limited success. Agriculture accounts lor approxhnnlely one-sixth of the
gross national product (GNP) and employs two-thirds of the work-force.
Customary tenure predominates: farmers on stale land are awnrded leases for
100 years. Slash-and-burn agriculture is common. Subsistence farming is
widespread and concentrates on the production of corn, cassnva, peanuts and
sorghum. Large commercial farms are controlled by Europeans and account for
up to one-half of Zambia's agricultural output. The r<tising of callle is reslrciled
by the prevalence of the lselse fly in northern and e<tslern Znmhia. Fnrmers are
often reluctant to slmtghler callle, which are <t lradil!onfll sign of wealth, and the
production of beef and milk falls short of domestic demmHf (Britannica VoL 12,
1988:890).

The Zambian government's policy is to support selected industries which can

make a net contribution to the development and diversific<tlion of the economy.
Like other developing economies, Zambia wishes to become self-supporting in
the manufacture of general consumer goods. thereby reducing imports <tnd
saving foreign exchange (London Chamber f Commerce, 1966:2).

Manufacturing industries account lor approximately one-fifth of the gross

national product and employ more than one-tenth of the work-force. The
government owns all or pari of most large-scale industries (Britannic<~ Vol. 12,
1988:890). The Industrial Development Corporation of Zambia Lid. is a wholly
Government-owned institution. which with its own board of directors is broadly
responsible to !he Ministry of Commerce and Industry lor the administration of
the Government's industrial policy. II is also the holding. financing and man<~­

gemenl institution lor the Government's investments and other interests in

industry (London Chamber of Commerce, 1966:2).

2.4.5 THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE

When the protectorate of Northern Rhodesia became !he sovereign Republic of
Zambia in October 211, 19611. the new country's Independence Conslilullon
provided for a unililry slate. The President Is the Head of Stale. Head of
Government and Comml'mder--in-Chief of lim Defence forces. He is also

15
chairman of the cilbinel and, although the consti!u!ion does not require it, Pre-
sident Kaumla has stilled that he will be subject to the cabinet's advice ilml
influence. The executive functions of the President include the selection,
appointment and dismissal of the Vice President, the Cabinet Ministers, the
junior and under Ministers, Parliamentar·, Secretaries, the officers of the
Defence Forces, the Attorney Genua!, as well As the Appointment nnd control
of the Public Service Commission which directs the opemlion of the Civil Ser-
vice. He also appoints the Chief Justice but cannot dismiss him (Kilplnn, el at.,
1974:203-207).

The legislilture, called the Niltional Assembly, includes 1:?5 elected nwmbers
and up to 10 rnembArs appointed by the president. Central Government is
represented throughout Zambia by the provincial government system,
according to which the President appoints a resident cabinet minister to each
of eight provinces (lusaka excluded). Each resident cabinet minister is the
president's direct representative and is responsible for the co-ordination of
policy and lor liaison with local political parties. Provincial administration is
carried out by Central Committee members who each has a senior civil servant
as permanent secretary. The nine provinces are divided into 53 districts, ench
with a district governor responsible to the provincial cabinet minister. Local
government is controlled by the Minister of Provincial and Locnl Government
and Culture. Lusaka. Kilwe and Ndola have city councils and there me live
municipal councils and 24 township councils. There are also 3-1 rural councils
with a majority of elected members and up to three members (mainly chiefs and
government officials In the districts) nominated by the minister. fin<~lly. them
are eight mine township management boards that advise mine management on
the needs of residents in the mine areas (Britannica Vol. 27. 1988:97-1).

2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

The above discussion hns led to a clear understanding of the main concepts of
the field of study. I hat is the education system, educational policy,
administration of educnlion. school system and supporlive services.

16
A clear picture ilnd understanding of Zambia is given like its geogrilphicill
situation, short politicctl history, economy, peoples ctml its polilicctl structure.

17
CHAPTER 3

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE ZAMBIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Zambian Education System has evolved through a series or ph<tses since
the early beginnings. Traditional education was first on the scene until 1880.
when the missionaries penetrated Zambia and decidecl to concentrate upon the
education or Africans (Silanda, 1988:40). This section is concerned with
describing how Western education carne into Zambia. took root <tnd developed.
This doesn't mean that traditional education was totally ab<tndoned.

Though the control or the country was under the British South Africa Company
(BSAC) from 1889 to 1924, and under the Colonial Ollice from 1925 to
independence, missionaries continued to dominate the educational scene in
Zambia. This chapter also sets out to trace the development or education alter
independence. This will include the Education Act of 1966 <tnd the First and
Second National Development Plans. The names Northern Rhodesia and later
Zambia are going to be used in this section to emphasise periods concerned.

3.2 EDUCATION FROM THE 17TH TO THE EARLY 20TH CENTURIES

3.2.1 TRADITIONAL EDUCATION

Before the arrival or the Missionaries and Western Colonists. Africans had
evolved their own system of education on which cultural trnnsrnission and
social reproduction ol their societies depended. Education was predominantly
informal. Children participated in daily lamHy life with the content ol education
dillering from one tribe to another. depending upon the environment and cul-
ture of the group. Children were enriched with the history and traditions ol the
clan and the tribe. The telling of heroic deeds or the <tncestors inculc<tted in
them a sense of value, loyally ;md pride. The customs and beliefs, a sense ol
belonging to the tribe were emphasised through dances, games, rites and
ceremonies of the tribe. II was a common practice in all tribes that

18
grandparents would spend the evenings narralfng stories lo their grandchildren
around the lire. This is the pml which children enjoyed most because they
would repeal the loved stories amongst themselves, and today this is the pan
taken by grammar books and comprehension exercises. Their education
wouldn't be complete if it did not transmit societal values such as obedience to
adults and knowledge as to how to behave (Snelson, 1970:1).

A boy was !mined in skills which would enable him and his family to earn a
living. Fathers would take their young boys on a hunting expedition. There a
boy was taught how to follow a spoor, how to set traps, to shoot a straight
arrow, how to skin and dismember an animal: and how to lind his way. He also
learnt the uses and names of many herbs, flowers, lruils. shrubs and trees. He
was also taught the m1 of fishing. of chopping trees, mnking lutts, canoes, nests.
mats, ropes. drums and baskets. If he lived in the cattle mea. he was taught
how to herd cattle, to care lor the beasts which were sick or Injured and how to
defend them against attack. Helping his parents in the gardens, he learned the
traditional men's share in the [Link] of crops (Snelson, 1970:1).

Young men were trained In how to participate in public affairs of the tribe. The
chief objectives were to expose these young men to legal principles and proce-
dures or the tribe; to familiarize them with the constitutional framework and
power structure of the tribe (Makura, 1978:41 ).

A significant event in traditional education of boys was the Initiation ceremony,

where they were secluded from normal life in the society and subjected to
severe tests of courage and physical endurance before they were allowed to
enter the wnks or adults (Mwanakalwe, 1908:3). In sociologicnl and
psychological terms. the aims of the ritual in initiation schools were to
strengthen the individual at a time of crisis in his tile, to sanction his new sl<~tus

in society alter a period of exclusion and instruction, and to asser1 the authority
or society over the individual through the solemnity and rigour of the ritual
(Read, 1959:106-107).

Girls' training rested with mothers, aunts and grandmothers. Girls' training
greatly prepared them as future wives and mothers. Young girls would be

19
laugh! to sweep tim hut. wash the pols and calabashes and later they would
graduate to drawing water and pounding maize or grinding millet into line
powder. Among the most Important things that they were t:mght wns cooking,
child minding ami their physicnl growth. Just like boys they lmd some skills to
learn like making pottery. brewing beer. mudding the walls and the floors ollhe
hut and the verandah where their parents lived. In the performance of 11lmost
any task the young girl was under the supervision of an experienced woman or
older girl who ensured that the task was prornplly and adequately
accomplished. Insolence or laziness on the part of the you119 girls was
condemned (Mwanakatwe, 19GB 4).

Mwanakatwe (1968:5) sees the culmination of education And training occurrinq

when a girl reached the stage of puberty. 1:'1mediately she would be sr,cluded
for a period ol time, the place of ;eclusion could be regnrded as n school in
which the final instructions were given concerning her responsibilities which
had direct relevance to her marital life in future. She was thus instructed About
the obligations to her future husband and his relatives, for whom she wns
required to provide food regularly; lessons were given to her concerning child-
care; the virtues and upright conduct which she was required to uphold were
extolled; above all she was instrucled about her responsibilities to the whole
community and the absolute importance of acceplinn lim illllhority of her
husband.

Snelson ( 1970:2) maintains I hill learning was by obscrvntion, imitation an <I

repetition. Children were rarely given instruction in an explicit vel hAl And <th·
stract manner. Traditional education was concrete and non-verbal, concerned
with practical activity, not abstract generalization. The young man received no
formal lessons in the theory of housebuilding or storing grain he learned these
skills by watching until such lime as he was able to join in the activity.

However divergent the content and methods of tradilional education <Jmong

tribes, training hAd one aim, which was to preserve the cultural heritage of the
tribe and the clan (MwAnAka!we, 1968:1).

2(l
3.2.2 MISSIONIIRY EDUCATION AND THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY
1883-1924

[Link] General
The early history of education in Northern Rhodesia is associated will! the work
of Christian missions and began before the British South Africa Compnny
(BSAC) extended its administration North of the Zambezi. Townrds the end of
the pre .. colonial era, Northern Rhodesia was penetrated first by missionary
explorers of whom Livingstone wns the most notable and subsequently by
missionary evangelists (Arnot, Colliard, Dephelcln) ;md later by prospectors
and treaty seekers, all in some way representatives of Rhodes' BSAC (l<elly.
1987:9).

A major interest of the missionaries upon their arrival was the wriling of African
languages of the areas in which they had opened their mission stations.
Teaching people to read and write was also in their progrmmne. Frednrick
Stanley Arnot of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society was the first Christian
missionary station from which the Gospel would spread. He established the
school for the lozi people in 1883 wilh an enrolment of 3 boys (Snelson. 1970:4).

Actually, the period from 1882 to 1905 was an era of Intense missionary activity
(Mwanakatwe, 1968:10). Northern Rhodesia was officially created in 1911. when
the separate administrations of North-western and North·e<~slern Rhodesin. first
divided by the Kaftm River and later by the railway, were amai~J<'.llllilted by the
BSAC In order to economize (Rolberg, 1966:25).

[Link] TfJe Barotse National Schoof

During the period of the British South Africa Compnny administration the
provision of educ111ion remained the responsibility of the missionaries. The
exception was the Barolse National School established in 1907 following an
agreement between BSAC and the Paramount Chief of I he lozi thai a proportion
of the tax collected in Barotseland (today the Western Province) would be used
to provide education for the Lozi people (Kelly, 1987:10). All olher erfucational

21
developments up to April 1924 depended almost entirely on the initiative,
energy, perseverance and financial resources of the missionary societies.

In 1908 Magistrate C. Meckinon laid down the policy that there was to be a
system of dual education in the Barolse National School; all pupils were to
spend 4 hours each day in school and 4 hours in a workshop. Lessons at the
school included the R's (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic), Geography, manual
training in carpentry, building, tailoring and typewriting. Industrial apprentices
were to work all day as sawyers, carpenters and to attend night school.
Selected students from the school were withdrawn from classrooms and
engaged for very little pay on public works such as the construction of
government offices and residences. People were exploited under the cloak of
education (Mwanakalwe, 1968:15).

The first African teachers to be employed in The Barolse National School were
Basulos. AI that lime there was no age restriction for scholars and this
encouraged married men to register. To avoid travelling they brought their fa-
milies to slay with them on the school premises. By 1912 there were 400 pers-
ons living on the school site, many of them in grass shellers. Their slay was
not without corruption; beer-drinking, disease, immorality, idleness and strikes
were prevalent; the morals of the younger pupils were being contaminated by
the lack of discipline of their elders. Between 50 to 60 pupils left school every
term. A year later (1913) when enrolment was 182, the Headmaster reported
that of the boys and men, 6 had qualified as teachers, 4 as government
interpreters, 4 as interpreters to the Native Labour Bureau, 2 as Clerks in
Government Offices. 3 as hospital Orderlies, 1 as a foreman Carpenter and 1
as a foreman Nurseryman, while many others had obtained situations in shops
and offices (Snelson, 1970:125).

[Link] General Missionary Conference of 1914

The first Missionary Conference on education in Northern Rhodesia was held
at Livingstone, 29 June to 2 July 1914. Only 5 of the 14 Missionary Societies in
Northern Rhodesia were represented. Their estimated 44 schools, enrolling
937 Africans, were a small part of the total Mission School effort in 1914. The

22
main issue discussed was thai of having a r<Jmmon curriculum in their schools.
A committee was elected to draw up the uniform curriculum and a uniform scale
for teachers' wages. No regulations or support had thus far come from the
British South African Company Administration. This conference drew nllenlion
in its education resolutions lo Africans' rapidly growing desire for schools.

3.2.4 THE NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION 1918

The 1918 proclamation was the first educational legislation for Natives in
Zambia. The government's first interest in African education came from a desire
to curb subversive teaching by unauthorised persons. Added to this sudden
flurry of Government interest in mission schools was District Circular No. 12 of
1918, exempting mission school pupils from lax payment. Magistrates were
directed to report on the number of schools. the pupils of taxable and non-
taxable age, the nature of their attend;mce. and the estimated e~mount of nwe-
nue to be lost through exemption (Parker, 1962:85).

According to the new proclamation schools had to be registered with the

administrator. Teachers had to be certified as competcmt and of good chamcter
and were to be married and residing with a wife In the village served by the
school. £25 fine and 3 months' imprisonment with or without hard Ia hour could
be imposed on unauthorised teachers. Schools were to be inspected frequently
by Magistrates and Native Commissioners (Snelson, 1970:130).

The 1918 Proclamation was mel with opposition from the missionaries. The
Impression thai missionaries got was that they were taken as criminals instead
of fellow-workers. Reverend Robert laws of Livingstone Mission, who had been
concerned with African education since 1875, said: "These regulations look
upon the educational work of the missionary with suspicion instead of
recognising such work as an impor1ant asset in the progress of civilisation in
the country" (Parker. 1962:87).

In 1918 the Southern Rhodesia Education Depar1ment. which had annually

inspected Northern Rhodesia's European schools since 191-1, recommended
that Northern Rhodesia appoint its own Inspector of Schools. Latham, then a
District Officer at Sesheka and not an educationist. was sent to Salisbury for
training. On his return he w<ts <tppoinled p<trl-lime Inspector of both Europe<tn
<~nd Alricnn schools. Latham wns appointed Inspector of schools in 1921 and
destined to be the Director of African Education (Parker 19fl2:89).

3.2.5 GENERAL MISSIONARY CONFERENCE ON EDUCATION, 1922

Eleven missionary societies were represented at Kalue. and arnonqsl other
things discussed included the fact that an agricultural expert hmt to be
appointed to advise the missionaries on agricultural education. The
government was requested to subsidize the salary of that expert by a third and
the rest would be paid by the missions. Dr. Loram, an educationist from Natnl.
emphasized that primary educnlion should remain under missionary control but
supported by the government financially. He requested that secondary
education should be funded by the slate. G.C. Latham. a former district ollicer.
suggested that the curriculum should be well bnlanced between reliqious,
academic and industrial elements (Snelson, 1970:134-135).

It was during this conference that it was decided to invite the Trustees of the
Phelps-Stokes Fund to undertake major responsibility lor carryinq out <Hl

education survey in East and Central Africa (Snelson, 1970:138).

3.3 MISSIONARY EDUCATION AND THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT

1924-1952

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
In 1923 the Secretary of Stille of the Colonial Government ilppoinled an
Advisory Committee to advise hirn on any matters ol Native Education in the
British Colonies in Tropical Africa. This committee was expected to be well
versed about education in British Africa. At the same lime the Phelps-Stokes
Commission was visiting countries in East Africa and visited Northern Rhodesia
in January 1924 to hold extensive meetings with the Missionary bodies at their
General Missionary Conference and with Government Officials. The
commission's tasks were (lewis. 1962:39) to:

• inquire into the educational work done in each of the areas to be studied;

24
• investigate the educational needs of the people in the light of the religious,
social, hygiene and economic conditions:

• ascertain to what extent these needs were being mel; and

• to make available to the full the results of the study.

3.3.2 THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY OF 1925

The Educational Policy of 1925 carne out as the result of the Phelps-Stokes
Commission. The commission urged thai education should be adapted to the
needs of the people for example to African conditions; that there should be
organization and supervision in African education. the Government and
missions had to apply sound principles of administration on educational work:
co-operation should be promoted amongst missions, government and
commercial concerns concerned with African education (lewis, 1952:10-11 ).

In the opinion of both the Phelps-Stokes Commission and the Advisory

Committee, education should aim at advancing agriculture; developing indus-
tries; improving health; training people in the management of their own aHnirs;
Inculcating true ideals of citizenship. Specifically, the Phelps-Stokes
Commission advocated thai a Director of Native Education be appointed and
lhal an education advisory board representative of all Interested parties be
established (Kelly, 1987:11 ).

3.4 CREATION OF AN AFRICAN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT AS A

RESULT OF THE PffELPS-STOKES COMMISSION IN 1925
In 1925 the Governor, Sir Herbert Stanley, created a sub-department of Native
Affairs and G.C. latham was appointed the first Director of Native Education.
The control of the Barotse National School shilled to the Colonial Government.
AI this time 50 000 Africans out of the estimated 200 000 school age population
were in some kind of schooling. Out of 50 000 in school all but 600 were in
mission schools (Silanda, 1988:42).

25
Latham aimed at creating a coherent and comprehensive system of education
suited to the needs of the country and its African people. It is during this period
that plans for developing African education were created. Shortly after taking
up his appointment in 1925, latham issued to all Missions a School Code. This
consisted of a suggested curriculum. latham stressed the importance of
character development. Teachers had to keep constantly in view the inculcation
by example, training and precept of the qualities of truth and honesty, reverence
and obedience, purity and self-control, unselfishness, courtesy and
perseverance (Native Education Circular No.2. 1925: File 21111).

At the end of 1930, there were three superintendents on the headquarters staff
of the Department. At the end or 1931. however, three additional
Superintendents of Native Education had been appointed, and by the end of
1938 each major region in the territory was under the charge of a
Superintendent of Native Education responsible primarily for co-ordinating
missionary activities in the sphere of education, disbursing funds allocated by
the Central Government for educational work, supervising school activities and
advising Government concerning educational needs of the people in his own
area. In 1938 the superintendents of Native Education in the territory held their
first conference (Mwanakalwe. 1968:19).

The first examinations conducted by the Department of African Education were

held in 1933 for Standard lV's when 183 boys and 3 girls wrote examinations,
during which 110 passed. The delay in secondary schools was caused by:

• The world economic depression of 1931;

• The fear of the Colonial Government of producing an unemployed educated

class. This fear even dictated some misgivings about the provision of higher
levels of primary education, as can be seen from a 1930 report. "With a
regular supply of Standard IV candidates available for vocational training
the problem will be to make sure, as far as is possible that no more pupils
are trained in each line than can be readily absorbed in the country
(Northern Rhodesia Government. 1930:17).

26
New girls' schools were opened at Kayambi, Chilubula and Mabumbu in 1926.
Chipembi and Mwenzo were opened in 1927 and 1920 respectively. Most of the
girls in these schools were boarders and some grants were designnled to them.
Some of the Girls' Schools were beginning to train teachers. AI Mbereshi, a
Maternity Training and Child Welfare Clinic was established in 1929 in close
association with Mabel Shaw's girls' school, and gave training in nursing and
midwifery to the girls in their final year at school (Snelson, 1970:162).

The syllabus for normal schools was approved by the Advisory Board in 1929.
The working week had to have 40 periods of 45 minutes each. Five periods each
were to be devoted to religion, educational methods and English; 4 each to
vernacular and arithmetic, 2 to geography and history, one each to singing,
drawing, general knowledge, hygiene and the theory of agriculture; two to
carpentry and other handwork and no fewer than IJ to practical agriculture. 20
Minutes was given to drill 4 limes a week (Snelson, 1970:153-15<'1).

In 1930 the Department of African Education was separated fr0111 the

Department of Native Affairs and II acquired new premises In Mazabuka for the
headquarters previously located in Livingstone. From the lime of his
appointment as Director Latham began to build up a cadre of qualified
educationists, recruited mainly from the United Kingdom, for the posts of
Superintendents of Native Education (Mwanakatwe, 1968:19). Teacher training
facilities were organised and Superintendents of Native Education were
appointed to undertake administrative and inspection duties and the training of
African supervisory stall in the Jeans College and agricultural schools at
Mazabuka. Latham made it his task that all schools should be supervised. In
his longterm project he advocated opportunities for higher education in the
fields of medicine, education, commerce, surveying, <:~griculture and
engineering. Generally, he recommended that education for Africans should
mainly consist of manual work and practical skills (Snelson, 1970:170).

A development of the 1930's was the opening of the Central Trades Schools In
Lusaka in 1934. Frederick Hodgson was the first principal until 194<'1. The
school was founded for the specific purpose of training African craftsmen and
over the years it achieved a high standard of craftsmanship due to the able

27
leadership of the principal. The course lasted for three years and apprentices
who showed exceptional ability were selected for a further period of training
which enabled them to qualify as instructors or foremen. Students who qualified
as instructors were able to obtain employment as teachers of prnclical subjects
-carpentry, building and leatherwork. They could be teachers in upper primary
schools, junior secondary and junior trade school and in teacher training
institutions. Minimum entry for this course was Standard IV and was later
raised to Standard VI (Mwanakalwe, 1968:32).

In 1938, the first junior secondary class In the territory was opened at Lubwa
Mission in the Chinsali district with the approval of Government. However.
when the Government opened its own junior secondary school at Munali with
11 (eleven) pupils in 1939, the Lubwa scheme for secondary education w<~s

abandoned. Though the expansion of Munali was very slow at the start it later
became a household name. Its reputation in Northern Rhodesia and in many
African countries was high because It became the aim<~ mater of the nation's
dislinguished scholars (Mwanakatwe, 1968:29).

Munali Training Centre was opened In t938. This was the pm!ial fulfilment of a
dream of Latham, whose proposals of 1929 had foreseen the need for a central
institution to train Africans for Government Departments and for the Private
Sector. Latham's scheme included the training of teachers, of medical
assistants, of agricultural demonstrators, of clerks and tradesmen (Snelson,
1970:216).

Steady progress was made in the training of teachers. In 1939 the minimum
qualification for an elementary school teacher was Standard IV plus two years'
professional training. Later recruits Into the teacher-tmining inslitulions were
required to possess the Standard VI Certificate. There were 13 training schools
In the territory in 1939 but the output from these schools was insufficient for !he
requirements of the leaching service. Some of the colleges were under-enrolled
and 33 women obtained their provisional teachers' certificates. qualifying them
to teach in lower primary schools. In 1949, 225 men and 42 women completed
the junior teachers' course (T5) (Mwanakatwe, 1968:34).

28
As early as 1938, Tyndale Biscoe advocated the formation of a Publications
Bureau with adequate editorial and translation staff, but it was not until 19'18
that this became a reolity, when a grant from Colonial and Development Welfare
Funds WilS used to establish the Bureau in Lusaka.

Books in schools continued to be written by missionaries and increasingly by

education officers. Tyndale Biscoe also foresaw the need to exploit mdio ilS a
medium of education. Experimental broadcasts were first made from the
Copperbelt in 1939 on a transmitter loaned by the local radio society (Snelson,
1970:245).

The formal education of Africans was mainly in the hands of the missionary
societies ilssisted by large Government grants and supervised by the
Department of African Education. In 1951 there were 1 380 government native
authority and mission-aided schools and training schools with a total roll of 146
909. Primary education was in three stages. Elementary (Substandards to
Standard II) Middle and Upper primary up to Standard VI. There were 6
secondary schools, one of which the Munali Secondary School, giving the full
range of secondary education up to school certificate and the others a two-year
junior secondary course. A total of 337 pupils were registered ill secondary
schools in May 1951 and a further 196 entered in August. Vocational Training
was provided at 19 training colleges for teachers, 13 trade schools, a survey
school and medical, agricultural, veterinary, forestry and postal training schools
controlled by the Government Departments concerned (Northern Rhodesia
Information Department, 1953:112-113).

The expenditure on African education has kept pace with the growing general
territorial prosperity. It was r7 000 in 1927, £28 680 in 1937 and no less than
£245 538 in 19'17. In 1951 the current expenditure on African education had
risen to £'158 162. The estimate expenditure for 1952 was f609 1'1 1 (Northern
Rhodesia Information Department, 1953:11 0).

In 19'19 the Central African Council -a body set up to advise the governments
of the North and Southern Rhodesia and of Nyasaland on mr~tters of common
concern, appointed a committee (the Cartinei-Robinson Committee) and re-

29
appointed it in 1951 to report on the need for higher education for Africans.
Upon the committee's advice a commission, the Carr Saunders Commission,
was established in 1952 to look more thoroughly into the question. The
Commission unanimously urged that a University College be started without
delay. The establishment of the University was delayed by the establishment
of the University College of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia (Kelly. 1987:14).

Rounding up the section on Colonial Education it is worth mentioning that the

system of education continues to be highly centralised and highly selective.
The curriculum for all schools was uniform and was centrally designed and
imposed. II was selective in the sense of examinations for progress from one
grade to another.

3.5 EDUCATION UNDER FEDERAL ERA: 1953-1963

The creation of the Federation of the Rhodesia's (North and South) and
Nyasaland in 195:;1 brought about some changes in the educational system. In
1954 education in all three territories was put under the Federal Ministry of
Education, but African Education remained the responsibility of each territory
until the passage of the Federal Education Act in 1957. The Act provided that

education in Government schools be free to all residents of the Federation and

that English was to be the official language of instruction, although the use of
local languages was permitted for a limited lime (Kaplan et al., 1974:165).

The aim of African Education during the first years of the Federation was to
consolidate and improve the primary school system, to develop secondary
education and trades training schemes and increase the supply of trained
teachers. By 1955 there were almost 200 000 children in primary schools. only
8% of these being girls. By this lime it was estimated that over half the children
in urban areas could not find places in schools. Although administrative and
organisational measures, such as the extension of double session teaching, the
question of adequate facilities in urban schools remained grave, as it continues
to be today (Kelly, 1987:17).

30
In 1958 it was estimated that less than 26% of enrolled African pupils completed
the full primary course and that under 2':<'o of the total number enrolled in
Afric<~n schools w<~s being admilled to secondary school (Kaplan, 1969:165).

By 1960 enrolment on primary schools was 287 536 and in secondary schools
was 2 602. The total enrolment In technical and vocational classes was 1 445.
The number of trained teachers had risen to 5 936 (Triennial Survey, 1961 -
1963, 1964:2).

The final phases of the Federal Era dated from 1959 when the Department of
African Education was replaced by a Ministry. Plans were then completed for
a 1959-1963 capital development programme under which £2.4 million woul(1 be
allocated to education. But within a year, financial stringency hnd slowed down
the educational effort. Later the Government programme wns increased once
more (£4,5 million being allocated in the 1961-1965 Development Plan). To
enable progress, the copper groups created the Northern Rhodesia Educnlional
Trust. financed on a half-grant, half-loan basis, to <1 tot<1l which eventually
reached £2 million. Educational expansion continued on the Copperbelt and
around Broken Hill to the point where nearly all children there got six years of
primary schooling, and facilities for upper primary and secondary education
were much more plenlifulthan elsewhere (Economic survey mission, 1964:98).

In an effort to raise the level of education available to Afr-icans. four secondary

schools were built in 1961, one in each of four copper-mining centres. A last
effort by the Federal Government to develop secondnry education in Norihern
Rhodesia was made in 1959 when the Four-Yenr Development Cnpifnl Plan was
launched. When the plan was completed, secondnry school enrolment of
Africans increased by 171% from 2 599 to 7 090 (Ke1plan. 1969:165-166).

The emphasis on the rapid expansion of secondary school facilities was

stimulated by political events within the terrilory, since it was clear that the
Federation could not prevail and that Its place would soon he taken by an
Independent territory. But the priority given lo secondary school facilities in
urban 11rens involved a curiFtihnent in the development of prhnnry education in

31
rural areas. This In turn led to an Increase In the migration of rural children to

the town in search of education (Kelly, 1987:11-18).

When the ill-starred and unpopular Federation came to an end In December

1963. there were about 342 000 children in primary schools and 7 050 in

secondary schools under the Federalion. A significant development towards

the end of the federal era was the series of requests by the Northern Rhodesia

Government to the United Nations and to the British Government to nssisl it in

planning the fulure development of Its education system (Kelly. 1987:1 fl).

3.6 EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENCE ZAMBIA: 1964-1976

3.6.1 GENERAL
In 1964 January, Northern Rhodesia gained independence and Dr. Kenneth
Kaunda was appointed Prime Minister after the victory of the United National

Independence Party (UNIP) in the general elections. The main aim of UNIP was

an accelerated expansion of educational facilities at all levels In Northern

Rhodesia, which became known a lew months later as the Republic of Zambia

(Mwanakatwe. 1968:36).

AI the lime or independence in October 1964, Zambia inherited an exceptionally

weak educational profile. In 1963 there were about 100 universlly graduates

and under 1 000 secondary school graduates. There was shortage of manpower
to man Zambia's copper industry. The Zambians wanted to do something
dillerent from the previous regime. Education was to gel first priority and
demand lor It was predictably high. Against this hnckground stood an
educational system thai wns woefully Inadequate to meet the challenges of the
post-coloninl society. There were a few schools which were run by Christian

Missionaries whose modest budgets could not allow lnrge enrolments. There
were a lew trade schools and no university institutions (Lungu. 1985:289).

32
3.6.2 THE TRANSITIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN: 1965-1966

The Transitional Development Plan for education was to cover the period 1
January 1965 to 30 June 1966. During this period, the Government expected to
assess the country's long-term need and evaluate in detail all the implications
of major educational policy decisions. In framing the Transitional Development
Plan for education, planners looked beyond the limits of the period of the plan
accordingly, development proposals for the period up to 1970 were prepared
(Mwanakatwe, 1968:1\7-48).

II was the government's policy to move towards a system of universal primary

education; to reduce the 8-year primary course to seven years, and to improve
the general quality of education provided. The new Primary Course would
consist of 2 sections, a Lower Primary Course of four years and an Upper
Primary of 3 years. The main emphasis of the education programme under the
Transitional Development Plan continued to be on the development of both the
Primary and Secondary School systems. To carry out this plan, it was planned
to establish larger secondary schools, increase the number of teachers by
building more training colleges. This plan also looked into the field of higher
and technical education. More bursaries and scholarships were me1de available
for students who wanted to study abroad (Annuill Report for 1964. 1965:11).

3.6.3 THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1966

The first major attempt at reforming the Zambian education system was
undertaken in April 1966 when the Educiltion Bill was p<tssed by P<trliamenl.
The Education Act carne into operation on 2 September of the same year. The
Act replaced most provisions in lhe Alrican Education Ordin<>nce or 1952. which
was repealed. II also replaced the Education Act of 1956, as amended, under
which the defunct Federation of Rhodesia and Ny<ts<tland Government hml
administered and controlled European, Asian and Euro-AfricFtn schools on a
racial and discriminatory be1sis (Mwan<tkatwe, 1968: 197).

Among other changes brought about were the abolition of racially segregFtted
schools and the introduction of non-fee paying school registration in mission-
controlled and public schools. The mission schools were to be nationalized

.13
thus labelling them as grant-nided schools. Furlher, the Sixth Form or
Advanced Level Cerlificate programmes had to be replaced by an Ordirwry
Level School Certificate in order to enter the newly-established University of
Zambia.

Automatic promotion was introduced in urban areas in 1966 for Grmles one to
five. This expnnsion had other consequences, for example secondary schools
had been provided for each of the fifty districts, flS opposed to five government
institutions that had existed in the entire country in 1964. The act increased
nccess to education, it also helped to create a system that, a decade later was
viewed by policy-makers as a very problematic one becnuse of increased
enrolments (Lungu, 1985:290).

Under this Act, the Ministry of Education was given power to establish a new
structure of educational authorities corresponding to administrative divisions:
the Local Councils of Education, the Regional Councils of Education and the
National Councils of Education. II was also given the responsibility for all
school and adult education in the country. The mass lilemcy programme was
put under the Deparlment of Community Development, nnd youth educr~tion

controlled by the Zambian Youth Service, was under the Ministry of Co-
operatives, Youth and Social Development (Kaplan, 1969:166).

The Act also provided for the est<Jblishment and registration of privnte schools
under such conditions as might be laid down by the Minister: for the
cancellation or registration of private schools by the Minister if he were not
satisfied in regard to any registered private schools in terms of the matters
specilically laid down in the Act, which the proprietor of the school might twve
failed to discharge. The Minister might refuse to accept nn applicntion for the
registmtion of the privflte school (Mwanakatwe, 1968:204).

3.6.4 FIRST Nil TIONIIL DEVELOPMENT PLAN: 1966-1970

The basic aims of the First National Development Plan (FNDP) were (First
National Development Plan, 1966:55):

• To make space available for all age 7's by 1970:

34
• to provide an oppot1unity for all upper primary school children in urban
primary schools and 75% of children in rural areas:

• to expand secondary schooling and provide the manpower needed: this

included preparing people for higher education, te<tcher training <tnd
technical training:

• to improve the quality of primary education by expanding teacher training

and upgrading the standards of existing teachers:

• to make resources available for the University of Zmnbia to exp;md its

enrolment to 1 600 students in 1970, and develop it to take a leading pat1 in
the educational professional and cultural life of the nation. A bro<td mnge
of useful research and scholarship would be encouraged <tnd a N<ttional
Council for Scientific Research established; and

• to develop facilities for adult education (including classes for women,

regional libraries, educational broadcasting) in order that the opportunities
of education be made available to Zambians of every age in every pat1 of the
country.

Under this plan, double sessions in primary schools were emphasised to allow
increased enrolment. The plan also aimed at restructuring the primary syll<tbus
so that school leavers were introduced to the skills and <tltiludes needed to
make a useful start after school. Expansion at secondary levels WPIS equally
important in the sense that the country would be provided with manpower it
needed. To adhere to this expansion schools begun under the Transitional
Development Plan had to he completed and others expanded to accommodate
840 students which was set as the target number. To cope with the expansion.
45 new Form I classes had to be built each year and Form II classes had also
to be increased to allow 2/3 of all entrants to complete the full course (First
National Development Plan, 1966:55-57).

The year 1970 was the last year of the four-year First National Development
Plan, but due to the large number of uncompleted projects in the plan. His

35
Excellency the President extended the plan period by a yenr. llwl is to 1971. in
order that projects lor the First National development could be completed
before the Second Nntional Development Plan. However. because ol various
problems resulting from or aggravated by the Unilateral Decl<~rnlion of
Independence In Rhodesia. leading to a search lor new supply routes lor
building materials and equipment. it became clear towards the end of the year
that it was unlikely thai all projects would be completed <tl the end of 1971.
Because of these difficulties, the Ministry slowly slipped behind the record set
In 1968 when it claimed that every seven-year old who had access to n school
could gel a place in Grade I (Annual Report 1970, 1973:0.)

AI secondary level too. there was a signilicant drop In the proportion of children
going from Grade VII to Grade VIII. The FNDP provided for ;m ;werane
progression of 33'1,% of the qualified Grade VII pupils going to Form I. but hy
1970 the progression rate was 25%. In spite of these problems, there w<~s a
small but significant increase in enrolments at most levels of the educntion
system as compared with 1969. Primary enrolment increased from 661 231 to
694 670. Secondary School enrolment Increased from t18 157 to 52 t172 in lim
years 1969to 1970 (Annual Report 1970, 1973:5).

The Plan also aimed at Increasing adult centres: six new cnntres were undetwny
with increased adult education staff. Centres with a populntion In excess of 2
000 would he provided with branch libraries. The proposed timetable was llmt
Mazabuka, Abercorn and Chibulame would gel libraries h1 1968, Monw.
Kalomo and Kalobo in 1969, Kafue and Chilanza in 1970. Districts with n
population of 100 000 required a branch library at the district Headquarters.
These were to be established as follows: 1970 II would be Kawan1ha. 1971
Lundazi, Pelauke and Samlya. TV and Broadcasting Services already provided
to upper Primary and Secondary had to be extended to Lower Primnry (First
National Development Plan, 1966:0.9).

3.6.5 SECOND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN (SNDP) 1972-1976

Although primary enrolment doubled bnlween 1964 and 1972 and rose by 43.2%
between 1966 and 1970 (see Tnble 3. 1). it became apparent that the goal of

:m
 Table 3.1
PRI~~y SCHOOL ENROLMENT, 1964-1972
(Annual Report 1972. 1976:21)
GRADE CnAJ•E GnADE GnAnl~ CnADE
-
Gn~\ Dr::: GnAoF: GnAnr::
YEAR Sr:x I II III lV \' VI VII VIII ES:::\ TOTAL
---1 - --·
38 G2(J
--
I!JO·I D 38 41•1 38 427 3!J OS! 20 !135 20 201 !) !103 !) 23-1 214 881
a 30 22!) 3:! 0·11 32 221 28 573 12 385 II :l41 ·l 373 3 708 103 536
T 7-1 043 72 008 70 847 67 664 3:1320 31 002 H 781 13 002 - 378 417
-l!l05- -13- 43 745 40 073 3!1 GiG 40 1!14 23 !1·13 21 G·l3 12 J.!G !) 180
--
- 3'.!0 li31
G 41 151 35 851 33 274 31 387 IG 368 12 7-12 5 !1!!0 3 703 17!1 ·162
T flol S!l6 75 !120 72 !150 71 581 3!1 311 34 3!!0 IS 0!10 12 !149 - 410 093

1!100 n 53 •llO HIJ!lS .JI 880 42 ·188 34 490 2·1 !)78 23 Iii::! - 2G;i ii83
G GO 2!li 40 llil :35 408 32 ·l7ol 22 523 I ·l 51i2 12 404 207 lH!l
T I 03 707 S·l 74!1 77 :[Link] li7 023 :m .J30 :Hi 07G 36 076 - - 4 7:! 4:!2
-1967- 1B- --
li!l7H 5:! 6:i5 .j(j 215 ·l:l 07fi :Ill 7!15 :l5 388 27 781 - 300 lillO
...,w G 60 15!1 48 :175 3!1 087 :14 72:1 24 !lflti 21 324 14 1!12 !l:lilll!J2
'1' 115 !103 101 010 8·1 302 77 79!1 61 no 1 41 973 •H !!73 - liJ!l 352
-l!l63- 1-
B 63 !Hi4 00 2!li 53 !)2!! •llll:l71i 37 lt!G 37 816
-
3!1 331 -
--
- 33!1 !1::!3
0 fiB !lOU ii·l !I'.!S oli 4!1-1 :u~ ·JUfi 20 051 2:1 110 20 Oil - 2GS !Hili
T 122 8G3 JIG 126 101 :1:3:1 !:Hi !!til 114 ol77 uu o:12 5!1 242 - - ou8 su:1
-l!JG!J- -
11 870
(j(j !iol I J.l no uoa 5/i 1!1!1 ·10 22!J 33 701 •J2 801 - )(j!J 3fl1 !JSU
c: 01 2!13 57 280 53 o:ln 4G :J!l7 2!1 (J3!) 2·1 877 21 858 - 110 213 !!!Jii
·r 127 I<l3 121 1114 113 U38 too o!JO 60 !!US u:J :i78 IJ.I Oli!) '- 285 GGI 281
--
1970 II IIU 102 0·1 •JSG 04 608 62 120 43 •135 40 8!)(1 ·13 811 - 69 :is5 G7U
a Ul )1}7 liA ·fR!J li5 20·1 GO 78:.!
112 U02
32 :lUll
7/l HI
:!.7 r,un
GS 4Uj
23<!11 - :JO :lOS!J!H
O!H li71J
T I :.:7 :lil!J 122 79·1 11!1 !162 67 222 108
-1971- --
II
(l
!10 i:lO
fi2 fifll
liii .JOJ
IHI ~li!l
uo on~
iii 711·1
GO ?!l:l
li·l !Jill)
·In 29R
~5 112
.f:J 72:1
:ll I 05
I - ·17 I! I !J
20 !i·IO
-
-
7:!
•HI
·1112 :l31
3~7 ·170
'!' 1~!1 3:11 I!! lliiol J!!:l 7!10 I~ I 73:1 $1 ·llll i•l 82S 7:1 Bf>\J I'"' 7:!!1 SOl
·-- - -
1972 ll 7:1 ·118 tJ:l 31i3 67 1:12
- nn :n u iii H:'l4 ·--·l!8 :!.1-1 ;'l I !!X!l
I -
-11·1- ·l:!R on:~
tl flU I 2i
I ·1:! r.~:.
01 5!11 5!J {f1J;1
121i :!'27
:11 182
I '21i iilll
:;s !172 '"J 'JI
•J• • ~
s2 1:11
I ,, ''I I
.,.,f) ""
Ro .~no t
M
- i!l H!l!SO
77i S7::
T I ~8 !1-l·l OU ll:!G 1!13
' ..
I I
univen;al primary education was more difficult to nchieve than had been
expected. The First Plan never look Into consideration the migmlion of people
within rural areas ;md between rural and urban are11s. 1 his resulted in bml
siting of schools and serious under-estimation of re11uiremenls. especially in
towns. The Second National Development Plan aimed at looking into migmlory
problems in urban and rural areas, especially Grade 5 classes. The SNDP
concentrated on restructuring the curriculum to sui! Zilmhian needs, con-
centrating on Social Studies. Environmental Science, Homecrall nnd Manunl
Craft training. The curricula in pre-service and in-service teachers colleges
would be re-assessed nnd ndnptccl in line with the ch:mging oricntnlion of the
schools (Second Nntional Development Plan. 1971 :29).

The Second Nalionnl Development plan noted the cost of the m:hievernenls or
its predecessor as "large scale over enrolment, triple sessions in some urban
primary schools and widesprend use of temporary, incomplete ami dilapidnled
buildings" (Second National Developmenl Plan, 1971 :2t!).

While the previous Development Plans emphasised quanlilntive a~pecls or

educational developmenl, the Second National Development Plan conccntrnted
on both qualitative and qunnlilalive aspects, but still could not sn!isfy the needs
nor !he demands or society. Energies could now be directed not only townnls
increasing numbers, but also towards re-shaping objectives and curriculnr and
this led to the rerorm of the education system in conformity with Humnnisrn
(Educational Reform, 1977:1).

3.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter 3 highlighled the historical development or education through various
periods, for example lradilional education, missionmy education ami
government educnlion.

The work of the missionaries has been discussed in delnil. Included in the
discussion nre the recommemlntions of the Phelps-Stokes Commission thai
educallon should he adapted to the needs nnd conditions or !he Arrlcans.
The education ol the British South Alrica Company. the FedFwrtl Government
and the Independence Government has been discussed. Chnn9es brought
about by the Educnlion Act !!JuG, First and Second Nnlionnl Plans have been
cited.
CHAPTER 4

THE EDUCATION POLICY AFTER INDEPENDENCE: EDUCATIONAL

REFORM

4.1 INTRODUCTION
AI the lime of independence. Zambia was characterized by imbal<mces and
inequalities in the government system with regard to diHerent mces and
different sections of the population. Africans were not represented in
government. Education was used In an allempt to redress these imbalances
from becoming manifest in the society. Dissalisfaction in all sections of the
society led to the introduction of Educational Reform. This clmpter will look into
the Educational Reform in detail in terms of proposals ami recornmendalions.
Among other things it will show the differences between Educrttion for
Development (Draft Statement) which was the initial draft. am! the finally
adopted recommendations (Educational Reform), which is the functional policy.

4.2 ORIGIN OF EDUCATIONAL REFORM

Educational Reform in Zambia came about because of the poor quality and
relevance of what transpired in the schools. This expressed itself in
dissatisfaction with the academic skills displayed by school children. with their
level of perfonmmce in examinations and with their inilbility to find employment
or ftl suitably into the community when they had left school (Kelly et nl. 19BG:t1).

4.3 PREPARATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL REFORM IN ZAMBIA

4.3.1 INTRODUCTION
II was the government's theory to involve the public in the formulation of the
educational policy. The Reform look three distinct phases to formulate: firstly.
the formulalion of proposals by the Ministry of Education: secondly, the
consideration of those proposals in the Nalional Dehale; and thirdly, !he

40
revision of the proposals in the light of responses in the National Debate
(Clarke, 1978:19).

4.3.2 FORMULATION OF PROPOSALS

The Zambian Government sent out study groups to the Republic of Cuba. the
Republic of Ghana, the People's Republic of China, the Co-operative Republic
of Guyana, the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Jamaica, the Republic of Kenya, the
Republic of Sierra Leone and the United Republic of Tanzania between May and
December 1975 to study the educational systems (Educational Reform. 1977:10).

The four study groups that visited other countries identified many problems
concerning the Education System of Zambia. Most common among the
problems found by the Study Groups were the following:

• The syslern encouraged young people to seek while collar employment to

the exclusion of jobs requiring manual and technical skills.

• The system of education responded to the reward system of society, thus

encouraging Individualism and social stralilicalion based on educaliorml
attainment and income.

• The curriculum was too bookish and theoretical, with too little allention to
practical and useful skills. Most educational institutions are non-productive
because many children are ejected without the necessary skills.

• The system did not involve the community in educating and training the
youth. The community was divorced from the education system. which was
regarded as a closed ami alien world.

• The syste111 had relied too heavily on foreign cultural influences and had
deprived itself to a great extent of Zambian cultural forms. The education
system diminished Zarnhian culture and had little sense of direction In
trying to discover Zambian v<~lues. Cultural education was not often enough
seen as a creative enterprise building on tradition (Ministry of Education,
Briefing Seminar 29-30 April 1975).

41
The said study groups prepared and submitted reports which together with
special investigation reports constituted working papers for the Repot1 Bnck
Seminar opened by His Honour the Secretary-General of the Party on 30 De-
cember 1975. These reports were carefully analysed by the Ministry and other
sectors (Educational Reform, 1977:2).

A 'retreat group', led by the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education

prepared a Draft Statement. This group completed its work in late March 1976
after having produced the document "Education for Development" (Draft
Statement on Educ<~llonal Reform). 40 000 Copies were distributed throughout
the country also to the missions and other agencies. Summaries of the Dr<~ft

Statement in local languages were prepared and distributed to each province

to be debated (Educational Reform, 1977:2).

The entire nation had to be involved, and had to be geared towards debating
the Draft Statement. To facilitate this, members of the Central Committee in the
provinces had to be briefed about the Draft Statement so that they in turn could
brief people at the provincial headquarters, districts and other centres. The
Ministry of Education arranged special briefing meetings for provincial officers
In Lusaka.

All educational instnutions, ministries, churches, trade unions, voluntary

associations and other public bodies were requested to orfjanize discussions
among their members. The daily newspapers serialized the document <md
provided space for letters. views and reports on the Draft Statement Radio and
television broadcast special programmes in English and the other seven oflicl;:ll
languages. namely Silozl. Chltonga. Chlbemtm. Luvale. Chinyanja. Kukaonde
and Lunda (Educational Reform, 1977:2).

4.3.3 EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT: DRIIFT STATEMENT

II would be of great benefit to lake a quick glance at the Draft Slntemenl before
discussing how the National Debate was conducted. A discussion of the New
Structure on Education for Development (Nationlll Education) as seen on
Organogrmn 4.1 will bring an understanding of the ideas that were criticized
and abandoned during the National Debate. According to this new structure.

42
 Organogram 4.1
STRUCTURE OF NATIONAL EDUCATION (Education for Development 1976:4)

PRE- SC:H<Xll

""'"'
the education system had two mr~in parts which were of equ<~l v<~lue (Ecluc<Jiion
for Development, 1976:5):

• Full-lime Education or "Study and Work" - this part would consist of three
stages. The lirsl stage (Basic Education) was supposed to provide full-lime
basic education for all, lasting for ten years. II also provided functional
education and occupational competence. Children ejected at this stage
would join the Zambia Nalionill Services (ZNS) and later join the "World of
Work". Children who successfully completed the lirsl sl<~qe would gel into
the second slr~ge, which provided vocational specialization mHI general
education. Also here children ejected would join the ZNS ilnd Iilier the
"World of Work". On completion of the second stager~ child would proceed
to the third stage, which provided professional specializr~lion nnd geneml
education. AI the end of this stage children would join the ZNS. Full-lime
education was mainly for young children.

• Continuing Education- "Work and Study". People in this pari were workers.
mainly adults and young people. This package ollered basic skills of
reading, writing and numbers (literacy). On completion of this stage one
would continue Into basic education and then the second and finillly the
third stage as in 'lui-lime' education. Workers would also receive in-service
education.

• The ZNS was a gateway. This part of education would cr~ler for all young
people r~l the point when they could become workers.

According to the new structure. the school year was to be divided into four
terms of twelve weeks each. Each term would be followed by a rest of one week.
Each school week would comprise five and a half days, including Sillurday
morning. Each student intake would follow a programme comprising two terms
of in-school educillion per year. While one group of students was following its
in-school proqramme, another would be following an out-of-school programme.
This system known as Rotating Intake will ennble the schools to enrol twice the
number of grades 8-10 without increasing the fncullies. During the out-of-school

44
programme students could be employed or could work on the land (Educalion
for Development, 1976:9).

4.3.4 THE NIITIONAL DEBIITE

The Nation11l Debate wns launched by Dr. K.D. Kaunda at a press conference
held at the State House on 24 May 1976. This debate revolved around the Dmll
Statement. About 1 500 written comments from individunls. schools,
associations nnd various groups were received from all over the country (Edu-
cational Reform, 1977 :2). Seminars were held at different institutions nnd from
there !hey were discussed at district level. From the districts debate proceeded
to provinces. All evaluations from Individuals, in!'ltitutions. district and
provinces were sent to the Evatuallon Group, as seen on Figure 4.1

The following are some of the comments made by the public. The Standard
Bank Chairman, Mr. Elias Chiplmo said that 'SCHOOL REFORMS ARE A
SCAPEGOAT'. Mr. Chipimo described the proposed educational reforms ns a
scapegoat for the 'bungling failures' of the Government over the pnsl 12 years.
On Political Educnlion, which was Incorporated In all singes nnd programmes
of reforms, Mr. Chlplmo warned that unless care was lnken, this could degene·
rate into sheer political Indoctrination set either against other systems or
directed at the current leadership. The Standard Bank chairman snid the niltlon
should look at the present structure. see where it had fniled and make
deliberate and progressive reforms. He disagreed that the newly-adopted
reforms would create a humanistic society (Sunday Times, 05-09-1976).

Mr. Charles Mukula (an individual). commented in The Sunday Times on

12-09-1976 thai manual work in the Basic Educnlion should include things like
mechanics and elementary book-keeping.

Another comment came from B.M. Musole. He allncked the methods of

assessment. He in lac! complained that the new method would encourage
bribery and corruption by teachers. Parents fell tests should be given at set
periods and marks be alloc:aled for practical work (Sunday Times, 05-09-1976).
Figure 4.1

SOURCE AND FLCM OF NATIONAL DEBATE CONTRIBUTIONS (Kalubn, 1982:78)

Inst i tut icna1 lnst itut lrnal

Smtinilrs Smtinars

Individual
NATIONAL DEBATE
EVALUATION GROUP

46
The Minister of Educl'llion (Prof. l. Goma) responded to some of the comments
m<~de. He denied !hal the reforms were inlroducecf to exploit the tertchers m;
suggested [Link] of rol<tting inll'lke. He nlso responded to the fnd th:ll
teachers were not consulted at the Initial stage. He maintained thnt the
Teachers' Union had l1i1d lim right to drnw up its own pt o9rmmne freely
(Sunday Times, 29~08~ 1976).

Aller the Public Debate. which ended on 30 November 1976, the Ministry
arranged for submissions to be studied and objectively summariz:ml in twelve
reports covering the full mnge of discussions. These report!i comprisml the
working pr~pers for the Evalunlion Seminar which started on ::11 Jmw:1ry 1977.
The 'ret real group' wns re·convened in mid~February 1977. to prepnrc the finn I
Statement on Educnlion Retorm lor submission to the Pmty ami to Government
Educalionill Reform represents " substantial revision of the Dmll Slillement
published in 1976. taking Into account the outcome of the Nnlionnl Debrtto
(Educational Reform. 1977:2).

4.3.5 THE OUTCOME OF THE DEBATE: EDUCATIONAL REFORM

[Link] Aim
"The aim of 'National Education' (as it was termed) in the Zmnbinn Humanistic
Society, is to develop the potential of each citizen to the full for hi~ own well~

being as well as that of society and for selfless service lo his fellow men. Such
education should thus be true to the integrity of imlividuftls as well As to the
needs of our society And our common humanity" (Educational [Link]. 1977:5).

4.3.6 MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS

The United Independence Party policies entailed th<lt every child should receive
compulsory basic education for len years within the decade 1974 to 19H4. While
the general policy to provide basic education would remnin uochnnged. the qoftl
should be to provide 9 years of universal hasic educnlion. whereby a child
entering Grade I at the <~ge of seven would remain in school unlit the age of
sixteen. II was hoped that seven years of primary education nnd two yer~rs ol
junior secondary would make the child sufficienlly <~ble to enter the next stage,

47
or to leave school. II wns taken that the child would be mature enounh to piny
a useful role in his community nfler nine ye11rs of learning. On the other h"tnd.
those who continued to Grmle 10 would receive in-rleplh study in e<~ch fiflld so
that those who had the opporlunily to specinlize in tcchnicnl. scientific nnd
arlislic fields during the next singe of educnlion would hnve <1 good qroumlinq
(Educational Reform, 1977 :7). This was a tempornry measure whilst working
townrds implemenl::~lion of Universfll Education (sec Organoqmm -12) This
structure is referred to as the "Interim Structure" and it runs according to a
7 + 2 + 3 pall ern.

When Universal Education is finally achieved the structure would he 6 + 3 + 3.

for example six years of primilrY education, 3 years of junior secomlnry tmd 3
years of senior secondary (see Organogmm 4.3). This system would hnve a
terminal point at Grade 9. II would even make it ensier to rationalize tencher·
training programmes. For example, the teachers of the pupils in the first six
grades would he Grade 9 graduates who would have 3 yel'trs more mtucntionnl
background than the pupils !hey would be te~Jchlng. Gmde 7 to 9 tel'tchers
would be Grade 12 graduates and Grade 12 teachers would be university
graduates or their equivalent in a specialized field (Educl'ttional Reform. 1977:0).

4.4 CONTENTS OF EDUCATIONAL REFORM

The salient features of the approved educational reforms l'tre th11t:

• The aim of education is to develop the potential of each person to the full for
his own well-being as well ns that of society and lor seffless service to his
fellow-men. Education must reflect the ci1Macleristics of society, hut society
must also be Influenced by educl'ttion.

• Production work and service to the school, comrmmlty and nation are to he
emphasized in curriculum organizations. But production is to be used
principally as an erlucillionnl tool and not ns an economic means.

4R
Organogm111 4.2
IN'IERJN STRUCTIJRE OF EDUCATION (Educational Reform, 1977:10)

PRE- SCHOOL EDUCATION

NOTES

A Various vocational programmes, e.g., Trades, Nursing, Teacher Training, etc ..

leading to a certificate.
a Various programmes, e.g., Agriculture, Technology, Commerce, Nursing, etc ..
leading usually to a diploma.

c University degree:
D = Doctorate
M =Master
B Bachelor: 4 years- Ordinary.
5 years - Engineering, Agriculture, etc.
6 years Veterinary Science.
7 years- Medicine.
NB
1n A and B there are also some courses which take lest than 2 years.
From primary to senior seeondary an education year represents a grade.

49
Organogrmn 4.3
FIN!IL STRUCTIJRE OF EIJUCJ\TJON (!1rlucational Reform, 1977:11)

~
5
z
i=
b
u

PRE- SCHOOL EOU:::ATION

NOTES

A Various vocational programmes, e.g., Trades, Nursing, Teacher Training, etc.,

leading to a certificate.

B Various programmes, e.g., Agriculture, Technology, Commerce, Nursing, etc ..

leading usually to a diploma.

c University degree:
D ~ Doctorate.
M =Master.
B = Bachelor: 4 years - Ordinary.
5 years- Engineering, Agriculture. etc.
6 years - Veterinary Science.
7 years Medicine.
NB
In A and 8 there are also some courses which take less than 2 years.
Frorn pr-imary to senior secondary an education year represents a grade"

50
• UniveJ"sal Basic Education is to be provided through nine yenrs of school for
every child from the age of seven, the first step in altainlng this got~l being
to enable every child to enter Grade 1 1'md proceed throuqh Gmcfe 7, Tim
then existing structure of seven yet~rs primary, three junior secondnry and
2 years senior second my 7 + 3 + 2 was to be changed in Ihe interim into a
7 + 2 + 3 system hut eventually Into a 6 + 3 + 3 pnltetn.

• Responsibilities for progrmnmes outside the formal educntionnl system.

such as litemcy progrmnmes or those lor out·of-school youths. should rest
with ministries other than educalion.

• Curricula should consist of core subjects which give general education mul
suitable optional subjects. including practical subjects th:ll are to be sturlied
in great depth.

• English should continue to be the medium of inshuction from Gmde 1. The

status of Zambian languages should be improved and the University shoulct
extend Its work here.

• Examinations would continue to be used for Ccrlificnlion and selection.

They should serve to lest knowledge and understnnding. lo provide an

Incentive for hnrd work and to improve qunllly. Continuous assessment

should be used in leaching-lel'lrning process. II could also pl<~y a pali in

certification, in borderline cases and in solution. Attitudes could he
assessee!, bu! such as!'>essment should piRy no pR!I in crn!ilicRiion or se-

lection.

• Pre-service lrnining of teachers should be for 2 years on a full-lime hnsis.

In-service training programmes should be intensified. Becnusc !he success
of the system depended on the competence, commitment and
resourcefulness of the teachers. efforts should be rnmle lo improve their
status 11nd to encourage them to remain In the system.

51
• Volunlnry orgrmiznHons nnd mission agencies should hn encou1 ngnd to

conHnur. with [Link] vnlur~ble services of rendering edur:r~lion. Priv<tle

schools would be allowml, subject to compliance with rcgulr~tions.

• The policy of decentralization and community involvement should be

practised. Responsibilities should be devolved on to the locnl communllics.
Local communities should be m<tlure enough lo run self-help projects.

• The Educ<tllon System should also provide schooling lor h:-mdlcr~pped

children (Kelly. 1987 :?36-237).

4.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR TUE SCUOOL SYSTEM

4.5.1 FULL-TIME EDUCATION: FIRST STAGE

The first stage provides nine years of basic education stm1inq from nge 7 when
they enter Grade 1 up to Grade 9. In the period. pupils progress from Grade 1
to seven. AI the end of Grade 7 they sit for a selection examination so 11s to
enter Grade 8. Those who leave full-time education 11fler Gmde 7 would hr~ve

the opporlunlly lo enter available appropriate programmes in continuing

education or join other fields of training and productive nctivities. such ns the
agriculluml sector and vnrious skills training progmmmes (Educationnl Reform.

1977:8-9).

4.5.2 SECOND STAGE

This Is after Grade 9. when students are selected to [Link].r full-lime qencrnl
education programmes for Grade 10-12 (Form Ill to V). They m<~y nlso be
selected lo pursue speci<~lized training programmes such as the Zambian
Enrolled Nurses' Course or lrmlers' training courses. Some of those who [Link]
full-lime education at !his stage may join !he world of work. pursue !raining
programmes in vnrious sectors of the economy and nmy lake advantage of
Continuing (p<~~'l-lime) Education programmes (Educational Reform. 1977:9).

52
4.5.3 THIRD STAGE
This stage provides a wide variety of the fields of study, such as ndvnnced
specialised programmes leading to either the Diplomn in Te<1ching, Technology,
Nursing and in Agriculture nnd programmes to be taken at university level.
Some candidntes for these programmes would be Grade 9 graduates who,
through further study or other appropriate training, lll<lY meet entry
requirements to such programmes (Educational Reform. 1977:9).

4.6 EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT AS AGAINST EDUCATIONAL

REFORM
II would be of grefll importance to compare the inili<1l Draft Statement with
functional "Educaliorml Reform".

• The 1976 and 1977 proposals were both flexible. nllnwing nccess to fornml
education nt many points.

• The strategy (Rotating Intake) adopted in 1976 to enrol twice the number of
children who would otherwise be withou. school places was droppec1 in 1977
proposals.

• Education for Development was against the Idea of Z::trnbinns sendinq their
children abroad for primary, secondary education and Educntional Reform
accepted the idea.

• According to the 1976 proposals. Institutions of learning were to become

'Production Unites' (PU). combining study nnd work. In 1!Jl7 the study "nd
work prograrnme was retained, but educational objectives hml priority over
production objective.

• The 1976 proposals emphasized that the leaching stnll should be mobilized.
Volunteer teachers had to play a big role in the new expanded educational
structure. The new corps of volunteer teachers were to come from the rnnks
of workers. The whole iden ol teacher rnobilizntion and volunteer teachers
was dropped following the 1977 proposals.
• According to the 1976 proposals, the selection function of the eKaminntion
had to be eliminated. while the 1977 proposals retained the idea.

• Conlinuous assessment of many forms and in which the community takes

part was encouraged. This was discouraged by the 1977 propos<~ls because
it presented enormous evaluation difficulties to the tenchers.

• The 1976 proposals aimed at abandoning the Pass/Fail concept. This was
retained by the 1977 propos<~ls (Kaluba, 1982:36).

4.7 INFLUENCE AND ACUIEVEMENTS OF EDUCATIONAL REFORM

Twenty ye<~rs Ago Zambia had a tiny secondary school system. a handful of
colleges that prepared low-level primary school lenchers. A nascent university.
non-existent secondary school training facilities and a very rudimentnry
technical trnining sub-sector. All of these areas have been considernhly
developed in the years since and in particular the need for high level manpower
has been met in many critical areas where posts had been held by whites. In
addition. much development has taken place in the design of the curriculum and
curricular materials, In the administration and processing of examinnlions, in
the production of educational books and literature. During a period of
phenomenally rapid expansion the secondary schools for All their dcliciencies
were reAsonably well staffed, especially in the crucial are<ts of English,
Mathematics and Science (Kelly, 1987:88).

The policy to provide universal primary education was envisaged to be

achieved through a process of increasing facilities and incrcilsed enrolment of
Grade I, although il hnd a cAtch-up later. Lar9e numbc,-s of Form I clnsscs were
created, though demands could not be met. Self-help activities (sponsored by
Norway, Sweden <tnd Finl<~nd) helped to improve the quality of educAilon in a
lime of economic crisis. In this spirit All support. whether materiAl or technical,
is provided directly In response to initiatives by teachers in conjunction with
pupils. parents ami community at large (Banda: 17-10-88).

To overcome the problem of Grade 8 places, certain mensures h<tve been taken
towards lim full lrnplcmenlntion of Basic Education. Building of classes by the

54
Community for Gmde 8 level is flaying dividends. Many primary schools have
been upgraded to Basic Schools (Grade 1-9) due to the committed effort of
communities in huilding classroom struclures. The mle of increase in Basic
Schools hns been par1icularly high since 1984 (Chelu 19·10-88).

The Interim Structure of Education, which provides for 7 years of primary

education, two years of junior secondary and three years of senior secondary
was implemented in 1983 together with the revised curricula. A further point to
mention is that the central theme in the revision of Basic Educnlion curricula is
productive skills. All subject areas are expected to prepare teaching/learning
programmes which will equip pupils with appropriate productive skills that will
enable children who complete Grade 9 but do not proceed to Grade 10 to
engage in productive ventures and hence nmke themselves snit-reliant in lire
(Katililo: 22-1 0-88).

4.8 PROBLEMS OF THE EDUCATIONAL REFORM

New problems were that government had assumed for itself almost the entire
responsibility for the financing of education, without any contribution from the
recipients. Education at the primary and secondary level is tnkcn to be the sole
responsibility of the Government. II also financed lhe syslern by providing all
Inputs in lenns of personnel, curriculum, material, mnintennnce and even
boarding provisions. By giving the widest possible meaning to the concept of
free education an increasing burden was assumed by the government to meet
many of the personal costs of pupils In primary, secondary and In all higher
education inslilulions. These funds could htwe been availnhle for other more
directly educationnl purposes. Spending money on things tlmt concerned lhe
parents, the government could not attend to things that were more directly
concerned to II like giving education to every eligible child (Kelly, 1987:22).

There has been a decline in the allocation of textbooks, especially at primary

school level, since the introduction of the 1977 reforms. Almost two-thirds of the
schools ( 127 out of 19G) did not have a single English text hook for Grade 1,
while 80% (153 nul of 196) schools did not have a single Mnthemalics book. The

55
dominant view of schools ilboutlhe supply of books the past five years lms been
that the situation is becoming worse. The supply of teaching nwterinls in
schools Is in a critical state. There are schools without any of the necessilry
textbooks and even where they can be found they do not exist in numbers equill
to the number of pupils and ilre not sufficient for class use (Kelly, 1987:73-70).

The financial situation was so lmd that in 1981 it was not possible to open Form
I classes and it was not known what funds would be available for 1982. Public
examinations and selection examination have been retained. Control over
profilmaking private schools has been relaxed and these are mushrooming ill
present with little control from the inspectorate (Alexander. 1981:210-211 ).

The permanent Secretary mentioned also that administratively it was very

expensive to implement all the decisions of Educational Reform. AI the
implementation dale things went smoothly because funds were still avaiktble.
Longlerm projects were hampered by the unavililability of funds (Bilnda:
17-10-88).

To accommodate more pupils in primary schools, a system of double session is

in operation. In primary schools, what is officially designated as double session
is an arrangement where a teacher handles one class in the morning and
another class of the same grade in the afternoon. This means, ils an illustration,
a teacher would leach Grade I B in the morning and Grade I H in the afternoon.
This arises from the rapid expansion of the primary sector without a
corresponding increase in the number of teachers and classroom space: it is
also because the primary sector has fewer subjects per class and fewer subjects
than the secondary sector. This system overburdens the teacher. Double
sessioning is a problem that will exist in Zambia for a very long lime (Kandum:
25-10-88).

The educational reform movement of 1974-1978 was the culmination of efforts

to expand educational provision in the immediate post-independence years, to
remove conditions that lead to inequality of access to schooling especially
children in rural areas where some schools ended with Grade 4 and to relate
the content of education to independent Zambian society. The very

56
development of the system in the years after 1964 had cre<Jied a host of
problems. The speed of its growth outstripped the supply of qualified and
experienced teachers. particularly at the secondary level. After the first lew
years of massive growth. the rate of expansion slowed down. to the
consternation of the public. Fears were expressed that lhern was a serious
decline in educalion<JI standards, judging by examination results (Kelly.
1987 :231-232).

In an lnlerview on school leavers, the Permanent Secretary mentioned thai !he

government was concerned about the incrensing number of school lenvers who
were being ellmhmlert from the school system without mlequnlc prepnrnlion lor
adult life. He was mostly worried about great numbers of pupils who could not
gel places for Grade 8. These children were ejected alter lim Grade 7 selection
examination. He mentioned that ± 20% of Grade 7's proceeded to Grmle 8.
Only 17% of Gradel's who write the selection examinntions gel places in Grade
8. He referred to this as a "volcano" (Banda: 17-1 0-88).

A further point on school leaving is made by Mololsi (17 -10-88) who m"de a
large contribution to the making of Educalional Reform. He explained that the
actual number of places in Grade 8 would determine the numher of Gmde l's
who should proceed to Grade 8. He referred to this system as n "Cui-OH-Poinf".
Aller the selection examination two schedules were drawn up for boys and girls
according to their merits. The cui-oil-point would be at the number required for
Grade 8. This syslem leaves thousands of pupils without schooling beyond
Grade 7.

A Secondary Inspector for Mathematics, when interviewed o!l Bnsic Education.

mainlained that Bnslc Education h<td not yet been fully implemented mninly
because or financial constraints in providing enough places lor all Grade 7
pupils to proceed to Grade 8 (Kalilllo: 22-10-88).

In an attempt to solve the Grade 8 problem a phenomenon npproximaling the

double session system has arisen in the secondary schools since 1985. For
example, from 1985 to dale Munall and Kahulonga Secomlmy Schools in
Lusaka have ht~cl an int;:~ke of 15 Grade 8 classes. II hns been found convenient,

57
that Is not a matter of policy, to have From I classes from mid-day to about
17h00 and reduce the number of lessons for "On-examination subjects for Grade
10 and 11.

The Grade 10 and 11 classes would end at about 13h00 or gel involved in
activities needing fewer teachers and reduced supervision while the 15 Grade
8 classes use classrooms for ncademic activities. Since junior secondary
school classes are usunlly taught by diploma holders. these te:1chers may have
no class in the morning but only leach the Grade 8 classes in the afternoon
(Kanduza: 25-10-88).

These are varied arrangements that can be referred to as "double session". In

lhe first case (Primary) teachers and pupils in class at a particular grmle hnve
double sessions. In the secondary case, most of the le.:-tchers would leach only
in the afternoon as a result of over-enrolment in a situation of limited clnssmnm
space.

Another problem is l:1ck of suitably qualified staff to mon Basic Schools. mainly
Grade 8 and 9 classes. This has distorted the leaching and learning of most
subjects, especially in areas such as science and mathematics. However, ns
from 1989, a project has been set up to provide in-service training or one year
upgrading course to this group of teachers (Kalililo, 22-10-88}.

There is lack of equipment and other facilities in specialised subjects such as

Science and Home Economics in most, if not all, Basic Schools. For example
such schools have no laboratories because junior secondary classes were
added to a primary school. This has caused difficullios in the lenching nnd
learning of such subjects. One of the implications is lhnt pupils from Basic
Schools find it dlfficu!llo cope with the normal curriculum (Kalililo: 22~ 10 88).

4.9 THE THIRD NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN

The development and increase of educational facilities became the objoclive of
the Third National Development Plan which was launched in 1979. This plan
provides the opportunity for re-orientating the education system towards the
needs and nspir11tions of the nation. The planned goal of consolidating the

58
physic<JI plan of the primary school syslem failed because of lnck of cnpilnl. In
urbiln nrens overcrowding conlinued, tripled sessions were not eliminntcd in
lower prlm<Jry clnsses and double sessions continued in upper primary. The
programme of replacing decrepit school buildings and teachers houses,
especially in rural areas. made slow progress, as did the provision of Willer,
electricity and sewage systems (Third National Development Plan, 1979:337).

The objectives of the Third National Plan on educ;~lion were:

• To improve the quality of educa!ion and services

• The quality of [Link] education and the profession111 development of the

teacher were to be improved.

• lmbalnnces in education and educational facilities wcm to be removed.

• Use of f<~cililies to be maximised.

• New buildings were to be simple, durable, funclion<~l. low in maintenrmce

and local material was to be used.

• Provision for continuing educational f<~cililies will be expanded and

diversified.

• Self-help projects were to be encouraged.

• Recurrent and capi111i expenditure on educ11tionai institutions were to he

consolidated to bring out educational values, develop correct altitudes 11nd
production skills.

• Localisation of the School Certificate Exmnination will he compleled by

appointing Zambians in the Examinalion Council.

• Development of resource centres and teachers' centres were underlilkcn.

• Development on the new curricula that will Rccommodate the educational

reforms were under·tnken (Third National Development Plan 1979, 342-343).
4.10 THE FOURTii NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN
In March 19135, Guidelines lor the Formulation of the Fourlh N<~llonal

Development Plan were published. This plan had to consider the possibility of
converting some of the existing secondAry schools Into technic<~l and
agricultural schools. The Guidelines stated that the plan should assign a high
priority to raising standards of education in Mathematics and Science subjects.
The guidelines also slate lhnt the implementation of the Educnllonnl Reforms
should continue through the Fow1h Nationnl Development Plan (Kelly el al.,
1986:6).

4.11 NATIONAL POLICIES FOR THE DECADE 1985-1995

The implementation of the Educational Reform never stopped, it continued to
be implemented through various documents such as the Third National
Development Plan. Fourth National Development Plan and the Policies for the
Decade.

During the mentioned decade the aims ol the educational system will include
(UNIP, National Policies lor the decade 1985-1995:34):

• Developing the potential ol all citizens to think independently and to lind the
bearings among problems as they arise; and

• training highly skilled manpower capable or solving complex tasks ami the
production or citizens loyal to the Party and the Philosophy of Humanism.

The aim of the United National Independence Party is to introduce compulsory

schooling which will combine 7 yeArs of the present Primary system with 2
years and then 3 years of the present Junior SecondAry school In progression
with the productivity or the Zambi<~ns. To this end the Party pledges to remove
all the anomalies of the present educational system which have tended to
encourage students to believe !hat they are not entitled to work because they
are students. thereby depriving society of the energy and skill of hundreds of
young people. Technical education at secondary level will be major emphasis
of the policy. The young must learn skills that will help them alter school.

!)()
4.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The task of exposing the fornwtion and acceptance of the Educational Reform
which is !he hmclional Education Policy In Zambia hos been reached in Chrtpler
4.

This section also discussed the implementation of the Educ!lfional Reform 11nd
how it was reli!rded by Insufficient funds In the country.

Chapter 4 hils also looked In detail into the Third and Fourth Nalionrtl
Development Plans which were introduced to eliminate problems thai retarded
the progress of Educnlional Reform.

61
CHAPTER 5

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES IN THE ZAMBIAN EDUCATIONAL

SYSTEM

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Aller having discussed the introduction and implementntion of the eclucnlional
policy of 1977 (Educational Reform) in the previous ch<1pter. it will be legitimate
to discuss the orgrms and nodal structures that are responsibln for carrying out
the new educatiotml policies. The major emphasis in this section is to look into
the organisation, administration, control and funding of educ<~lion.

5.2 MINISTRIES OF EDUCATION

In 1982 September. President K<~unda reshuffled the Ministry of Education <~nd

Culture by splitting II into two, one being the Ministry of General Education and
Culture and the other being the Ministry of Higher Education. Each ministry has
a minister as its political head. Details on both Ministries will be given in
paragraphs 5.4 and 5.5.

5.3 THE POWERS AND DUTIES OF BOlli MINISTERS OF EDUCATION

Under Section 4 of the 1906 Act the Minister of Educ<~lion was empowered to:

• promote education of the people of the Republic of Zamhin:

• further the development of institutions which have heen estnblished for the
purpose of promoting the education of the people;

• m<~ke sure !hill children nre educated in <Jccord;mce with the wishes of their
parents:

• close nny government school or hostel, or change the site of such school
or hofllel. whenever he considers it necessary or expedient lo do so;

fi2
• recognize any association representing teachers, just as he may also
recognize any association of parents ami teachers formed in connection
with any school:

• prohibit in writing the use in any school of any book or materiill for any
reason which he may think fit:

• cause inspections to be made of any school, and

• make grants or lmms to educational institutions.

5.4 MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION AND CULTURE

5.4.1 GENERAL
The Ministry of Education ilnd Culture is responsible for formill educiltion such
as Pre-primary, Primary and Secondary Education, continuing Educiltion and
Special Education, including culture (Annual Report for the ye<~r 1983, 1986:1 ).

The political head of the Ministry is the Minister of Geneml Education mul Cul-
ture who is a Cabinet Minister and a member of Parlinment. He is assisted by
two Ministers of State. One Minister of State is responsible for Education and
the other for Culture. (Annual Report for the ye<~r 1982, 1986:1): (see
Organizational Chart - Orgilnogram 5.1.)

The permanent Secretary is the head of administmtion assisted by the under-

Secretary who in turn is assisted by assistant Secret<~ries. each responsible for:

• the Administration Section - in matters pertilining to geneml ildministmlion

and organisation of the ministry:

• the Stillfing Section - for stillf recruitment, appointment. conditions of ser-

vice, geneml stillfing matters and re-current estimates:

• the Fin<~nce Section - which is responsible for c<~pitill progmmrne in terms

of development and reseilrch:

f>J
 Organognun 5 • I
'IINlSTH\ 01' GENERAL EDUCATWN AND CULTURE. 1982: ORGANIZATIONAL CHART
i ·\rmual Report for the reCJr 1982,

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A/S
CEO
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coc
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"''" 3 •

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• Professinnnl and Technicnl Assisl<tnce -which de<tls with IP~Jisl<tlion.

Chief Educl'llion Officers. Senior Educalion Olficers. Eclucntion Olficers in the

personnel ami Accounts Sections are responsible to Assislnnt Secretaries.

5.4.2 INSPECTOR/I TE
The Inspectorate Division is the professionnl Ann of the Ministry and is hendml
by the Chief Inspector of Schools. Inspectors for Primnry and Serondary
Schools 11re responsible to Ihe Chief lnspeclor (see Organonrmn 5.1;
OrganizalionFtl Clmrt).

The key role of the inspector is to inspect schools ond mlvise lim Ministry nnd
other concerned bodies on a wide range ofnmllers which include:

• Curriculum liaising with the Curriculum Development Cenhf!, Colleqes nnd

the University of Zambia on curriculum mailers: keepinq in louch with new
curriculum developments elsewhere which could he through meetings,
seminars, workshops ;md conferences and also through sludyinn p<~pers

and publications: st£~1fing. posting and promotions of tmu:hing personnel.

• Renewals and extension of appointments of tenchers.

• Examinations - liaising with the Examinotion Section on matters such ilS

setting, marking and moderating of Junior Secomlnty School leavinQ

Examination: appointment of Chief Examiner. Deputy Chief Ex11miner. Chief
Marker and Deputy Chief Marker.

• Liaising with the University of Cambridge Syndicate on problems and

stand11rds of exmnilwlions; nnalyses of exmnirmlinn resufl!l lhif; is
normally done through meelinQs. letters And circul<~rs.

• Te11ching tWlleriills. im:luding sources. costs i'!IHI reviewing of textbooks,

and to liaise with N111icm111 Educ11tlon Distribution Company of Zmnbia
(NEDCOZ) and the Notional Educational Company of Zmnbifl (NECZAM).
• Advise Subject Associations on general policy and to assist with gener11l
organisntion, This is normally done lhrouyh meelinus. leiters ami
conferences,

There me two types of inspection. an Inspector may underlnke:

• Routine Inspection,

an ordinilry inspection where no ildvice repm1s nr complninls hnve been

received on any pmticular school or teachers. or

• Speclnl Inspection.

which takes place where [Link] or cornplainls on a pm1iculnr school lmve

been received. An inspection on a school, whether toulirw or special. is the
key to the whole job of an inspector. The concern of the Ministry is thnl
teachers should be assisted to make pupils leMn (K<tlilio: 22-10 OR),

5.4.3 SPECIAL EDUCATION UNDER THE MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

AND CULTURE

• Providing relevant educnllon for disabled children at Pte-school. Primmy

and Secondary level.

• Providing awareness in disabled children lo fully pmlicipnle in N<ttiorml

Development,

• Providing an opporlunity and fndlities for <~n all-roun!l developnwnt of the

disabled child.

• Promoting public awnreness <thou! special educnlion,

• Providing nppropriale leaching staff.

• Collecting datn on the number of dis<1hled children in order to plan

approprinlely.

66
• Organising in-setvice trnining programmes.

• Monitoring !he qu!'llily of S(Jedal education provided.

• Ordering and distributing specialised educ!'llion material!; to schools: ami

• Providing nppropriale guidrmce and counselling to tho disabled (Pfmsulo:

29-09-88).

The special Education lnspeclomle has. among other things. been ensurinu the
provision and mRinlenance of special education, opening up units. basic
schools and hospilnls, leaching services and Basic schools whore such fm:ililies
are needed. Apart from providing such services. the special education
lnspeclornle has addressed llsell to the maintenance of stam!ards by
conducting in-service training programmes and carrying out school inspections
in Prlmmy and Secondary Schools. It has also been engaped In carryinq out
the programme of inlegmlion of disabled children into ordinary schools
(Pensulo: 29-09-88).

5.5 MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

5.5.1 GENERAL
The Ministry of Higher Education has been cluC~rged with the responsibility of
administering the Third Level of Education which Includes nil forms of College
Education and University Education. Under the smne Ministry there nre the
Department of Technicnl Education and Vocaliomtl Tmining. the Exnminntion
Section, the Curriculum Development Centre and olhet· relntcd educnllnnrtl
services (Annual [Link] for the year 1982, 1986:4).

The Minister of Higher Education is the hem! of the Ministry of Higher Educnlion
and also the member of Cabinet. He is assisted by the Ministf'r of Stnte who Is
also a memher of Parliament. Under the Minister of Stnle there is the perm<t-
nent Secretary who is assisted by the under-Sccmtnry in the overall
adrninistwtion of the Ministry. and they are further assisted hy the following
heads of sections (Annual Report lor the year 198t1. 1987:1):

fi7
• Assistrmt Secretary (Administration)

• Assistant Secretmy (St<lfring)

• Assistant Secretary (Technical Assistance and Planning)

• Senior Inspector for Teacher Training.

(The Organis<~limml Ch<1rt for the Ministry of Higher Education was not
officially rele<~sed during a visit to Zambia )

5.5.2 ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION

The functions of the sections and units are:

• Administration

This Section is responsible for the general administration and org:mizalion

of the Ministry.

• Staffing and Finance

• As its name implies, this section consists of the StFtlfing lliHI rinFtncc Units.

The Staffing Unit discharges duties pertaining to terms and conditions of

service, recruitments. promotions and separations. This Unit is also
responsible for st<~ffing colleges with <~ncill<~ry staff. such as cntcring
officers, bursArs and clerical officers.

The Finance Unit is responsible fur supervising and controlling the fin:111ces
of the Ministry. II fllso secures funds for the University of Zmnbifl. the
Nalion:1l Council for Sdentilic Research. the Zamhi11 N:llimml Commission
lor United NAtions Educ<ttional, Scienlillc ami Cullwal Orgrmisrtlion
(UNESCO) and the Dep:utment of Technical EflucA!ion and Vm:<tlion<tl
Training.

• Technical Assistance and Development Planning Research

6A
 This section combines all work pertaining to plilnning ilrHI co ordination of
internillioni11 co-operiltion r1nd technicill ilssistance.

5.5.3 INSPECTORATE: MINISTRY OF HIGIIER EDUCATION

The lnspector<tte is the prolession<tl winy of the Ministry with the overall
responsibility of rromotiny and developing both the CJdrninistr<tlion <tnd
professional stCJndilrds of the lecturing stCJII of le<tdlP.r !mining colleges in the
country. Inspectors arc responsible lor (1\nnual Rerort lor the year 191Jt1.
1987:3-"):

• Co--ordin:1ting all work in the colleges and supervising colleqe lectures:

• recomntendiny appointment to lectureshir rosts in teacher !mining

colleges:

• liaising with the University of ZambiCJ School of Educntion and Tenchers'

College AssociCJtion Units on Secondary Teachers' Training Programmes;

• control <tnd surervision of teacher lr<tining curricul:1, ex<tminations and

teaching materials especially with regard to rrimnry teacher training
colleges;

• organising subject CJrHl examination pmwls lor the Prinwry Teachers'

Colleges in liaison with the examination Council of Zambia:

• arproving the qu<~lity mnl st;md<~rd of the central selection of te:1cher

tminees lor both Primary e1nd Secondary teachers' Collegm;; nnd

• advising on discipline and conduct of bolh slillf and sludenls in tencher

!raining colleges.

The miljor constraints on bolh Ministry of General Ectucillion 11nct Culture

(MGEC) and Ministry of Higher Education (MHE) Inspectors rtre lhc non-
availability of lmnspot1. i1 de11rth of funds and del<~ys in honouring subsistence
claims in the absence of imprest fncilities, shortages of equirnwnt nnd materials
and a lack of suifilble venues providing both ilcconunodilfion nnd food further
consfrilin the functioning of semin<~rs ;md workshops.

Other problems ilssoci11!ed with both ende<tvnurs ilre the distances involved
and poor frilvelling conditions. Pressing official responsibilities, :md in some
inst11nces poor co-opemtion 11nd co-ordination between mlrninistmtive <IIHI in
sectorial sfilff nffecl per fonnilnces at regional nnd district levels [Link] in the
procurement of funds and vehicles. The most imporl11nl function is to serve as
ilenerant le<tcher-educators in Colleges. The pre-requisite for the ongoing
support 11nd educntion of tenchers is a form of knowledge of the inspectors and
pre-service trr~ining progmmme. but the problem is that some inspectors <~re

not sufficiently informed on the pre-service training pro(Jrarmnes. A further

constraining fnclor is the educntion11l level of some members of the inspeclnmte
(Kelly et AI., 198G:t159-t170).

5.5.4 SPEC/IlL EDUC/1 TION UNDER THE MINISTRY OF /1/GHER EDUC/1 TION
The Ministry of Higher Educ11fion (MHE) is charoed with the responsibility of
carrying out the following instructions:

• to provide educ<Jiion and training service for the disabled youth in !mining
institutions, colleges and other institutions of higher leilrning:

• to plan. co-ordinate and supervise the educ<~lion ilnd trnining of the disilbled
in the !mining institutes, colleges and other institutions of higher le<~rning in
order to maintnin consistency and required sl11ndMds:

• to promote resemch in Special Education !mining:

• to intensify co-ordi1111!ion of soci11l. medic<~l. educ<~linn<ll <~nd reh<~hililationill

servicr.s for the handicilpped;

• to ensure adequ<~le sl<~ffing in all training institules colleges 11nd other

institutions of higher learning dealing with the disilhled:

• to provide specialized materials and equiprm~nt: and

70
• to provide speci<tl teacher training lor senior secondary and tertinry
education (Pensulo: 29~09~88).

In an effort to fulfil its functions, the Ministry of Higher Education tws continued
to maintain the programmes at the Lusak<t College lor Teachers of the
Handicilpped hy providing it with the necessrtry resources, such as qualified
stnll. educiltionrtl materinls and funds.

5.6 RELATIONSUIP AND ANOMALIES BETWEEN THE TWO MINISTRIES

Arter discussing both ministries, thilt is, the Minister of General Education and
Culture and the Ministry of Higher Education. it is worthwhile to mention the
relationships between and irregularities in the two ministries (Kelly et nl..
1986:518-520).

• The curriculum ;md the development of cunicul<tr materials, esperinlly

textbooks, rest on the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) at MHE (of
which the CDC is a unit), but the princip<tl user is MGEC. The Primrtry and
Secondary schools are the chief consumer of the products of the CDC. The
large professional sector at MGEC, which is the inspectorate, h<"Js a
necessary role to play in the development of these products. But as the
structures have been established, MGEC does not have prim<~ry

responsibility lor the curriculum, lor the syllabus, lor the content of the
individual subjects or the textbooks lor those subjects.

• Within the inspector<Jte, based in the two ministries. there is considerable

overlap of functions. The Inspectors lor music in the Primary Schools. which
are the MGEC responsibility, are actually based in MHE and hence do not
report on their school inspections directly to the Ministry responsible lor the
schools.

• The promotion of Science and Mathematics in the Secondary Schools hils

been entrusted to the lnspector<Jte in MHE, hut it is not clear where this
leaves the Science and M<"llhematics Inspectors in MGEC.

71
 The participation of MGEC's Inspectors in the work of CDC does not seem
to be sufficienlly stressed, while they could also be more involved in the
development nnd evaluation work of the Examinations' Council. for which
they lmve nlready undertnken a large share of duties as sellers of
ex;Hnination pC~pers, markers of scripts and trainers of their examiners.

MHE is responsible for ill! professionill nnd administrative rnntlers

pertaining to the Primary Teacher Training Colleges, and it must exer else
nmny of these responsibilities through the Chief Educntion Officers who me
MGEC's representntives in the regions. In this silunllon the college
nuthorities are not clear where responsibility for their rtffl'lirs lies <Hld
whether they should look to MHE headqumters or to regional MGEC offices
for assistance when problems arise.

• Because there is so much inter-connectedness between education sectors,

the apportionment of responsibilities to separate ministries hrts tended to
slow down the decision-making process. II is necessnry to consult
personnel In two ministries which are located about one kilometre r~part and
to co-ordinrtle their reactions before definite decisions can be nrrived at,
where the consultation must lake the form of meetings problerm; rtrise in
summoning and holding these. The oulc0111e is thai much valuable lime is
needlessly consumed and the public and private costs of those engnged in
activities that span both ministries tend lo increase (Kelly et al.,
1986:518-520).

5.7 INFLUENCE OF TUE SPECIFIC ORGANIZJ\TION/\l STRUCTURING

there is duplication <~nd overlapping of functions, the splil of the Minishies has
given the educational system of Zambia some form of specirtlizalion. The
Ministry of General Education and Culture (MGEC) looks nt the PrimMies ami
MHE looks at the Tertiary Educntioll ami enhnncement ol Science and
Technology.

The appointment of Inspectors in Zambia is done on a subject basis. There is

an Inspector for English. Mathematics and Science. This gives the educational

72
system a unique characteristic. Teachers get expert advice from Inspectors who
have specialized in particular subjects.

5.8 NODAL STRUCTURES

5.8.1 BOARD OF GOVERNORS

The Minister is empowered under the Education Act of 1966 to establish a board
of governors for any educational institution owned by the Government.
Members of such a board appointed by the Ministers are charged with
responsibility for the administration. maintenance and control of the institution
for which the board has been established (Annual Report for the year 1966.
1967:6)

In the period after Independence the Government restricted the number of

boards of governors' institution to a few colleges which select students on a
territorial bCJsis lor all courses offered. The Educi'ltion Regulations of 1966
provide that a board or governors shall consist of sixteen members <tppointed
by the Minister from persons representing the Ministry. local ilUthorities.
commerce and industry and such other persons as the minister may deem lit
(Mwanakatwe. 1968:120-129).

The functions of a board of governors' institution are wide and they include
power to purchase or otherwise acquire and hold or alienate real and personal
proper1y, to borrow such sums as it may require, and to enter into contracts. to
employ persons in such oflices in its service as the Minister m<ty approve. or to
regulate the calendm to be followed at the educational institution ilnrl to
prescribe the subjects of institution and the syllr~huses to he followed hy
students. To protect the interest of the public and of students enrolled in hoards
of governors' institutions, the Act provides that the Minister may give to " hoard
of governors such general or special directions with respect to the exercise of
the powers of the board as the Minister may consider necessary and the board
shall comply with the direction. It follows that the Act and the provisions in the
Regulations made under it do not confer full autonomy on boards of governors'
institutions, which in any case continue to depend upon central governrnenl
grant for s<~laries. slilff. equipment and maintenilnce of student hostels
(Mwmmkalwe. 1968:129)

5.8.2 PI\R£NT T£1\CH£R ASSOCIATION (PTI\)

Under the 19GG Act parents are encouraged to take a more informed interest In
the education of their children by forming a PTA. The functions of the PArent
Teachers Associations are:

to ensure through regul<~r contacts between pilrents and teachers, the welfare
and best possible education of pupils. an enlightening of lenchers to their pupils
as full individuAl personalities <tnd thus to cater lor their imlividu<tl needs ami
an enlightening of pArents on all Aspects of pupils' progress in school (Kelly et
al . 1986:501)

5.8.3 TEACHING SERVICE COMMISSION

The Teaching Service Commission is appointed by the President himself. It is
an independent body answerable to the President. The Teaching Service
Commission is responsible for:

• Appointment of teachers. Teachers could be recruited from outside. From

training colleges teachers are placed in different schools.

• Conlinnalion of teachers appointed. Teachers are put on probation for a

period of twelve months. After this period teachers are required to re-rtpply
for confirmnlion of their posts. Their re-applicnlions should be accomp<tnied
by all their certificates ami medical repor1s.

• Discipline of teachers. The Teaching Service Commission is chnrqcd with

the duty of disciplining teachers and heads of schools lor misappropri<tlion
of funds. abscondmenl ami undesirable morals. Te<tchcrs charged with
these ore dismissed from the educ<ttion deparlment.

• Promotion. Primary teachers can be promoted to depulyship, headship and

into a Senior Te<tcher position. In the Secondary School teachers cnn be
promoted Into hendships and deputyships.

74
• Retirement. Teachers retire at the age of 55 (males) and 54 lor females.
Teachers could retire early hecause of hc<tllh problems, hut these should
go through the medic<tl board. The Commission could recommend emly
retirement due to poor performance of the teacher.

5.8.4 TEACHING UNION

The Ministry of Educ<tlion h<ts always encoumged the development of a strong,
well-organized but responsible body of teachers in the territory. The
organization officiAlly recognized to represent tbe interest of teachers is the
Zambia National Union of Teachers. Early in 1964 the Ministry of Education
Agreed to second 11 serving le<~cher selected by the Union to full-lime duly as
General Secretary of the Union responsible lor its organiwlion <tnd
adminislr<tlion. AI the time. the Ministry undertook to help the teachers' Union
in organizing an efficient check-off system lor pAyment of members'
subscription. Much strength and prestige of the TeAchers' Union lms been
derived from the increased revenues from teachers' suhscriplion through the
check off system (MnwanAkalwe. 1968:12).

The Zambian National Union of Teachers has a grave responsibilily to uphold

the repulalion of the leaching profession hy advocating responsibility and
competence among Union members. The increasing involvement of the Union
in educational planning and development. the selling up of subject commillees
tn several of its hundred or so, branches with the object of achieving maximum
leaching efficiency. and the parlicipalion of branch members in adult education
and literacy progrmmnes are developments which are warmly welcomed by the
Ministry (Mwanakalwe. 1968: 123-124).

5.9 FINANCING OF EDUCATION

5.9.1 GENERAL
The Government carries most of the responsibiltly lor llrmncin~J educolion at 1'111
education levels. for example Primary, Secondary. Training Colleges and the
University. There are other sectors that help in the funding of educalion (Kelly
et al.. 1986:106).

75
The financial resources needed to maintain the educr~tion system can come
from the following !'ources:

• Domestic resources

Education can either be financed by public revenues from the government

(cenlrr~l and local governments) or non~governmenl bodies (individur~ls,

philanthropists and institutions). Fund!' from non~governmenl bodies come

from rmrenls, community and education institutions themselves. ln!'titutions
genemte revenues through activities like production, ;md funds from
philanthropists come in form of donr~tions.

• Foreign resources

Foreign Governments enter into an agreement with the Government of

Zambi<t to help finance education. Non~government bodies like
philanlhropical groups and Institutional bodies also provide revenues for
educational purposes in the form of gr<tnts. donations and the establishment
of Mission School (see Figure 5.1 ).

5.9.2 CLAIMANTS ON THE EDUCA T/ON BUDGET

There are eight principal claimants on the current education budget:

• Primary Schools for teachers' salaries and allowances, wages of non-

leaching staff, teaching materi<tls, repairs <~nd maintenance: office malerir~l,

transport:

76
Figure 5.1

TI-lE ORIGIN:? OF E!llJCfiTIONfiL RESOURCES IN ZfiNBlfl

(Kelly, 1987:47(a))
mTfiL RESOURCES FOR

ffiRMAL E!JUCfiTION

llfl-fESTI . RESOURCES
l

GOVERN!JIENT NON GOVERN'- ·NT NON G( VERNI-IENT

BlLATERI\L ~RJL'I'll ATERi\L

t\GREHIENTS AGREE~ "NTS

,---'----,
CENTRAL LOCfiL
GOVERNI-fENT GOVERNME
FUNDS FUNDS

GRANTS DONATIONS

I
IPH I LANTHROP ICAL INSTITIJTIONI\L
I

PARENTS Cfl-1MUNITY
GRANTS MISSIONS
DONATIONS

ACTI ITIES

PRODUCTION INVESTMENT

PRIVATE Cfl-IPANY AIDED [Link]

SCHOOLS SC!IOOLS SCHOOLS SCHOOLS

77
• Secondmy Schools (for the same purpose as in Primary Schools, hut <tlso
boarding costs:

• Teacher training (11s for Secondary Schools. but Also student allowAnces):

• Technicnl education and vocational !mining (for the same purposes as

teacher training);

• The University of Zambia (a one-line entry for a grant-in-aid towards the

running costs of the University):

• Bursaries (for students at the University or studying abroad under various

teehnical assistance arrangements):

• Sundry units (for miscellaneous departments and sub-units within the

education ministries):

• Educational broadcasting service, curriculum development centre. special

education. continuing education, examinations. special expenditure on
educational materials and culture:

• Headq11<1rters (for running costs of the central headquarters and regional

offices of the education ministries and lor the inspectorate) (Kelly el al..
1986:111).

5.9.3 EXPENDITURE BY LEVELS OF EDUCATION

AI each level of education, from Primary School to University. the educntion
budget is used to pay salaries. wages and other emoluments to purchase
teaching materials. to meet accommodation and boarding expenses and to pay
service nmintemmce. transport and administrative costs (see Table 5.2 lor
analysis of educational expenditure by purpose. (Kelly et al .• 1986:115).

Within the education sector, approximately n, of the expenditure goes lo

Primary and Secondary Schools. '-'c to the University and bursmy payments. and
the remaining 'lo to teacher and tectmkal educnfion. sundry support

78
departments :mel the cost of administering the education system (l<elly.

1987:51).

5.9.4 UNIT COST OF EDUCATION

The actual expenditure incurred by government in meeting the running costs
of the different levels of education between 1979 and 1984 is given at 19114
prices. The data include per capila cost to government of maintaining nn
individual :1t a parlicul<tr level of educ<tlion for the yenr under consideration
(see T<tble 5.3).

Table 5.2

ANALYSIS OF EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE BY PURPOSE AND LEVEL OF

EDUCATION 1983 (Kelly et al.. 19116:115).
·~· ··~·-~-

Primary ~econdFtr Teacher Technical Universily

Schools Schools Training Education

0/ 0/ 0/
"/n "/o
/0
'" '"
Salaries and
Emoluments 90.7 54,1 39.6 39.1 61.7
Teaching Materials 2.0 6,6 2.3 3,5 1.8
Student Accommo =
dation and Allowances 0.2 22,5 37,5 19.4 9,1
Teacher Accommodation 3.6 ~

6.3
Administration and
Operations 7.1 13,2 20,6 38,0 21.1

79
 Table 5.3
THE PUBLIC ANNUAL COST PER STUDENT AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF
EDUCATION 1979-1984 AT CONSTANT 1984 PRICES IN ZAMBIAN KWACHA
(Kelly el at, 1986:120)

1979 1980 191!1 1982 JCJ83 1984

Primary 109,2R 102,59 102,28 121,45 101,82 80,46

Secondary 569,11 557.45 512,12 585.77 456.20 376.4 7
Teacher I
Training 1 679,90 1 640,28 1 681,71 2 172,89 1 525,58 1 374.17
Technical
Education 3 365,85 3 207,92 3 343,39 3 567,03 3 013,66 2 798 ,}9
Bursaries 1 154,34 1 180,11 2 625,42 2 039,56 2 944,79 1 57i. 34
UniversitY
Grant-in-aid 6 510,29 6 613,21 8 098,39 10 982,09 7 059,32 6 661,86 I
University
including
Bursaries 7 664,63 7 793,33 10 723,81 13 021,65 10 004.11 B 233, Xt

Over the years 1979-1984, the annual public cost of educating one secondary
pupil was five limes that of a primary pupil; of a non-graduate teacher II was
three times that of a secondary pupil; lhal of a technologist was two limes that
of a non-graduate teacher and I he annual cost of a University student was three
times thai of a technologist or ninety limes that of a primary (Kelly el al ..
1986:122).

5.10 CONTRAST IN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES:

PRE-INDEPENDENCE AND THE PRESENT
In 1963 the Ministry of Education was organised according to races. The
responsibility for African Education rested in the Minister for African Education
who was a member of the Executive Council. He was assisted by a Permanent
Secretary whose subordinate staff include an under-Secretary, and an Assistant

RO
Secretnry responsible mainly for finance and relations with local authorities, an
Administrative Officer responsible for staff 1111111ers 11nd a Superintendent of
Further Education. In e:1ch of the eight Provinces, there was a Provincial
Education Officer in charge of all education in his Province. He w:1s :1ssisled
by one or more Education Officers who performed administrative and
supervisory duties. Provincial Educnlion Officers were :1lso nssisled hy
executive staff who deil!l with finance. building. registrAtion of schools. posting
of staff and other functions. The daily supervision of the school activities was
entrusted to the Manngers of Schools who reported on the efficiency of schools
under their mann~Jement to whichever agency. Government or Mission was
responsible for then1 (Mwanakatwe, 1968:19-20: see Organogram 5.2).

Before the split of the Education Ministry in 1982. the Minister of Education and
Culture was the political hem! of the Ministry. He was nssisted by the under-
Secretnry. Below the umler-Secrelary there were Assistnnt Secretaries. Chief
Education Officers, :1nd other officers in the Personnel and Accounts Sections.
The Inspectorate Division wns headed by the Chief Inspector of Schools. Senior
Inspector for Primary and Secondary School and Colleges and Subject
Inspectors (Annual Report for 1982, 1986:1).

At present there are two Ministries namely: the Ministry of General Education
and Culture and the Ministry of Higher Education. The General and current
policy of the Ministry of General Education and Culture is to ensure that all
children aged 7 years enler school in Grade 1. The Ministry of Higher Education
is charged with responsibility for tertiary education and enhancement of
Science and Technology in Zambia.

R1
OrRanoRram 5. 2
DIAGTWI11l ILLUSTRATE THE GENERAL [Link]!ON OF TilE MINISTRY OF i\FRICAN EDUCATION, !96.1
(Northern Rhodesian Government, Triennial Survey 1961-1963, 1964:10)

HinistC't or Arrican
EducClt ion
(pol Icy)

Eight
Provincial
Educnt ion
Off iccrs
(;dninistrotim

l'tny iiH· [Link]

Education
Author it il•s

District District
Education Education
Authorities Off tccrs

(,rn'C'frllllC!lt
Schoo]c;, mul Cnllcr,t">

R2
5.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this clmpter the crenlion of the Ministry of Geneml Erlucntion nnd Culture nnd
the Ministry of Hiuher Education has been discussed. Powers and dulles of
both ministers have beet1 looked into. Orqnniwlion nnd Nodnl Structures
responsible for executing the Educational Policy hnve been givon.

Further. CIHlpter 5 has discussed in detnil llw functions, 1 elnlionship ;md

anomnlies of the two Ministries. This section has 11lso dealt wilh the funding of
education in Zmnbia.

Finally this chApter mi'lde a contrast of pre-independence and current educHiion

man11gement.

fl3
CHAPTER 6

THE SCHOOL AND SUPPORTIVE SERVICES

6.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter extensively discusses the entire school system in Zambia for
example pre-primary, primary, secondary, special, continuing and tertiary
education. Admission requirements. pupils and student enrolment, curriculum,
examinations and teachers qualifications will be included in the discussion of
said education levels. This section will also look into supportive services, for
example psychological, library, educational broadcasting services and
examinations.

Organogram 6.1 represents the structure of !he Zambian school system.

6.2 PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS

6.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Studies carried out in a number of countries have revealed thai the definition
of pre-primary schools is a maller of great difficulty. The list of institutions
regarded as pre-primary schools has included creches, clinics, day nurseries,
hospitals and infant care centres. The list, in fact, Includes practically all the
institutions which may have to do with children In one way or another at an
early age. In Zambia, there is no provision in the Education Act for the
establishment and management of pre-primary schools. Ills clear therefore thai
the term "Pre-school" is also used rather loosely in Zambia to refer to day
nurseries (Educational Reform, 1977:73).

6.2.2 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Pre-primary schools are administratively divided into four categories, for
example pre-primary schools controlled by Councils, private individuals,

84
 Organogram 6.1

TilE l.-\ltBI.\N Elll:CITION•\L SYS'ffi~l 10R7. (Silanda, 1988:64)

School of =z:J \lcdione

Ingcneering. \fino:>
L'ni-
I.'crsny
r
I
fnnnol
Tminlng

fl-[IJ-[2]-i}] School qf Educacwn

-w-w-w of

1""""" -[2] Secondary Teacher Training

[1]-11] Oiploma
'-tonngcmcnt or
"'c,
QJ Ccrt if icatc in
~· '-.[Link].."!Ttent or

TI-!]-[}1-[!] Technologist courses

TI-i1]-[] Technictan courses

-[] Devers ificd Vocational Programmes

School
liLt<tc
ITJ-Q}-U} ParliJiledicul registered nurses

ll-i1]-[Il in Agriculture and

fields
ll
';,• ~---:>--- ~-to~-
15 Upwards
paraslatals and lhe Pre-primary School Association of Zambia (Mulundika:
7-10-88). Pre-primary schools gel assistance from the Ministry of Higher
Education (MHE) in the form of teacher !raining. II is staled In !he Reform
Proposals thai pre-primary school educalion will no! be available nor be
compulsory lo every child for a long lime to come. II is also not a pre-condition
or advantage for enrolment at Grade I. The Reform puts II explicitly that
provisions will be made in the intended amendment of the Education Act to set
up appropriate machinery for the Ministry of General Education and Culture to
regulate the level of fees to avoid exploitation of other people (Educational Re-
form, 1977:73).

6.2.3 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS AND STATISTICAL PROFILE

Children are admitted to pre-school at the age of three both in urban and rural
areas. Separate provision is made for Infant day centres which are needed in
many communities for !he protection and supervision of infants up to the age
of three. Such centres are not regarded as pre-primary schools in Zambia. In
an interview with Mrs. Mulundika, she mentioned that there are three age
groups in most of the pre-primary schools, for example ages 3, 4 and 5. There
are few six-year olds and as a result they are grouped with the five-year olds.
Most of the parents are in a hurry to register their children for Grade I at !he
age of 6 (Mulundika: 7-10-88).

Table 6.1 shows the numbers of pre-primary schools in Zambia owned by

individuals, co-operatives, associations, councils, communities and agencies
from 1977 lo 1985.

6.2.4 CURRICULUM
Because of its Informal nature the pre-primary school curriculum could not be
included In !he New Structure which will he discussed under paragraph 6.3.3.
In fact, pre-primary schools perform their function most effectively when they
offer a completely informal type of social and educational experience to very
young children. Pre-primary school education supplements learning in the
home by providing children wilh a larger circle of playmates and a learning

86
 Table 6.1

NUHBER OF PRE-PRH!ARY SCHOOLS IN ZAtiBIA BETWEEN 1977-1985

(GRZ Progress Report to the Educational Reforms Implementation committee on

Pre-school Education, 1986:7-14)

EXTSTTNG PRE-SCHOOLS TN ZAMBTA FROM 1977 - 1985

YPES OF SCHOOLS 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

~
fNDTVIDUAL CO-OPERATION 91 96 96 99 110 134 136 139 142
~SSOCTATJON OR CLUB

_,"'
tcQUNCTL 59 61 52 66 70 73 75 77 76

OMMUNITY 95 95 96 110 111 111 132 139 143

MENCY 43 46 41 58 53 63 59 59 61

OTAL 288 298 285 333 344 381 402 444 422
I
experience which promotes physical, mental and social development of the

child. Zambian pre-primary school institutions have lor a long time been

working on an individual basis as far as curriculum is concerned. Since 1972,

when the Zambia Pre-Primary School Association was formed, several attempts

at formulating syllabuses lor pre-schools have been made, although these were

mainly pre-primary school teacher training purposed. Thus the main goals of

the approved pre-primary school syllabus are (MGEC, Pre-school Teachers'

Guide, 1988):

• to develop mental ability through creativity and discoveries;

• to assist the child's physical development ;

• to promote the child's social altitudes, partriotism and culture:

• to develop and provide for the child's emotional aspects;

• to encourage the development of good morals and spiritual attitudes: and

• to identify any of the child's handicap early and arrange for remedial or

corrective measures.

The Pre-primary School Curriculum entails the following activities (Pre-school

Syllabus, 1985):

• Living together in the community: Pupils must know concepts or household

items "like pots, spoons, plates, clay, brushes, puppets and models of
houses. They must be able to give directions to their homes, shops and

churches.

• Seasons: Children should be able to identify different seasons, for example

hot. cold and rainy seasons. This can be emphasized by colouring, drawing,

songs and rhymes.

88
• Celebrations: Important days like birthdays, harvest, independence.
traditional ceremonies, Christmas. Easter and UniversAl Children's Day
should be taught to the children. Their importance should be emphasized.

• Communications: Children should be laugh! about various types of

communicnlion: children must know the use of the post office. mass media
and the importance of various types ollmnsport.

• Wild ami Domestic life: Love for Insects. mnmmals, reptiles, plnnts and
birds should be Inculcated In the minds of the children.

• Nutrition: Children must be taught the importance of food. how and where
to grow food. They must also be taught how to keep food clean and the
current w11y of eating.

Summarily, pre-school children are laugh! language development, social stu-

dies. pre-mathematical activities, environmental science, physical skills and
creative work. There is no time specification as at other educational levels.

6.2.5 TEACHERS' QUALIFICATIONS

Pre-primary school teachers are trained alter passing Grade 12 for a pP-riod of
two years. Besides the Ministry of Higher Education, the Pre-primary School
Association do train teachers.

6.3 PRIMARY SCHOOLS

6.3.1 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Primary schooling in Zambia is the first phase of basic education or formal full-
time educalion. II consists of seven years, for example lour years of lower
primary education and three years of upper primary education. The main aim
of basic education is not only to provide the minimum basic knowledge but also
to inculcate the attitudes, values and skills which everyone needs in order to
realize his potential as an individual and also to become an effective participant
in the advancement of his community.

119
6.3.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS AND STATISTICAL PROFILE
Primary schools admit pupils at the age of seven. Many children who are old
enough to enter Grade I do not have the opportunity to enrol because there are
not enough places. The shortage of school places for Grade I is greater in
urban areas than in rural areas. In some areas the shortage is so severe that
one-third of the children cannot go to school. This is because the urban chilrl
population has increased faster than new classrooms have been built. Another
reason is that many parents enrol their children when they are younger tlwn the
minimum entry age of seven due to lack of birth certificates and unreliable and
forged affidavits (Educ<Jtional Reform, 1977:13).

Table 6.2 shows the enrolment in primary schools by age Ctnd sex and it also
reveals the discrepancy of both boys and girls who are registered under the age
7 and over up to 14 ye<~rs.

6.3.3 CURRICULUM

[Link] Introduction
One of the recornmendnlions m<~de in the Educational Reform Document <~nd

accepted by the United National Independence Party (UNIP) and its Government
concerns the New School Structure. The Interim Structure of Education for
Primary school will consist of seven years of primary education for example
Grades 1-7 (see Org<~nogram 4.2).

A joint ad hoc Committee of the Curriculum Centre and the Inspectorate

discussed, planned and proposed the structure of the New School Curriculum.
This document was discussed by the Executive Committee which was appointed
to look into the lime <~llocalion for various subjects. These propos;~ls were then
discussed and amended by the Executive Committee on School Certificate
Curriculum and Examin<~lions and by the Executive Committee on Basic
Education Curriculum and Examinations. They have now been arlopted by the
Examination Council. The structure of the School Curriculum is divided into
divisions because of subjects and lime specifications. These divisions are

no
 Table 6.2
ENROLMENr IN PRI~IARY SCHOOLS BY AGE AND SEX - 1984
(GRZ, Educational Statistics 1984, 1988:15)

uRADE IVHOLE UNDER AGES OVER

COUNTRY 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 Total

1 Boys 3 131 37 889 38 852 19 207 3 935 874 351 92 30 8 104 369
Girls 3 538 40 717 36 598 16 245 3 218 674 189 45 13 1 101 237
Total 6 669 79 606 75 449 35 452 7 153 1 548 540 137 .J3 9 205 606
2 Boys 305 3 073 35 024 36 643 19 838 5 174 1 440 401 216 50 102 164
Girls 358 3 348 37 140 34 059 17 633 4 274 1 075 254 94 9 98 244
Total 663 6 421 72 164 70 702 37 471 9 448 2 515 655 310 59 ::wo .J08
3 Boys 13 391 3 659 30 785 34 702 19 865 6 939 2 024 866 109 99 .\j.j
Girls 20 456 4 204 31 641 31 717 17 213 5 689 1 405 393 64 92 802
Total 33 847 7 863 62 426 66 419 37 078 12 628 3 429 1 259 254 192 236
4 Boys 0 11 514 3 916 27 739 31 300 21 615 7 622 2 865 773 96 355
Girls 0 16 534 4 351 28 739 28 949 17 908 5 573 1 729 288 88 087
"' Total 0 27 1 048 8 267 56 478 60 249 39 523 13 195 4 594 1 061 184 442

5 Boys 0 0 35 686 3 965 23 022 27 579 18 323 8 631 3 322 85 563

Girls 0 0 38 794 4 423 22 873 25 370 14 975 6 037 1 430 75 [Link]
Total 0 0 73 1 480 8 388 45 895 52 949 33 298 14 668 .j 752 161 503

6 Boys 0 0 0 80 670 4 468 22 578 25 335 20 lH 11 523 8.\ 768

Girls 0 0 4 93 784 4 988 21 119 21 868 15 164 6 137 70 157
Total 0 0 4 173 1 454 9 456 43 697 47 203 35 278 17 660 154 925

7 Boys 0 0 0 21 73 714 4 776 23 170 32 390 33 042 94 086

Girls 0 0 0 10 80 765 4 761 19 780 23 989 18 758 GR 143
Total 0 0 0 31 153 1 479 9 537 42 950 56 279 51 800 162 229

Boys 3 14 20 14 20 19 18 20 18 16 102
ESN Girls 1 2 11 10 10 12 9 4 8 9 76
Total 4 16 31 24 30 31 27 24 26 25 238

Boys 3 452 78 104 78 104 91 352 90 942 85 436 85 296 76 987 65 030 48 92-\ 666 901
Tot. Girls 3 917 44 539 78 528 87 203 86 604 79 748 76 120 63 904 47 427 26 696 594 686
Total 7 369 85 917 156 632 178 555 177 546 165 184 161 416 140 891 112 457 75 620 1 261 587
- ·
Grades 1-4 (Lower Primary), Grade 5-7 (Upper Primary) (The Structure of the
New School Curriculum, 1986:1).

[Link] Grade 1-4, Lower Primary

··-···-------
SUBJECT TIME NUMBER
(HOURS) OF PERIODS
-·--------~------ 1----·----··
Mathematics 3% 7
English 4" ;, 9
Zambian language 2Y, 5
Creative Arts 1 2
Practical Subject and
Production Work 1 2
Physical Education 1 2
Political Education 1 2
Spiritual and 1 2
Moral Education
Environmental Science 1 2
Assembly 1 2
-· -
Total 17 y, hours 35 periods

92
[Link] Grades 5-7, Upper Primary

SUBJECT TIME NUMBER

(HOURS) OF PERIODS

Mathematics 42', 7
English 4"' 7
Zambian Language 3'1s 5
Creative Arts 1 •t, 2
Practical Subject :1nd
Production Work 3 113 5
Physical Education 1'I, 2
Political Education 1 11 3 2
Spiritual and Moral Education 1•I, 2
Environmental Science 2"3 4

Social Studies 2 3
Music 2!:. 1

Total 26 213 hours 40 periods

The primary school curriculum should therefore concentrate on the following

areas of learning: communication skills, for example reading, writing and
speech; mathematical skills: practical skills and science education: political
education and social studies; spiritual and moral education. Production Units
which form the aspects of productive work should emphasi2:e their educational
value (Educalional Reform, 1977:16, 17). Production Units will be discussed
further in paragraph [Link].

6.3.4 TEACHERS' QUALIFICATIONS

Teachers for primary schools are trained after passing Grade 10 (Form Ill),
although colleges also accept grade 12 {Form V). They are trained for two years
(see Organograrn 6.1).

93
6.4 SECONDARY SCHOOLS

6.4.1 GENERAL ORANIZATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The secondary course runs for five years. fl consists of two segments. for
example junior secondary. running from Grades 8to 9 (Form Ito II). and senior
secondary from Grades 10 to 12 (Form IIIIo V). The first phase of the second<~ry

is said to link Grades 1-6 because it forms the second part of b<~sic education
(Educational Reform, 1977:7).

The Senior Secondary is a preparatory programme for entry into tertiary

institutions such as universities and training colleges. It is hoped that this pro-
gramme prepares students for life since most of its graduates will <Iller com-
pleting their National Service, join their world of work.

6.4.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENT AND STATISTICAL PROFILE

At secondary level pupils are admitted at the age of 14 ami education is free
but not compulsory (Cameron & Hurst, 1983:481). The main problem is that the
chances for the child to continue with schooling become very remote alter
Grade 7 because there are insufficient school places in the country. There are
more boys than girls enrolled in the secondary school sector although this
imbalance is not attributed to shortage of places alone. it is still part of the
problems which have to be resolved over a period of time. The 194 secondary
schools that existed by 1984 in Zambia could not absorb the Grade 7 population
(Educational Statistics 1984, 1988:75).

The increase in enrolment from 1964 to 1984 is shown in Table 6.3. This figure
also emphasized lhe fact thai there are more boys than girls in secondary
schools.

6.4.3 CURRICULUM

[Link] INTRODUCTION
The Grades 8 and 9 programme will, among other things. build 11 finn foundation
by consolidating the learning skills acquired in phase one of bnsic education;

!14
 Table 6.3
SECONDARY SCtKXJL ENROUIENT BY GRADE SEX AND Nill-IBF.R OF CLi\SSES. 1964-1984 (Educational Statistics 1984, 1988:42)

GRADE 8 GRADE 9 GRADE 10 GRADE 11

YEAR B G T c B G T c B G T c B G T c
1964 3 268 1 425 4 693 0 2 852 I 226 -+ 078 0 1 479 697 2 I 76 0 1 212 508 1 720 0
1965 4 686 1 915 6 601 0 3 165 1 331 4 496 0 2 067 788 2 855 0 1 248 506 1 754 0
1966 1 731 3 245 4 976 235 4611 1 716 6 327 122 2 263 865 3 128 1\6 1 716 618 2 334 54
I967 9 489 5 474 14 963 0 7 678 3 049 10 727 0 3 242 I 011 4 253 0 1 942 653 2 595 0
1968 9 559 5 3IO 14 869 413 9 561 5 257 14 818 435 5 194 1 702 6 896 205 2 847 Rl3 3 660 133
1969 9 647 6 074 15 721 419 9 499 5 072 14 57I 410 6 109 2 360 8 469 249 .J 679 I .J62 6 141 201
1970 9 307 5 868 15 175 412 9672 5 746 15 418 417 6 259 2 319 8 578 244 5 761 2 031 7792 245
1971 9 902 5 851 15 753 418 9 709 5 702 15 411 4I4 6 705 3 232 9 937 285 5 930 1 964 7 894 143
1972 9 870 5 877 15 747 408 9 980 5 443 15 423 409 9 632 5 lli 14 743 40R 4 916 1 967 6 883 216
1973 11 079 6 491 17 570 447 9 743 5 640 15 383 408 9 769 5 263 15 032 409 5 164 1 769 6 933 217
1974 12 129 7 125 19 254 489 11 065 6 145 17 210 448 9 824 5 349 15 173 410 5 608 1 973 7 581 226
1975 13 401 8 061 21 462 547 12 251 6 809 19 060 490 11 116 11 116 442 5 723 2 722 8 145 237
"'
U1
1976 14 107 8 006 22 113 566 13 632 7 631 21 263 566 12 245 6 622 18 867 489 6 319 2 519 8 838 253
1977 14 342 8 317 22 659 570 14 385 7 800 22 185 563 13 912 7 548 21 460 547 6 774 2 502 9 276 267
1978 14 712 8 525 23 237 573 14 775 8 324 23 099 568 14 685 7 851 22 536 559 7 807 3 181 10 988 291
!979 14 621 8 619 23 240 579 15 090 8 519 23 609 573 15 123 8 273 23 398 574 7 852 3 270 11 122 304
1980 15 194 9 243 24 437 586 15 459 8 799 24 258 578 15 309 8 374 23 683 570 7 656 3 822 11 478 304
19R1 16 224 9 867 26 091 614 16 022 9 389 25 411 587 15 638 8 693 24 331 581 8 201 3 337 11 538 302
1982 16 900 10 379 27 279 643 17 262 10 23fl 27 500 621 16 845 9 378 26 223 594 8 246 3 833 12 179 324
1983 19 181 11 725 30 906 743 18 947 10 963 29 910 675 18 042 10 744 28 786 634 8 552 4 331 12 883 348
1984 22 019 13 079 35 098 826 20 589 11 994 32 583 731 20 063 11 343 31 406 663 8 797 4 674 13 471 345

B o Bovs
G = Gi~ls
T = Total
C Cl<Jsses
identify students special talents or aptitudes and encourage their development;
assist students to acquire employable useful skills and knowledge through or
work oriented programmes; assist students to develop intellectual abilities and
apply knowledge intelligently.

[Link] Grades 8-9, Junior secondary

(The Structure of the new school curriculum, 1986:2)

SUBJECT NUMBER
OF PERIODS
-----·--------····---·------
English 6
Mathenmllcs 6
General Science 6
Politico! Education 2
Social Studies 4
Physical Education' 2
Spiritual and 2
Moral Education
Zambian Language (1)
(See Note (v)) 4

Production Work* 3

Total 35
'Non-examinable subjects

Optional subJects

(I) Culluralfcreatlve group

French, Zambian Language (2), At1 and Craft, Music - 4 periods.

(II) Practical subJects group

 fnduslriaf Arts, Agricultural Science, Commercial Subjects. Home

Economics 6 periods.

NOTE:

(f) Each period is of 40 minutes' durafion.

(il) Pupils will be required to choose one subject from the Cultural Creative
Group and one subject from the Practical Subjects Group.

(Ill) Subjects included in Industrial Arts are Woodwork, melalwork, Technical

Drawing or any other such work depending on the facilities available.

(lv} Subjects included in Commercial Subjecls are Office Practice, Typing and
Bookkeeping.

(v) Pupils will have the opportunity to study a second Zambian language as

an optional Subject.

(vi) Guidance and counselling must be included in school activities.

97
[Link] Grades 10·12. Senior Secondary

---------
, ..

SUBJECT NUMBER
OF PERIODS

English 7
Matllemalics 5 or 7
A Science+ 4. 5 or 6
Political Educ<:~tion· 3
Physical Education· 2
Production Work 2
Minimum 23
Maximum 27

+Time and period allocation for sciences are as indicated in the Science
column of Optional Subjects. One Science subject must be taken as a core sub-
ject by every student. other Science subjects can be taken as optional choices.

'Non-examinable subjects

98
 [Link] Optional Subjects

AtfditiPu:.! Conlmetce 4 Food and Nutri1ito1 1 4

t>.bthr·
mntin 4

Principles of
Actounls 6

( kll tl :t I Srknn:· Shonhand <tnd Wood~otk $

6 1yp;U(I: 6
Metalwork '-
1\rrh:!lltnt:lf
Science 15 Me:!alwork Enainc!'tins 5

5:pitllll:t1 and "fn1ai Art and Craft 4

Edoc,,linn 4
Music 4

{i~·omerric;~l
l'lnrl
Building nrauing ~

Geomettical and Mt<.::hanic~J

Drawioll:~'

Note:

(I) The total number of periods should not exceed 45 per week, witll each
period being of 40 minutes' duration.

(II) The minimum number of subjects to be taken from the Optional Subject
Groups should be 4 from at least 2 groups.

(ill) The maximum number of subjects to be taken from the Optional Subject
Groups should not exceed 7.

(lv) Adequate guidance and counselling must lake place at tills leveL

[Link] Comments on lhe subject production work

All schools were declared Production Units by the Head of Slate In 1975.
Productive activities in schools today oller many opportunities lo link learning
with doing and lo bring material and other benefits to the schools. The practical
skills programme is helping to fill a serious gl'lp in the school and college cur-
• 99
riculum. At the same lime it gives students and teachers the means to produce
leaching and learning aids and many other useful items, to make and repair
school furniture and to build classrooms, workshops and teachers' houses.
Subjects like Home Economics, Industrial Arts and Agriculture were to be
developed and made productive. Provision was made to include Production
Work in the lime table:

Grades 1 · 4 2x30 minutes per week

Grades 5 7 5x40 minutes per week
Grades 8-9 3x 14 minutes per week

Ngencta (19-10-88) maintained that this lime allocation was not enough. Schools
were expected lo work outside the school hours.

Production work has been allocated lo almost all the grades. Some people have
had misconceptions about this. to them production work is not diflerent from
agriculture.

There were other problems experienced, such as

• land problems, especially in urban areas; and

• financial constraints, funds were unavailable to invest on the actual infr<~­

structure.

To ease the burden of the schools a fund called 'Production Unit Revolving
Fund' was established. Schools could borrow from this fund to buy tools and
other necessities. In reality however, these Production Units were not
successful (Banda. 17-10-88).

The permanent Secretary further commented that ali the syllabuses in use are
in the testing stage. and that teachers are continuously in serviced either during
holidays or week-ends. Finnish International Development Authorily (FINNIDA)
extends help on practical subjects, technical assistance, personnel. equipment,
soft ware and hardware for leaching materials, the Norwegian Agency for
International Development (NORAD) facilitates production of textbooks and
Implement the change of curriculum (Banda, 17-10-88).

100
The Production Unit Annual Return Form was designed to evfllllille and record
production work. See some products on Figure 6.4. Home Economics,
Industrial Atis, Metal Work and Hand Craft products are also produced, though
they do not appear in Table 6.4.

6.4.4 TEACHERS' QUilL/FICA TIONS

Teachers for the secondFtry level are trained for two years after passing grade
12 (Form V). The University of Zambia find other colleges continue to train
teachers for a full range of secondary programmes.

6.5 SPECIAL EDUCATION

6.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Special education, as the term implies, refers to education specially designed
and adapted to suit the special needs of h~ndicapped children who may be
suffering from mental or physical disabilities. Special education has been for a
long time neglected in Zambia. It was not properly organized and was only
provided by voluntary agencies unlil 1971, when the Ministry of Education took
over the responsibility. There is also an Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee
of Special Education which advises on the organization and in1portance of
education for the handicapped. This committee comprises of senior officers
from the ministries of Health, Labour and Social Services, Education. The
Council for Handicapped. The Zambian National Union of Teachers and
Voluntary agencies.

The existing schools cater for the blind, the deaf. the physically handicapped,
the mentally handicapped and those with multiple handicaps. Children should
attend specific pre-schools lor identification of handicaps (Educational Reform.
1977:26).

101
Table 6.4
PRODUCTION UNIT ,\NNllAL RElliRN I'Oill-f (~tm:C)
(Production Unit Annual Return, 198?:1-4)

PART 1 t\[Link]:I1IRR

Section A: Livestock

Quantities Amount from Values of

Number Number sales of existing stock
Type of I ivestock kept solo ~~hoi e anima 1
during <luring K n
year year

Beef Cattle

Layers
Broilers
Rabbits
Geese
Ducks
Guinea Fowls
Turkeys

Total

Section B: Livestock products and fish

Livestock Quantities prorluced Amount from sales

Products NO. KG LTS K n

Eggs

-----------------~---------·------

Fish

Total

1!!2
Table 6.4 (continues)
Section C: Horticulre

Quantity produced Amount from sales

Vegetables (kilograms) K n

Cabbage

Total

103
Tahlc 6.4 (continues)
Section [}: Field Crops

Fi<'ld crops

~Ia i Zl.'

Sorghum
Rice
Beans
Cnssrtvn

Soya flenns
Cotton

Sunflower
\vhent

Millet
Sisal
Kenaf
·-----------------------------------------------------
Sweet Potatoes
Sugar Cane
Groumlnuts
Cashew Nuts

1!14
6.5.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS AND STATISTICAL PROFILE
In Zambia it is maintained that handicapped children should attend ordinary
schools and colleges In view of the importance of socialization but this should
depend on the nature and degree of their disability. II may be necessary lo
have separate schools and separate classes for the handicapped. but as soon
as it is no longer desirable to separate them from other students, the
handicapped should join ordinary schools or classes. Some handicapped
children may enter full-lime education at an early age or they may spend a
longer time in one sector because of their handicap. II is encouraged that
handicapped children should attend specific pre-schools for identification of
handicaps (Educational Reform, 1977 :26). Pensulo (29-09-89) in an [Link]
mentioned !hal handicapped children are admitted to special schools at the age
of 9 and di~charged at the age of 19. AI this stage the liaison committee liaises
with the government to take up the matter if the child doesn't improve. Children
who have multiple handicaps and the physically handicapped are kept in
boarding schools most of the time to reduce or minimize their walking distance.

[Link] Enrolment and staffing of special schools

Table 6.5 will serve to explain enrolment and staffing in special schools, for
example for the physically handicapped, the mentally handicapped, the deaf
and the blind.

6.5.3 FOREIGN ASSISTANCE FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION

The growth of special flducation in 1982 is attributed to the support of the
Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). Funds from SIDA were
fully utilized in staff development, equipment. materials, transport and braille
press (Annual Report for the year 1982, 1986:35).

The Norwegian Agency for International Development (NORAD) supf}lied

equipment to the Chainama Day Centre which caters for pupils who are more
disturbed and noisy (mentally retarded). Their degree of mental retardation is
high. There are two kinds of pupil-patients In this school (Annul Report for Year
1982, 1986:37):

105
Table 6.5
ENROL~lEN'I' AND STMTING OF SPRCTi\L EDUCi\T!ON (Annual RcporL for the yem 191ll,
191l4:27-30)

Education for the tleaf

Pupils Staff
School 191l1 191l2 1981 1982
Magwcro School Chipata 70 71l 7 9
St. Jospph's School, Knlulushi 55 54 9 9
Valley View School, Kitwc 14 ll 2 2
Lukasu School, Ktt11c 15 1
~lano School, ~lu[uJ irn 17 23 3 3
Lusnka Boys School IS Ill 2 3
Lusaka Girls School 11 14 3 3
University Teaching l~spital 12 2 Tech=
nicians
(Speech and llearing Centre) 1 2
Roman Girls (Secondary) 8 11 1 1
~luna! i (Secondary) 12 15 2 5
Gandhi School, Luanshya Non exis= Non ex is=
ting ting
Kanseshi School, Ndola 13 2

Education for the blind

Pup i Is Staff
1981 1982 1981 1982

St. s School , Kawambwa

~lary' 102 102 20 19
~lporoyoso School, Northern 71 70 12 8
Ndo1a Lions School 56 66 10 12
St. ~lary' s !lome Economics 14 14 2 2
~lagwero School 30 33 8 8
Sefu1a School 43 40 7 8
Chiwala (Secondary) 15 No record No record
~lubwa (Secondary) 15 No record No record
Kawrunbwa Boys (Secondary) 16 No record No record
St. ~~1ry's Girls (Secondary) 12 104 No record No record
Sefula (Secondary) 15 No record No record
Munali (Secondary) 17 No record No record
~lporokose (Secondnry) No record No record No record

106
Table 6.5 (continues)

Education for the physically handicapped

Pupils SLnff
School
19Hl 19R2 19Rl l9R2

Chi I eslw Cheppc in \vnnsongo

School, Kasana 70 7R

Dngnne :;-:-l10ol , Lunnshya 43 43 4 4

~fmnh i 1 inn Schoo 1 , Luapu1 a RS 7R R R
St. llJCresn' s Jloste l, Luashya 50 so
St. Cl emenl Scconrlnry Schoo I, ~fans a 10 12
lbbel Shaw Seconrlnry School,
~fuereshi 8
Leprosaria schools
~lwami School, Chipata 13R 138 6 R
Kirby School, Chikankata 33 39 4 4
lbspital teaching service for child
patients Necrl1mmrk introduction
University Teaching Hospital s
Arthur Division !~spital 1 200 250 2
Ndola Central Hospital
Kitwe Central llospi tal 3

Education for the menta II y handicapped

Pupils Staff
School 1981 19R2 19Rl 19R2

Rokana Primary School, Kit we 9 ]A Not given

~fufulira School 17 18 Not given

Kanseshi School, Ndola 8 10 Not given
Hillside School, Chipata 16 19 Not given
\voodlanrls School, Lusaka 17 19 Not given
Chainama Day Centre, Lusaka 60 60 2 Tea staff 6 Tea staff
10 Socinl 10 [Link]
\vorkers \vorkers
• those of the Day Centre attending medical treatment and education: and

• the residents at the hospital requiring medical treatment, rehabilitation,

social training, cralls and therapy. Both groups require teachers of wide
experience And training with a great dual of patience and dedication.

6.5.4 USE OF "UNITS" FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION

'Units' are special classes added to regular or ordinary schools to cater lor
handicapped children. Ordinary classes may be converted into 'units' by
establishing special facilities for handicapped children. In this system children
are to some extent integrated and this makes handicapped children lee!
accepted (Pensulo, 29-09-88).

Table 6.6 below will help to explain the existing units in Primary and secondary
schools in all the provinces by the year 1988.

Table 6.6
UNITS IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS AS AT 1988 (Pensulo,
29-09-88)

PROVINCE PRIMARY UNITS SECONDARY UNITS

--
Lusaka 8 3
Southern 6 1
Eastern 3 1
North Western 4 -
Northern 1 4
Luapula 2 6
Copperbelt 18 3
Central 7 1
Western 3 3
--
Special Education in Zambia has grown by leaps and bounds since 1971 when
it was transferred from the Ministry of Labour and Social Service to the Ministry
of Education and Culture.

108
6.6 TEACHER TRAINING

6.6.1 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF TEACHERS' TRAINING COLLEGES

Primary and secondary teachers are trained in different colleges. Pre-service
primary teacher training courses are offered at Charles Luanga, Chipata, David
Livingstone. Kasama, Kitwe, Malcolm Moffat Mansa, Mongu, Mululira and
Solwezi Colleges, while secondary teacher training courses are offered at the
Copperbelt Secondary Teachers' College, Luanshya Technical and Vocational
Teachers' College. The Evelyn Horne College of Applied Arts and Commerce
also offers special courses in Art and Music. The National In-Service offers
courses lor primary school teachers, while Lusaka College offers courses lor
teachers of the handicapped. The University of Zambia also offers courses lor
pre-service teachers lor secondary schools (Annual Report lor 1984, 1987:4).

6.6.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS AND STATISTICAL PROFILE

The minimum entry qualification to the primary school teachers' college is
Grade 10, although colleges also accept Grade 12. In future the minimum entry
qualifications to primary school teachers' college will be Grade 12. Those
trained lor teaching in the primary sector who have Grade 12 education may
take conversion courses to teach in the secondary sector (Educational Reform,
1977:68).

For enrolment of Teachers' Training Colleges from 1976-1986 (see Table 6.7)
from this figure increase of enrolment should be observed.

All untrained teachers recruited lor a Primary Teachers' Course should be

those who have completed Grade 10, and those recruited for secondary training
should have successfully completed Grade 12. The headquarters indicates each
year the maximum number of unqualified teachers that should go lor training.

109
 Table 6. 7

TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGE ENROL~tENT BY COORSE, YEAR AND SEX 1976-1986

(PI ann i ng llni t ~DIE. 1988)

Pre-school Primary Home/Craft Secondary In-Service Training

Year Year Year Year
Home/
I II I II I II I II Primary ~)econdary Craft

·ear M F ~! r ~! F ~! F ~-! F ~I F ~I F ~I F ~I F ~I F r F ~I r All

1976 - -
il7 518 - 631 312 151 138 270 77 223 56 182 112 2 023 1 383 3 406
1977 - - - -
889 503 - 667 428 191 179 254 93 227 84 176 48 28 2 133 1 554 3 687
- - - - i78 585
...
.....
0
1978
1979 - -
-
- - - - 943 559
694 350
920 505
167
265
148
200
283
360
62
85
217
318
97
78
130 52
111 53
2
2
100
652
1
1
260
745
3
4
360
397
1980 - - - - 960 657 912 523 230 222 237 66 321 89 120 72 46 2 550 1 895 ~ 445
1981 - - - - - - 9B9 62B 932 563 256 230 223 84 216 52 217 79 16 2 577 1 908 4 485
1982 - - - - - 845 560 975 514 165 162 168 81 113 69 110 49 12 2 211 1 632 3 805
1983 - - - - - - 993 570 939 584 233 236 147 77 157 79 189 77 13 2 435 1 871 4 304
1984 6 18 7 14 34 13 985 637 990 602 265 246 267 101 176 72 164 41 61 7 7 15 2 629 2 024 4 653
1985 2 13 6 17 - - 980 630 982 574 210 229 263 101 178 68 163 50 67 8 8 2 641 1 906 4 549
1986 - 2 12 - - 996 546 1 000 610 225 224 223 77 228 73 196 69 43 4 17 2 688 1 857 4 545
--- ~-----·
~ ~

......•.. Figures not available

The idea is to dncrease the number of unqualified tenchers. The untrained
teachers should however. apply to the college of their choice through the Chief
Education Officer who will pass on their applications. Diploma progrrunmes for
those with grade 12 will he equipped to leach junior secondnry school pro-
gramme. The Universily of Zambia and other colleges will continue to train
teachers for the full range of secondary programmes. The University of Zambia
awards degrees in Education and Diplomas In Teacher Educalion to successful
candidates. The University is the main supplier of graduate Zambian teachers
for secondary schools and colleges (Educational Reform, 1977:68~69).

Teachers for special education are drawn from ordinary schools as volunteers.
Posts are advertised. Applicants are trained for a year. The benefits of the
teachers in special schools are:

• their salary scales are revised; and

• a teacher gets an allowance for teaching handicapped children (Pensulo
29-09-88).

6.6.3 CURRICULUM
Subjects offered at Teacher Training Colleges are (Mbuzi. 21-09-88):

• Education

• English
• Zambian Languages

• Mathematics

• Science
• Social Studies
• Physical Education
• Handwriting and Audio~vlsual Aids
• Music Education
• Creative Activities
• Home Economics

• Practical Subjects

• library Science
• Production Work

111
• Politic<~l Educ<~lion

The teacher education structure and curriculum are rigid. Alloc<~llon of subjects
is common to all colleges and for the duration of the course. The periods given
to each v11ry only slightly from one college to <~nolher. The weekly lime
allocation is from II 1 !o 45. forty-minute periods with no provision for
independent study. Subject allocations vary from 6 or 7 for English and
Mathematics to 3 or 4 for Science and Zambian languages and 2 or 3 for other
areas. Education has 3 periods weekly. Methodology and background are
included in each subject where they are generally too prescriptive, with
emphasis upon conformity to !he subject 'handbook' and the facts and methods
contained therein. Students lend to be drilled in the content of these handbooks
(Kelly el al., 1986:95). Courses taken at first-year level are also taken at
second-year level. There are no subjects that are dropped at second-year level
(Kanduza. 25-10-88).

6.6.4 STAFF QUALIFICATION

II is the University's diplomates and graduates in teacher education who staff
the training colleges as lecturers (Educational Reform, 1977:69).

6.7 TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

6.7.1 GENERAL ORGANIZATION

The Ministry of Higher Education administers Technical Education and
Vocational Training (DTEVT). Just like full-lime secondary schools, DTEVT also
has !he junior secondary and senior seconcl'lry. Pupils 'Ire examined allhe end
of the first stage of three years (Grade 10). Those completing Grade 10 hAve the
following alternatives: Firstly, !hey may be allowed to advance to the second
stage of senior secondary education, and normally the best pupils would do so.
Secondly, they can enrol in the primary teacher-training colleges. Thirdly. they
can enrol in vocational training courses (Sanyal et nl., 1976:102).

Those who pursue senior secondary education (Grades 11 and 12) can follow
the following streams:

112
• Higher education in the University of Zambia. The better pupils usually
enrol in the school of Natural Sciences or the School of Humanities and
Social Sciences. and after an initial period of basic study in these schools,
they are granted entry into any of the other schools in the University leading
to professional specialization.

• Teacher training in the Teacher Training Unit of the Department of Technical

Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT) for one year, to specialize as
subject teachers or vocational teachers.

• Two-year teacher-training course of the DTEVT to specialize as industrial

teacher, commercial teacher, industrial arts teacher and vocational teacher.

• Teacher-training courses In the secondary Teacher Training Colleges, which

offer two-year post-secondary courses for teachers of lower secondary
classes.

• Teacher Education in the Natural Resources Development Colleges which

offers three year post-secondary education in agricultural education.

• Various technological courses In the various institutes of the DTEVT. In

addition, in-service training facilities are offered to Form V leavers In
employment (Sanyal et al., 1976:201).

6.7.2 ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS

Successful upper primary school-leavers can apply for entry to the vocational
training schools.

6.7.3 CURRICULUM
The following Table 6.8 will show various courses offered at different institutions
and the entrance requirements (Annual Report 1975. DTEVT, 13-17):

113
Table 6.8

ENTRY AND DURATION OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL PROGRAMMES IN

ZAMBIA (Annunl Report 1975, DTEVT, 13-17)
------~~-------------------------,---------,

COURSE ENTRY LEVEL COURSE

DURATION
(IN YEARS)
----------·-------------------+-----------------------f -------------------1
Auto Mechanics Form 111 2
Carpentry and Joinery Form Ill 2
Electricity Form Ill 2
Trowel Trnders Form Ill 2
Machinist/Filter Form Ill 2
Pre-Vocational
(Basic Training) Form Ill ",,
Agricultural Mechanics Form Ill 2
Plumbing and Pipe-filling Form Ill 2
Panel-beating Form Ill 2
Clerk/Typist Form Ill 1 ·-,,
Metal Fabrication Form Ill 2
Painting and Decorating
and Slgnwrillng Form Ill 2
Shorthand Typist Form V 1 '/,
Academic (Grades 8 to 12)
Related Subject Teacher
Training Form V
Technical Teacher Training Crall Certificate 5/6
and Work
experience
Commercial Teacher
Training FortH V 2
Industrial Arts
Teacher Training Form V 2
Special Course for Shorthand Recommen

114
 dation
Aeronautical Form V with 3
relevant science
subjects
Civil Aviation Cambridge
School
Certificate with
five passes
or GCE '0'
level. Mathe
ma!ics.
English
Flying School Form V GCE '0'
level, Mathern a=
tics, Science,
English
Radio/Television Repair form Ill 2
Culling and Tailoring form Ill 2
Power Sewing Form Ill 2
Auto-Body Repair form Ill 2
Heavy Duty Mechanics Form Ill 2
Metal fabrication Form Ill 2
Wood Machining Form Ill 2
Office Machine Mechanics Form Ill 2

6.7.4 ENROLMENT
The number laking DTEVT programmes is lairly sialic, with a total enrolment of
approximately 5 500 each year. About hall of those enrolled are in crall.
technical and technologist engineering progrmnmes; 15 per cent in secretarial,
15 per cent In applied arts and business s'tudies; and the remainder in teacher
training, science and paramedical programmes (Kelly et al., 1986:71) (see Table
6.9 on enrolment by programme).

115
 Table 6.9

ENROL~lENT flY PROCiiWII-IE FRfl.l 1971 1987 (PLNl!IIN(] UNIT, ~filE 1988)

PROGRAMME 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 TOTAL
TRADES OR CRAFT 1710 1709 1439 1710 2144 1820 2030 1946 2030 1486 1453 1720 11579 1532 1446 1202 1392 27777

TECHNIC TAN 537 826 1076 1202 1318 1352 1271 1150 1078 1141 1040 1076 1101 832 1012 898 1012 18924

TECHNOLOGIST - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
SCIENCE & PARAMEDICAL 141 200 235 182 260 281 398 289 308 328 276 293 253 272 235 257 235 4443

AIR SERVICES 375 265 136 213 267 256 160 96 119 95 238 179 124 120 126 61 126 2956

BUSINESS STUDIES 263 392 368 333 357 294 378 465 363 462 554 619 740 640 350 398 925 7901

APPLIED ARTS 230 139 193 280 204 425 173 261 288 245 266 220 188 197 162 227 162 3860
i
SECRETARIAL 332 491 450 738 522 657 780 963 1027 968 988 841 803 661 854 946 854 12875

TEACHER TRAINING 68 101 92 118 150 231 250 350 381 392 403 366 254 364 230 270 230 4251

ACADEMIC - 620 890 199 253 269 258 238 221 269 279 249 292 290 308 285 4661

OTAL 3656 4123 4609 5666 5421 5569 5709 5778 5261 5338 5487 5594 5291 4910 4705 4567 5246 87652

NOTE: THE ABOVE ARE PROGRAt!MES RUN BY TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS UNDER THE DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND
VOCATIONAL TRAINING.
6.8 THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

6.8.1 INTRODUCTION
The University of Zambia is the Highest Educational level in the Education
System. University education Is free, and il provides accommodalion. food and
student allowances (Banda, 17 -10·88).

The Lockwood Report had spelled out the role of the future university as an in-
strument of national development. The university must combine practical ser-
vice to the nation at a critical lime In its life with fulfilment of the historical
purpose of a university as a seat of learning, a treasure house of knowledge and
a creative centre of research. This two-fold objective continues to guide the
philosophy of the University of Zambia. Its goals are teaching. research and
service relevant to the needs of Zambia and a standard of excellence which will
ensure thai white these needs are properly and adequately served. the
University wins and holds International respect as a seal of scholarship. These
objectives have been enshrined in the mol!o of I he University, SERVICE AND
EXCELLENCE and have guided its development since its inception (University
Calendar, 1986-1987:11 ).

6.8.2 GENERAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION

The University comprises of 9 schools: the School of Agricultural Sciences, the
School of Education, the School of Engineering, the School of Humanities and
Social Sciences, the School of Natural Sciences, and the School of Veterinary
Medicine. Besides the University of Zambia (Lusaka Campus) there is another
campus at Ndola which consists of the School of Environmental Studies ;md the
School of Business and Industrial Studies (University Calendm.. 1986-1987:12).

The supreme academic authority of the University is the Senate which

organizes, controls and directs all academic activities. both in leaching and re-
search. Senate is responsible for the admission of students. the structures of
programmes, courses of Instruction, the conduct of examinations, the award of
degrees and the promotion of research. The Chairman of the Senate Is the
Vice-Chancellor. Below the Senate, and answerable lo II. is lhe Acadmnic

117
Board. There is an Academic Board for each Constiluent Institution. one for
lusaka and one for Ndola.

It is chaired by the respective Principal and is responsible for the academic

management of the Constituent lnsiHution. II superintends and co-ordinates the
academic activities of the School and Research Units at the lnslilulion and
specifically is empowered to approve or amend course outlines and regulations
and to conduct the annual examinations. The day-lo-day academic life of the
University is [Link] by the Schools of Study. The academic governing body
of a School is lhe Board of Studies which is composed of the teaching and re-
search members of staff in the School together with representatives from other
sectors of the Unlversily and from outside bodies. The Board of Studies
determines the necessary entrance qualifications to the school, proposes pro-
grammes of study for the consideration of Senate, considers course outlines
proposed hy Departments, scrulinises all assessment systems and examination
results. The ch-'lirman of the Board of Studies is the Dean of the School
(University Calendar, 1986-1987:49).

6.8.3 ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS (University Calendar, 1986-1987:52}

• The applicant must hold passes at credil level In at least 5 subjects in the
Zambian School Certificate or Cambridge Overseas School Certificate or
passes in at least five subjects in the General Certificate of Education
Ordinary-level examinations.

• Qualifications other than those of the Zambian School Certificate or the

General Cerlificale of Education may be accepted, provided they are
approved as equivalent by fhe Senate. A person holding a two-year diploma
of the University Is regarded as having satisfied the General Entrance
Requirement.

• Candidates who are 25 years of age in the academic year in which they
propose to begin their degree studies may be admitted to any degree pro-
grammes if they present evidence of attainment which in the opinion of the
University Indicate that they have the ability to pursue the proposed pro-

118
 grammes of study. Candidates must be Zambian citizens, resident in
Zambia and will be required to write a Special Entry Examination.

• Because the language of instruction at the University is English, all

candidates for admission are expected to show evidence of proficiency in
the English Language. A school Certificate Credit or '0' level pass in
English Language is accepted as satisfying this requirement and is normally
demanded.

Though the Univen;ity started with a low enrolment and few schools. it has
grown both in enrolment and outputs (see Table 6.10). It is worth comparing the
number of graduates at Independence (19611) and in (1984). In 1964 there were
100 graduates And in 1984 there were 6 557 graduates.

6.8.4 STAFF QUALIFICATIONS

Though not cleArly slated, a Master's degree is recommended for the teaching
personnel of the University (K<~nduza, 24-10-88). Staff Development program-
mes are provided for under-qualified staff.

The objective of the Staff Development Programme Is to provide opportunities

to Zambian sl<~ff for higher-level training that will enable them to serve the
University more effectively. This Is accomplished by providing training awards
that will enable members of slaff, or suitably qualified polenli<~l staff, to obtain
the academic and other qualifications needed for their posts and to Increase
their experience. The Staff Development Programme responds to the needs of
the University for qualified local personnel in all fields, academic and otherwise,
but the major emphasis Is on the training and preparation of persons for
academic parts that involve leaching, research and library work. A person who
has not yet been appointed to the service of the University may be offered a
Staff Development Fellowship to enable him to obtain the qualifications needed
for an academic or other post. For leaching personnel, the Fellowship usually
ends In the award of a Master's Degree. Upon successful completion of the
Master's Degree, a Fellow who is to work at the University will be appointed to
the staff of a School and will assume leaching responsibilities. After teaching

119
 Table 6.10

EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS 1984, 1988:34-35

TH£ UNJVERSfTY Of ZAMBIA GRAOUATION STl:DE~TS BY PROGRAMME. J%8-HJ,I!J 1._..11 t .. IU Total
1"61Ht'n. lJ 1m·l'l lt"IO ••1-U IHl.«:

Ulf>l.O!I4AS
'""""'", ~·
I'IIU.1<J- 1'1101-JIO IYIIU~I lin' I M~ l'flt! •1 I.,. I U [Link]
·-----
PO"iT GRAUl! A lT
Ph 0

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\1 [d l
'
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1
l
I 8
1
"l ... 18

'- \t J J I • 1 l 10
J l J J

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\tSc
Po;!·[Link]. Cut. m l;diiCal!on 1U - - - (;[Link] Tf.S
Po!l·[Link]. 0Jplom~ m i ibrary S1ud1CS
l'<">n·Vrad. 01ploma tn MaPattmtnt
-\[Link] and Pb:nnmr

!'m1 Grad. 01plom.a m ln!trnaiJOUI

I,. - ' J IJ
[Link]. D1ploma m: l.a•
SUB-TOTAL ~61! 1
" " " " )6 '7J

lJNOt:RGRAUUATF,

;;;
8. ,\ittKuhural $.::1('1'!t~

BA ...
110
I"
II
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I 11
190
H
111 ~00
)
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119 I""'
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I fht '-"''ofv"'"l!'IM·l'r'~•••wf'\~u....,~""' '"'m~~al•••~,..di!Oiifll"« tlttl ffN T£!1..Sol1h4-hfr oflhtf U"''~""n U ikoo
Ht\1"<-llif•t'lt•.llofl>"ltJO"rn QopW)ma.l"dHI"'•l.:lltjWtlfft~Qitfl't'UO\II ... IU\t(-(i~·toCII•-tPIOW«!<+f'fOIIfff'i(Jftl,lftfll

,..
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B.S w •s
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' 161
10 10

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IJ5
10

110
11

IOJ [Link]
IJS '.«><"fill\ '" ~,,ul.,.ol•~ ; , ..I~ It II ~·11~41

B Sntnct [Link] J!
"' JO
•• Jl 18
IIH7
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I!IQ
-------· ll•l"l>ln<t~

B A l.1bnty Studtt1

Sctena
B. [Link]-Stucbu
" 10 16
' 10 9 II

-------- ...
8. EnJmr~nn~
1.1..8
Ill
293
Jl

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J
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16 11 )9

l!
HO

9. M1ncral Scu:nct' JQ I)
J1
.ll II 10 Jl 16 '""
:111
II. Sc~ncc tN) -
..' • II :~
8 Scttnct tHBl
B Sc1~ncn

''-11 rna
12..1
1:!.~
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lO
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)9

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B H A i&chdor ol 8u1 Admw 1
1)4
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"C!e==""="""= ""' (1)1!: "0]
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for a period of one or more years. such staff may get the opportunity to go on
to doctoml 5ludies (University Calendar. 1986-1987:218).

6.9 CONTINUING EDUCATION

6.9.1 INTRODUCTION
Initially the Department of Continuing Education run by !he University was
divided into four departments, namely !he Department of Extension Studies and
Conferences, !he Department of Mass Communication. !he Department of
Correspondence Studies and !he Depat1ment of Adult Education. The
Department of Mass Communication was later transferred to the Arts
Department.

6.9.2 DEPARTMENT OF CORRESPONDENCE STUDIES

[Link] General organization and functioning

Correspondence education involves teaching through the post, by means of
lecture notes and study guides, additional references or reading material,
supplemented with specific written assignments and directions from lecturers.
All correspondence students enrol with !he University of Zambia. The
University puis great stress on three aclivilles:

• regular submission of assignments by students;

• allendance at residential school (tutorial work); and

• wdting examinations at the end of the year.

A student who falls to send in written assignments to the satisfaction of the

lecturer concerned may be excluded from !he course during !he year (Sibalwa.
12-10-88).

[Link]. Entrance requirements

Requirements for correspondence studies are the same as those for entrance
into the University (see paragraph 6.8.3).

121
[Link] Curriculum
AI present study by this mode is confined to courses offered by the School of
Education. the School of Natural Sciences and the School of Humanities and
Social Sciences (University of Zambia Calendar 1986-1987, 1986:196-198).

The courses offered by the School of Education at the University

• Reading and Composition

• Introduction to Language

• Introduction to Literature

• French Language and Literature

• History of Modern Africa from 1860

• Studies in the growth of capitalism 1450 to present

• Topics in World Hislory

The courses ortered by the School of Humanllles and Social Science are

• Fundamentals of Social Sciences

• Political and Social Change in Africa

• The structure of Zambian Society

• Introduction to Government and Administration

• Comparative Politics

• Introduction to Sociology

• Social Theory

The courses offered by the School of Natural Sciences

122
• Environment and Man

• An Introduction of Geographical Studies

• Cultural Elements of Geography

• Calculus and Analytic Geometry

It is possible to complete the entire programme leading to the degree of

Bachelor of Arts by correspondence, but because of the practical requirements
within the Education degree, correspondence students are usually required to
complete some of the courses (usually those in the third and fourth years) as
full-time or part-lime students (Sibalwa, 12-10-88).

6.9.3 DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION- UNIVERSITY

[Link] General Organization

Through the Department of Adult Education, the Centre lor Continuing
Education oilers a one-year programme leading to the Certificate in Adult
Education and a one-year programme leading to Diploma in Adult Education.
These courses are provided by University Staff in School of Education.

This department is also responsible for Basic Education which Is attached to

primary school (Informal Education). The Department also offers Supervised
Study Groups (SSG) which are mostly found in urban areas. These are
designed to take pressure off the secondary schools. This department is also
planning to launch a degree programme In adult education lasting lor lour years
(Sibalwa, 12-10-88).

[Link] Entrance requirements

For admission to the Cet1ificate In Adull Education an applicant should have
passed in 3 acceptable subjects In the Zambian School Certificate or equivalent
or qualifications deemed by the University to be equivalent to those. In addition
an applicant should have at least 2 years of relevant experience (Sibalwa,
12-10-88).

123
Besides registration through the University, this part of the education system
also caters for adults or youths who left full-lime education or may never have
entered II. but may wish to engage in education and training by part-time study.
This includes literacy education. formal education and in-service training and
workers education (Educational Reform. 1977: 12).

[Link] Cw·1·icu/um for adult educatio11

The progmmme for the Certificate in Adult Educ111ion is as follows:

• History ;mel Philosophy of Adult Education. with special reference to Zombia

• Adult Lertrning

• Programme Planning. Evaluation and Administration

• Methods and Techniques in Adult Education

• Cumulative Theory and Practice I (including English skills}

• Introduction to Sociology

In the Diploma in Adult Education the first two terms are spent in course work.
The third term is spent on a major field project related to the candidate's field
of specialization. The programme is as follows (University of Zambia Calendar
1985-1986, 1985:196):

• Administration in Adult Education

• Community Development

• Communication Theory and Practise II

• Field Project

6.9.4 DEPARTMENT OF EXTENSION STUDIES AND CONFERENCES

Through the Depat1rnent of Extension Studies and Conferences, the University
is represented in each of the main provincial centres of the country in Chipata.

124
Kas<ttn<t, Kilwe, Livingstone. Mansa. Mongu and Solwezi <ts well as Lus<tka. ln
each of these places there is a Resident Tutor whose task is to organize suitable
non~credil programmes lectures and seminars for the benefit of the people of
the surrounding area. Members of the University stafl may be involved in
providing these courses. together with members of the local community. The
department is also n~sponsible for organizing conferences, seminars and work~

shops at the University of Lusaka (University Calendar, 1986~ 1987,

1986: 195~ 196).

6.10 SUPPORTIVE SERVICES

6.10.1 THE ZIIMBI/l LIBRARY SERVICES

The object of the Zambian Ubr<try Service is to make books freely av<~ilable to
everyone, to encourage the use of libraries and there is concern that this ser~

vice should cater for rural areas, since the municipalities cater for urban areas.
The self~help scheme has resulted in the opening of various libraries. Mobile
libraries have been developed and they could cover an area of 32 000 miles in
163 days. Loaning of books is also encouraged and developed (Annual Report
for 1964. 1965:39).

The Z<tmbia Library Service is under the control of the Department of Home
Education. even though Its operations overlap between Ministry of General
Education and Culture and Ministry of Higher Educ<~tion. The Zambia library
Service operates six provincial libraries, situated at Choma. Kasam<t, ChipaiA,
Mansa, Mongu and Solwezl. Apart from the Provincial network. the Zambia
Library Service also operates from two branch libraries in the Zarnbezi and
Mbala Districts.

Each provincial or district library operates a number of centre libraries within

thai area. There are about 105 000 centres within the Zambia Library Service.
These centres <tre situated in Primary and Secondary Schools, Districts. Prisons
and Welfare Centres (Annual Report for the year 198:?. 1986:33).

125
6.10.2 THE ZAMBIA CULTURAL SERVICE (ZCS)
The Zambia Cullurnl Services moved from the office of the Secretary Genernl to
the Ministry of General Education and Culture, thereby adding 'Culture' to the
Ministry which thus became the Ministry of Education and Culture.

The Director of Cultural Service is assisted by the Deputy Director, a seconded

acting Chief Education Officer (administration) and Heads of Technical and
promotional sections at the Headquarters. This Department has a national
mandate to preserve and promote Zambia's cultural heritage and to co-ordinate
the activities of cultural Institutions in the country. The department acts as a
clearing house for requests and inquiries made to Government in terms of
cultural festivals, conferences and exhibitions and for the dissemination of
Information on all aspects of cultural life and activities in Zambia.

In this task, the ZCS works closely with the National Museum Board, the
Commission for the Preservation of Natural and Historical Monuments and
Kelus, Stale functions, Institute of African Studies, all cultural institutions like
the New Writers' Groups, Government Ministries, The UNIP, visiting cultural
groups, Zambian cullural groups touring abroad, and all other individuals
(Annual Report for the year 1979, 1981:17).

The Department performs Its task through its technical and promotional
sections, which include Research, Music and Dance. Literature and Drama, Arts
and Crafts, Zambian Food, Cultural Villages and Photographic and Recording
as per decentralization policy, the Department has also a Cultural Officer
allached to the Chief Education Officer in each Province.

6.10.3 EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING SERVICE (EBS)

The aim of the Educational Broadcasling Service is to improve the quality of
learning in schools by supplementing the teachers' own efforts in the classroom
by providing leaching material which may not be readily available to him
(Annual Report for the year 1978, 1980: 12).

The Educational Broadcasting Service has three operational sections, each of

which has immediate supervision at its head. The seclions are:

126
• Educational Radio Service (ERS), based in Lusaka

• Educational Television Service (ETV). based in Kilwe

• Audio-Visual Aids Service (AVS), based in Lusaka

6.10.4 EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL OF ZAMBIA

[Link] General
The Council is responsible for the conduct and administration of examinations
which are taken by candidates in primary, secondary, teacher training and
technical and vocational training colleges. It also discharges the responsibility
of formulating syllabuses for examinations and carry out research in
examinations. The Examinations Council of Zambia also administers external
examinations on behalf of various Boards (Annual Report for the year 1985,
1985:2).

There are variations as regards the administration of the Grade 12 examination

(Annual Report for the year 1983, 1986:5-6):

• Zambia borrows some of the papers from the Cambridge University Local
Examinations Syndicate of United Kingdom:

• the printing of question papers Is done in England:

• the marking of scripts is done both 1t1 Zambia and in England:

• the computerization of the examination is shared by Zambia and

Cambridge, with Cambridge still doing the moderation and marking phase;

• the issue of results is done by the Examinations Council of Zambia: and

• the printing of Certificates is done in Zambia, by the Examination Council

of Zambia.

127
The programme of localizing the School Certificate Examination has been
embarked upon. This exercise is greatly assisted hy the Ministry of Oversens
Development through the British Council and the Union of Cambridge
Examinations Syndicate. Training sessions for Examination Council of Zambia
are conducted until the stage of competency is reached.

[Link] Overseas examinations

These are set and marked by OverseAs authorities but are conducted by the
Ministry on behalf of these bodies (Annual Report for the year 1983, 1986:5-6):

• The General CertificAte of EducAtion: The GCE '0' level examinations of the
University of London are taken by external students only.

• The University of London Degree and various Diploma Examinations: These

are taken by external candidates only.

• Pitman's Examinations: These are taken by both Internal and external

candidAtes.

• The Music Diploma Examinations: These examinations are taken by both

Internal and external candidates.

[Link] Examination unit for tile disabled

This Unit was established to carry out the following functions (Pensulo.
29-09-88).

• to enable all disabled children to sit for examinations, taking into

consideration each Individual's specific problem caused by disability:

• to make use of examination results for the purpose of guidance and

placement of the disabled; and

• to promote belter understanding and positive attitude towards the disabled.

The examination Unit co-ordinates all activities relating to examinations for the
disabled, modilies examination papers to suit Individual's disabililres.

128
moderates examinAtion resulls. t1'1king into ilccount each disabled student's

constraints 1'1nd guiding invigilators. markers and moderators of the

examination for the dis1'tbled. II also hands over results to the inspector1'1te in
Special Educ1'11ion lor guidAnce and placement and distributes inlorm:1tion
sheets to school.

The Unit is laced with a problem of not being represented on the Examination
Council of Zambia that sets, modifies and marks examination papers. Secondly,
a lack of statistics on the schools where the disabled students are Integrated
makes II dilficull lor smooth distribution of exmnination papers. Thirdly, there
Is Insufficient co-ordination between the Special Education Examination and the
Special Education Inspectorate resulting in late delivery of exam materials and
the dissemination of Information. Lastly, printed examination papers are of! en
released late for the unit for modification and tumscriptlon into braille (Pensulo,
29-09-88).

6.10.5 PSYCHOLOGICAL SERVICES

The services provide the Ministry with the necessary cut-off points for selection
into Secondary Schools. II also informs the Ministry confidentially of certain
aspects of the results which could be kept in mind for the future. The
Psychological Service is responsible for the Grade 7 Selection Examination. II
also provides the frequency distributions and guidelines for selection Into
Grade II. The centrally set p1'tpers for Primary Teachers' Training Examinations
are proof-read by the Service and II provides suggestions for their improvement
where necessary. The Service runs a Career Guidance Unit. The Unit Is
responsible for processing educalion numbers and make available Grades 10
and 12 entry details for the use by the Computer Bureau at the University in
Zambia. This is for the purpose of guidance and counselling. Students' record
cards, Career Preference Forms, GRZ Occupational Interest Inventory and the
Careers Bulletin are all prepared and second11ry schools kept up-to-dale with
materials and information (Annual Report for the ye11r 1981. 1984: 18).

12!1
6.10.6 BURSARIES COMMITTEE
The Bursaries Committee was established in 1973 under the Bursaries
Commillee Regulation. The Committee is governed by the Education Act under
the Laws of Zambia. Members of the Committee. who should not be more than
twelve. are appointed by the Minister and are drawn from vmious institutions
and different walks of life including parastatal organizations. Government
Ministries and Departments, the University of Zambia and other organizations
outside Government. Members are appointed on the basis of personal
capacities ami according to the importance of their contribution and do not
necessarily represent individual instilution or organizAtions but the nation as a
whole. The Commillee exists to further the education of Za111bian citizens and
acts for and on behalf of the Minister and has power to execute the following
functions:

• To make gr.'lnts or loans to citizens of Zambia or their parents by way of

Burs<~ries or Scholarship for the furtherance of Education of such citizens.

• Subject to the approval of Minister, to make a grant or loan to a person who

is not a citizen of Zambia or his parents by way of bursary or scholarship for
furtherance of his education.

In the furtherance of education of the citizens of Zambia or non-citizens with the

approval of the Minister, the Committee depends on Government Republic of
Zambia Bursaries. for example funds approved and authorized by Parliament
to be spent on bursaries to enahle students to pursue various Educational Pro-
grammes in tertiary institutions within Zambia and nbromt.

The Committee which is conversant with the priorities of the Party find
Government decides the award of bursaries purely on the basis of those
priorities and availability or funds. First priority is given to the full-lime students
entering the University or Zambia and these students are automatically awarded
bursaries when they are accepted and enrolled at the University. This condition
may apply lo pMHime and correspondence students.

130
Apart from processing Bursaries financed from Government Representatives of
ZambiA Funds. the Commitlee administers offers of scholarship or other awArds
lor friendly countries. There are other Commillees that operate under the
Bursary Section. these being the CommonweAlth NationAl Selection Committee,
the WAr MemoriAl Fund Board of Trustee (recently discontinued). In Accordance
with the Philosophy of Humanism. which has Advocated free education in the
Republic. the Bursaries Committee worked flat out and mmle II possible for
Lusaka campus and Ndola campus full-time students to enrol at the University
(Annual Report for the year 1981, 1984:17-18).

6.10.7 KENNETH KAUNDII FOUNDATION

The Kenneth Kaunda Found<~tion. with its suhsidinry companies, the NationAl
Educational Distribution Company of Zambia Limited (NEDCOZ), are the
suppliers of the country's educational materi<~ls, such as paper, exercise books,
textbooks. sports <Jnd Domestic Science equipment.

The Z::unbian Educational material Project (ZEMP), and some donor agencies
assisted the Government In improving the supply of text-books to schools by
providing the Found<Jtion with printing machinery. and !mining some CDC
officials and secondary school teachers in the act of writing text books and
facilitating the delivery of books to regions and district centres by providing
vehicles.

6.10.8 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CENTRE (CDC)

The CDC has professional responsibility for syllabus design (and presentation
lor approval to Republic of Zambi11 Examinations Council), prepAration of pupils'
books and teachers' handbooks, and design and application of evaluation
instruments. The scope covers Pre-School. Basic Education (Grades 1-9)
School Certificate (Grades 10-12). Teacher Education (pre- nnd in-service).
Special Education. Ev<~luation and Research and Resource Centre concept.

The work load has more than doubled since implementation of educational
reforms. Work on syllabus and material production also involves seminArs lor
regional inspectors. subject inspectors and practising teachers. both at CDC

131
and in the field. The Resource Centre at CDC has been focusing on in-service
training in this area so far. as well as in training courses for practical subject
teachers. Courses on research methods are under way with assistance from lhe
Education Research Bureau and others, and are open to all CDC staff. CDC has
a systematic policy of inviting donor agencies to associate themselves with the
work of FINNIDA (practical subiecls textbooks), SIDA (Special Education.
Resource centres at TTC, leaching materials.) UNICEF (Basic Education. Pre-
school), EEC (Science and Mathematics) British Council responsible for revision
work ollhe ZPC (Coombe & Lauvas. 1984:28).

On professional matters the Director of CDC is under the Chief Inspectorate of

Schools And administratively he is responsible to under-secretary of the
Ministry of Higher Education.

6.11 COMPARISON:PRE-INDEPENDENCE AND POST-INDEPENDENCE

6.11.1 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM

[Link] Entrance requirements

[Link].1 Primary scl1ool

Before independence the age of pupils' entry to Grade I was live to seven and
a half years in scheduled primary schools (lee-paying). In unscheduled primary
schools (non fee-paying) the entry age for pupils at the Grade I level was seven
to eight years.

In the present school system age ol entry is seven to eight. although a number
of six-year olds are "smuggled" into these schools (Mwanakatwe, 1968:1311). See
also paragraph 6.3.2.

[Link].2 Secondary scl!oo/s

Admission to Form I was restricted to pupils who had completed the full primary
school course. The age entry into Form I was between 12 and 16 years. The
average age recently is between 14 and 15. Pupils entering secondary schools
nowadays should obtain relatively high mm ks In !he Secondary Selection
Examinations. Current development provides for about one-third of the Grade
9 output to enter Grade 10 each year. The progression of pupifs from Grade 9
to 10 is based upon performance in the Junior Secondary School Leaving
Examination (Mwflnakatwe, 1968: 137).

[Link] School structure

[Link] .1 Primary schooling (first level)

Primary schooling was divided into three:

1. Lower Prinmry Course (Sub-Standards A <~nd B. Standards I and II). The

duration wa~ four years.

2. Middle Primary Course (Standards Ill and IV).

3. Upper Primary Course (Standards V and VI). The duration was two years.

The whole primary course lasted for 8 years (see Organogram 6.2). The Primary
course currently runs for 7 years for exa111ple according to the Interim stage
(see Organogram 4.2) II is envisaged that at the finale stage II will last for 6
years (see Organogram 4.3).

[Link].2 Junior Secondary Course (second level)

The Junior Secondary Course consists of Form I and II. After the Primary
Course, a child can divert either to Domestic Science Teachers' Course (two
years) or to Lower Primary School Teachers' Course (two yeArs) or to Tmdes
Courses or to Further Education. The present Junior Secondary comprises
Grade 8 and 9. When the plan for Basic Education is achieved it will last lor 3
years (see Organogram 4.3).

[Link].3 Senior Secondary (tlllrd level)

Senior Secondary Course comprises Forms Ill. IV and V to Cambridge School
Certificate. Besides laking Senior Secondary Course a chitd could either lake
Oomeslic Science Teachers' Course (two years) or L2 Lower Primary Teachers'
 Ot$lannp.rW11 6.2

!)1,\GR \'1 SI¥AY1Nt:< l1ff GENLR\1. !ri1WC11JRF. OF ·mr; HJre-Ml AfRlCAN [Link]:ATHJN [Link]. m:cEr-mER. lW1 i
(Nnrth1·rn RhiHlPSlilfl t;nn·rmm•rJt Tric-nni,-ll Survey 1%1 - 1963::1)

Pt ilft;uy schools
(I) l'r1m;~ry Cour~·; (Suh-Strnn!ardc. /\ uud fL Stnndutds 1 and 11- four yc<Jni),
(21 Jlritnan {Standurds III and IV- two year~).
( )} Pr !m;~ry (St:mdarrts V nod VI two years).

*)l•nmcstic Junior ondary Trades

I
PurthN Educ.:Jtl•m
'>• Cou r sc ( ·orms 1 Cour.,cs ut [Link]
and II) Tt'chnical Coll(•g(',
I <•Ut'>f' Col1cszc of Furth('r
< 1 ,,.o ve;lrs) Edun:ttion. etc,

"'"~IJ<olll(.><;t •u - Senior econdary Further Educq~

S1 H"'O("(• Pr imnry Course F rms l 11. tion Corusc at
Tt•<Jrhr-r"' 'teachers' JV and to CllP1- College of Further
Courr.;(• Course br idge School Education, Nor·
{two ycors) Ccrt i !cote thern TcchtJical
Col lege. Hodgson
•o2 - UppC'r
Technical College.
Primary [Link] [Link]'s
Te;tchc-rs' School etc.
Course
Hwn vcars}

For.m Vl l:unher Educn~

(t-wo yrors} tion Courses nl
Courst• Collc~e of Further
i thn't' year!-.) tours(• Educnt ion Nor~
(lwn vents) theru Tedmicnl
Collngc etc.

SAddit ional Further Educa-

year's course tion Courses at
for Oomcst fc Cni lege of Further
Sc icnce nru1 Educnt inn. Nor~

l'llystt·at Edu- lhcru Tcdmtt:al

cat. ion teachers ColleR~·. etc.
( ln Janunrv,
1%1)

llcgrcc Cou rscs

It should he noted thnt these refer to the same course. It \~os intended that the course would he a t><.o
}'Pur post-Junior Secondary but because there were insufficient numbers it was found necessnr-v to ndmit a
nHmht'r nf o;tudcliL'"> ~>'i th !IO".t~Stnndard VI qual if tent ions.

S In )IJftS Jt i.., illti'!Hh•d thHt the tour~e lor !>omcstic Science teacher!'. will con7.1~t ol t)nt' mlt!!ti1l11,tl ~~·<~r
fo11nwin~ tlw norn1ill liZ course.

::.hnuld hf' noted thnt thc:'>e rcfrr to the snmc course but a f!lllnhcr of stmlent<, admitt<'d \l(l\'{' lu !;wt cnl 1 1~
n <,NltOJ svcnnrlary courst'.

134
Course (two years) or Further Education Courses at Hodgson Technical College
or College of Further Education (see Organogram 62).

It Is of great importance to mention that under the present system of education.

pupils can only train as teachers alter Grade 10. The Lower Primary School
Teachers' Course has been phased out. Though Grade 10 is the requirement
most of the pupils admitted to Training Colleges are Grade Twelves (see
paragraph 6.6.2).

[Link] .4 Fourth Level

Aller Senior Secondary Course a child could either proceed to Form VI (two
years) or U2 Upper Primary Teachers' Course (two years) or S3 Secondary
Teachers' Course (three years) or Further Education Courses at College. An
additional year's course lor Domestic Science and Physical Education was
given to those who completed the U2 course. Also, alter completing Form VI a
child could either advance to Degree Courses or to Further Education Courses
at Colleges of Further Education or Northern Technical College (see
Organogram 6.2).

In the present education structure Form VI has been phased out. Alter Senior
Secondary Course a child who satisfies the University entrance requirement can
directly register with the University.

[Link] Curriculum
During the Missionary period the curriculum consisted of reading, writing and
arilhmelic. The curriculum developed with time, and later Included subjects that
would make pupils relevant to the needs of the colonists. such as carpentry.
dressmaking. cookery and agriculture, hygiene and Religious Education.

[Link].1 Primary Level

Until 1986 there hadn't been a great shirt and change concerning the content of
education In all education levels. All primary schools offered the following
subjects: Arithmetic, Arts and Crafts, English, Gardening, Nature Study,

135
Needlework (lor girls only), Physical Education, Religion, Singing, Science and
Social Studies.

An additional vernacular language was prescribed by the Minister of Education

at scheduled primary schools as he may select. At all unscheduled primary
schools the following additional subjects were included in the curriculum:
domestic science (for girls) and vernacular language (Mwanakatwe, 1968:134).

[Link].2 Secondary Level

In both the junior secondary and the senior secondary courses, the following
basic subjects of secondary curriculum were offered in schools: English.
Vernacular languages, French history, Geography, General Science,
Mathematics, Arts and Crafts. Metalwork, Woodwork, Civics. Religion,
Needlework and Physical Education. In 1966, a drastic revision of the junior
secondary syllabuses was made in order to bring them into closer relation with
the needs of pupils in Zambia. A more significant development was the
reintroduction of Agricultural Science in both junior and senior secondary
schools' curricula. Where Agricultural Science is offered at the junior
secondary level. il does not replace general science which is generally taken
by all students in secondary schools (Mwanakalwe, 1968:136).

Significant though these changes which are laking place in Zambia's schools,
the fact remains that since 1964 the curriculum used in the colonial era has
been modified rather than radically transformed. AI least as Important as the
modification in the curriculum are the changes in approach and In !e:lching
methods.

Gradually schools are abandoning role learning and the didactic methods are
shilling their locus Away from the concept of transrnilting specific packages of
Information to one providing their pupils with the skills. understanding and
altitudes that will enable them to go on learning and to appraise new ideas and
innovations, aller they have completed their format education (Snelson,
1970:286).

136
[Link] .3 Points of criticism

Much cr!llcism which was directed against the curriculum of the pre-
independence period was misguided in that it was based on the assumption that
the schools could be a major vehicle for social and economic change. Critics
complained that the schools made their pupils dissatisfied with their way of life.
The most radical innovation made In Zambia since Independence has been the
introduction of English as medium of instruction from the first year of the
primary school course. This is in marked contrast to the policy adopted In some
other countries, where a local language has been selected as the national
language. In Tam•ani:J, lor Instance, Swahili is now the medium of instruction
in the primary schools and will, within a few years, become the medium in
secondary schools also (Snelson, 1968:285.286).

One unhappy development in recent years has been the decline in the status
of vernaculars at senior secondary level. looking <~I the curriculum lor Grades
10-12, it is observed that vernaculars can be taken as an optional subjecl, but
are not included in the Core Group. The scornful or indifferent attitude of
students to the study of their own vernacular languages in secondary schools
reveals their Ignorance concerning the basis of their culture, and this will
destroy the basis of national pride, and self-confidence will be undermined in
the young generation. Therefore, the Ministry of Education has a responsibility
to restore the image of vernacular languages in the secondary curriculum

(Mwanakatwe. 1968:137).

As compared to the Colonial era, the school System in Zambia has been greatly
expanded. Though there is still a shortage of classrooms, much has been done
to improve this area by both the Government and self-help schemes. There has
been a great intake in schools al all levels as compared to pre-Independence
period. The establishment of the University has closed some of the gaps that
existed before independence. Education was open to all.

137
6.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter 6 has discussed the school system as a whole, including special

schools. continuing education, university education and supportive services.
Among other issues. this ch<Jp!er has discussed in detail lhe <~ge requirement.
general org<~niza!ion. te<Jcher qualifications and curriculum lor each educ11tion
level.

Supportive Services like the Library Services. Psychological Services,

Examination Council, Kenneth Kaunda Foundation, Educational Broadcasting,
Services Bursaries Cornmitlee and the Curriculum Development Centre which
enable the Education Ministries to run as a coherent whole have been
discussed.

Finally this section compares the pre-independence and post-independence

school system.

Chapter 6 has discussed the school system as a whole, for ex<~mple pre-
primary, primary, secondary schools, special schools. continuing education and
university education.

138
CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
This concluding chapter is concerned with assessing and summarizing the
study on the Educational system of Zambia, for example the historical back-
ground from the traditional era through missionary and colonial limes to the
present system; the policy making in pre- and post-indenpendence limes: the
reforms adopted lo bring about changes in the educational system and meellhe
needs and demands of the people and their country; the organizational
structures that execute the educational policies; the functioning of the school
system and how II implemenls the ideas of the policy-makers.

7.2 MOTIVATION
Zambia is a developing Third World country. Since her independence in 1964,
she has undergone many changes, for example polillcally, socially,
economically ami educallonally. It Is of great importance and interest to study
an education system of a developing African Slate. Studying Zmnbia would be
of great benelil since very little has been written on Zmnbian Education System
in South Africa and it is important to evaluate changes since independence.

7.3 AIMS OF RESEARCH

The aim of this research is to study the Education System in Zambia: how il
developed lhrough limes, how new reforms after independence were introduced
to bring about changes in policy, administration. organizationlll structures: the
school system and supportive services.

7.4 METtfODS OF RESEARCH

A literature study was done atlhe libraries of the Potchefstroom University, the
University of the WitwAtersrand, the University of South Africa and the
University of Zambia. Zlmtbia wns visiled and interviews conducted mostly with

1~9
people with a wide knowledge and experience of the education system in
Zambia.

7.5 STRUCTURAL OVERVIEW

Chapter 2 has outlined what we understand by an education system,
educational administration, educational policy, the school system and
supporlive services. This chapter has also given the general picture of the
country of this study, for example its geographical situation, people, political
structure, economy and its history.

The aim of describing the historical development of the Zambian Education

System has been attained in Chapter 3. Education in Zambia has evolved
through traditional education, missionary education and government education
of the Colonial er11, the Federal era and the post-Independence era.

Chapter 4 has defined and explained in detail the objective of 'Education for
Development' as a draft statement and the 'Educational Reform' as the adopted
educational policy in Zambia. This section also looked Into the problems of both
Education for Development and Educational Reform; the Third and Fourlh
National Development Plans were adopted to review and strengthen the Edu-
cational Reform.

The post-independence organizational structures thai execute educational

policies are set out in Chapter 5. The Ministry of General Education and Culture
and the Ministry of Higher Education are the chief controlling bodies. This
section also discussed the financing of education and the nodal sh'uclures.

Chapter 6 offers a wide-ranging discussion of organization and administration;

the admission requirements; statistical profile; curriculum and teachers
qualifications of different levels of educational institutions for example, the
pre-schools, primary schools, secondary schools. teacher training colleges,
technical and vocational schools and the University of Zambia after
independence. The discussion is rounded off by a comparison of pre-
Independence and post-independence school system.

140
7.6 GENERAL OVERVIEW

7.6.1 PRE-INDEPENDENCE

Western education in Zambia was introduced by missionaries in the second half

of the 19th Century. Schools conductt;d by various Christian denominations
were rather unstable for various reasons, such as lack of support from the
British South Africa Company (BSAC) which administered the territory from
1890-1924. Despite the difficulties faced by mission schools, enrolments
improved with time. By 1923 an estimated 25 per cent of the 200 000 African
children of school-going age were enrolled in some type of school (SIIanda,
1988:42) (see also paragraphs [Link] and 3.4).

African education and European education were run by separate Ministries and
each had its own syllabus. European education was run by the Colonial
Government and supervised by the European Ministry of Education. Afric<m
education was run by the Territorial Government and supervised by the African
Ministry of Education (Soremekun, 1973:196) (see also paragraph 3.4).

Initially the purpose of educating Africans was to produce people who would be
able to read the Bible and help spread the Gospel. Later, some of the graduates
were to lake low-level jobs In the Colonial administration. The curriculum In the
schools was therefore narrow, consisting of subjects such as Religious Doctrine,
Reading, Arithmetic and hygiene (refer to paragraphs [Link] and 3.4).

Aller Britain look over control of the territory in 1924, the administration
Increased expenditure on education by giving grants to missions. The result
was increased enrolments and some teachers began to receive more extensive
training (see also paragraph 3.4). Most schools, however, offered only a two-
year programme which was not sufficient to make pupils confidently literate. In
general the colonial administration spent very little on African education
compared with that spent on European education (Sinyangwe, 15-10-88) refer to
paragraph 3.4).

141
7.6.2 EDUCA TfON IN POST-INDEPENDENCE ZAMBIA
After obtaining independence in 1964, Zambia raced serious shortages of highly
trained personnel. Most of the whiles who held senior administrative and
technical positions left and there were not enough qualified Zambians to replace
the expatriates. On the eve of Independence only a small number of indigenous
people had completed secondary school (1 000) and university training (100).
There was, therefore, an urgent need to train Zambians to fill the positions left
by whiles. In addition. the new government fell that Africans had been denied
the right to education by the Colonial Administration. The government therefore
pledged itself to correct this colonial legacy by rapidly enlarging the
educalional system at all levels and by providing universal basic education.
Primary school enrolments increased form 380 000 in 1964 to 1 000 000 in
1982: secondary school enrolment increased from 14 000 lo 100 000 in the
same period: and the number of Zambian graduates rose from 100 lo 7 000
(Simson, 1985:77) (see also paragraph 3.6.1).

[Link] The introduction of Educational Reform (Zambian Education Policy}

The drastic increase in enrolments at Independence created a new problem of
young school leavers. Although more schools were buill, both at primary and
secondary levels, the places at the secondary level were still too few to absorb
all the Grade 7 graduates (only one fourth who finish Grade 7 find places in
Grade 8). The large numbers of pupils who cannot continue with their education
find great difficulty in gelling jobs. Some reasons advanced for this problem
are that primary education is too academic and does not prepare the youth for
work, that they are too young to perform tasks that require physical strength
and maturity and finally the limited job market (see paragraph 4.2).

The school Ieaver problem outlined above has caused a lot of anxiety in Zambia
and influenced the advent of the Educational Reform Movement in the 1970's.
The Educational Reforms published in 1977 were concerned mainly with two
issues: namely, the quantitative and qualitative developrmml of the system,
touching on issues such as teacher education and supply, technical education
and vocational training and the organisation and management of lhe education

142
system. The quantitative aspecl had to do with the provision of universal basic
education to all (Sinyangwe, 15-10-88) (see also paragraph 3.6.5).

[Link] The new structure according to Educational Reform

The current formal school system has an interim structure comprising a 7 + 2 + 3
pattern, being seven years of primary schooling, two years of junior secondary
and three years of senior secondary. Progression from one stage to the next is
based on performance in selection examinations. This structure is designated
"interim" because eventually the primary and junior secondary sectors will
merge into a nine-year basic education for all children. This stage will be
followed by a three-year senior secondary course which will consist of a number
of programmes. Immediately preceding the primary grades some pre-school
facilities exists. Some provision is made at both primary and secondary levels
for special education. Additional formal education is ofrered to adults in night
schools, special study groups with access to distance learning materials, and
by correspondence. Certificate, diploma and degree programmes are available,
leading to professional and vocational qualilications. Entry requirements vary
according to course level. Continuing education opportunities are available for
youths and adults who either have not completed their formal education or
never had access to II. These facilities include literacy classes. correspondence
studies and in-service courses. There are also extension services which enable
personnel to upgrade their knowledge and skills (Kelly et al., 1986:29) (refer to
Organograms 6.1 and 4.2).

[Link] Organisation and administration

The formal education system is the responsibility of two main authorities; the
Ministry of General Education and Culture (MGEC) and the Ministry of Higher
Education (MHE). Each Ministry has its own function, although there is some
overlap between them. MGEC is responsible for pre-schools. primary and
secondary schools. continuing education, special education and educational
broadcasting. MHE has professional oversight of teachers' colleges. technical
education and vocational training and is the ministry through which the
University is responsible to the government. The Examination Council of
Zambia, lhe Curriculum Development Centre and other related educational

14~
services. as well as the Kenneth Kaunda Foundation with ils educnlion<~l

publishing ami distributing divisions, also fall under the aegis of this ministry
(Kelly et al.. 1986:30-31) (see paragraphs 5.4 and 5.5).

Funding and administration of primary schools are the responsibility of the

provincial administration within the office of the Member ol the Central
Committee lor a province or region. Provincial Permanent Secretaries are civil
service heads who manage the funds voted to primary education by Parliament.

The post-independence era has been dominated by the Educational Reform of

1977. All changes effected and problems experienced emanated from I he Re-
form document (Siny;mgwe. 15-10-88).

7.7 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.7.1 GENERAL
II is now 25 years since Zambia has become politically independent. In her
development Zambia has experienced many changes, especially in the
educational sphere. Very little has been achieved with regard to the Educa-
tional policy of Educational Reform introduced in 1977. The economic problems
in Zambia have retarded the lull implementation of Educillional Reform. The
wishes of the Zambians are not yet fulfilled in the sense that Education has not
yet been brought to every eligible child. II should be an urgent task of the
government to have a commission appointed to look specifically into the
funding of education. Educationists and economists wilh sound professional
background should serve on the commission.

7.7.2 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO SHORTAGE OF

GRADE I AND 5 PLACES
Many children who are old enough to enter Grade I do not have the opportunity
to enrol because there are not enough places. The shortage of lower primary
school places is greater in urban areas than in rural areas. and in some towns
the shortage is so severe !hal one-third of the children cmmol go to school.
This is because the urban child populalion has increased fnsler than new

144
classrooms have been buill. Another reason is that many parents enrol their
children when they me younger than the minimum entry age of seven due to
lack of birth certificates and unreliable afridavils. This partly contributes to
preventing many children who are of the correct age from being enrolled. All
children enrolled at Grade I in urban schools have the opportunity to complete
seven years of schooling; a substantial number of children in rural schools do
not have the same chance. In some rural districts, four out of ten pupils have
to leave school at Grade 4 because there are not sufficient Grade 5 places. In
the country as a whole. one-quarter of the pupils enrolled In Grade 4 cannot find
places in Grade 5. II Is therefore recommended that means of creating more
educational Institutions should be found. Parents should be involved In
bringing about solutions (see paragraph 4.7).

7.7.3 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO SHORTAGE OF

GRADE 8 PLACES
The chances for a child to continue with schooling become very remote after
Grade 7 because there are an insufficient number of Grade 8 places In the
system. The Grade 7 enrolment has been increasing much faster than the
number of new places in Grade 8. More than four out of every five Grade 7
pupils cannot proceed to Grade 8 because of insufficient places in the country
(refer to paragraph 4.8). The recommendation in pnragraph 7.7 .2 of having
more learning places created still applies here.

Zambia is experiencing a school-leaver problem. Though it is said !hal

education in Zambia is geared to eliminating this problem il seems to be
escalating. Children are being ejected without the necessary skills. The curri-
culum does not prepare them to lake up employment at lh11l tender age.
Practical subjects are hampered by inadequate facilities (see paragraphs 4.2
and 4.8). Specialists in curriculum design with extensive knowledge of different
curricula of other well developed countries should be involved in planning the
Zambian Curriculum. A thorough study of the Zambian labour lllilrket should
be made and be accommodated in the curriculum.

145
7.7.4 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO SHORTAGE OF
TEXTBOOKS
On a visit made to schools It was discovered that the majority of children do not
have the necessary textbooks. Sharing is even impossible in some instances ..
This is due to financial problems (refer to paragr<tph 4.8). The commission
suggested under paragraph 7.7 .1 should look into the allocation of funds
especially at primary level.

7.7.5 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO BASIC

SCHOOLS
It is clear in paragraph 4.8 thai basic schools will take some time to be achieved.
Firstly, there are no qualified teachers to Iii into this new structure. Prim<try
schools have just been turned into basic schools with very little change to suit
the junior secondary curriculum. Where additional structures like laboratories
and Home Economics centres are built, there is no equipment or qualified
teachers to teach these subjects. Some basic schools hardly have facililies. It
is recommended that the existing basic schools should be upgraded by fitting
in laboratories and Home Economics Centres to promote effective leaching and
learning. Before converting primary schools into basic schools, facilities and
equipment should be budgeted for. To man these schools with qualified
teachers, curricula at the training colleges, should be restructured to fit the
"Final Structure or Education" as Indicated in Organogram 4.3 for example
6+3+3.

7.7.6 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH REGARD TO FREE

EDUCATION
Zambia boasts or her 'free education' which II is believed is financiAlly crippling
the country. A large sum of money is spent on higher education. students at the
University get free education, and are also given 'out of own pocket expense'
(pocket money). Parents as a result do not realize that the education of their
children rests with them (see paragraph 4.8). II is strongly recommended that
parents should be financially involved in the education of their children from
tower grades up to university level. Boarding costs in secondary schools
should also be transferred to parents. Thorough research should be done on

146
how to introduce fees so as to avoid school disruptions. More money can t!HIS

be devoted to building of schools, supplying of equipment and meeting of new

demands.

7.8 FIELDS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The following fields of research arising from this study are:

• Parent involvement In the Zambian Education System; and

• funding of Education in Zambia.

7.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY

All issues <iiscussed in the previous chapters were summarized in this chapter.

This chapter also gave a general overview of the Education In Zambia in pre-
and post-independence periods.

Finally, findings and recommendations emanating from the entire study have
been discussed. Critical areas have been of great Importance In giving
recommendations.

Topics for further research have been suggested.

147
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154
LIST OF INTERVIEWS
BANDA, M.K. 1988. Permanent Secretary. Ministry of Higher Education. Pro-
duction work. School Ieaver problem shor1age of Grade 1 places. October 17.
Lusaka.

CHELU, F.K. 1988. Chief Inspector of Schools. Ministry of General Education

and Cullure. Decentralisation of the education system. October 19. Lusaka.

KALILILO, S. 1988. Senior Inspector for Mathematics. Ministry of General

Education and Culture. Basic education. October 22. Lusaka.

KANDUZA, A.M. 1988. Acting Dean: School Education. Platoon system and staff
qualifications. October 25. Lusaka.

MBUZI, S.J. 1988. Ministry of Higher Education: Training Colleges. September

21. Lusaka.

MOLOTSI, S.M. 1988. Head of the Teaching Service Commission. Teaching

Service Commission. October 17. Lusaka.

MULUNDIKA, M.L. 1988. Proprietor, Lumuno Nursery School. Pre-school. Oc-

tober 7. Lusaka.

NGENDA, J.M. 1988. Agricultural Science and Production Unit Inspector.

Ministry of General Education and Culture. October 19. Lusaka.

PENSULO, A.M. 1988. Senior Inspector for Special Education. Special education.
September 29. Lusaka.

SIBALWA, D. 1988. School education. Adult education. October 12. Lusaka.

155
LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS, TABLES AND ORGANOGRAMS
Page
Figure 4.1 Source and flow of National Debate
Contributions 44
Figure 5.1 The origins of Educational Resources in
Zambia 75

LIST OF MAPS
Map 2.1 Geographical map of Zambia 10

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Primary School Enrolment 1964-1972 36
Table 5.2 Analysis of Educational Expenditure by
Purpose and Level of Education. 1983 77
Table 5.3 The Public Annual Cost Per Student at
Different Levels of Education. 1979-1984
al constant 1984 prices in
Zambian Kwacha 78
Table 6.1 Number of Pre-Primary Schools in Zambia
between 1977-1985 85
Table 6.2. Enrolment in Primary Schools by Age
and Sex, 1989 89
Table 6.3 Secondary School Enrolment by Grade and
Sex and Number of classes. 1964-1984 93
Table 6.4 Production Unit Annual Return Form 100
Table 6.5 Enrolment and Staffing of Special Education 104
Table 6.6 Units in Primary and Secondary Schools as
at 1988 106
Table 6.7 Teacher Training College Enrolment by
Course, Year and Sex, 1976-1986 108
Table 6.8 Entry and Duration of Technical and

156
 Vocational Programmes in Zambia 112
Table 6.9 Enrolment by Programme form 1971-1987 114
Table 6.10 The University of Zambia graduation students
by Programme 1968-1983-1984 118

LIST OF ORGANOGRAMS
Organogram 4.1 Structure of National Education 42
Organogram 4.2 Interim Structure of Education 47
Organogram 4.3 Final Structure of Education 48
Organogram 5.1 Ministry of General Education and
Culture, 1982: Organisational Chart 63
Organogram 5.2 The General Organisation of the Ministry
of African Education, 1963 80
Organogram 6.1 Structure of the Zambian Education
System, 1987 83
Organogram 6.2 The General Structure of the Formal African
Education System, December, 1963 133

157