Power System Structure

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 1 The University of Jordan

What is a relay?
• An electric device designed to respond to input conditions in a prescribed manner and
after specified conditions are met to cause contact operation or similar abrupt change in
associated electric control circuits. The definition is based on IEEE Guides and Standards
for Protective Relaying Systems -- 1989 Edition.

• Protective relaying properties:

 detect abnormal power system conditions, initiate corrective action as quickly as possible
to return the power system to its normal state.
 response must be automatic, quick, and should cause a minimum of disruption to the
power system.

i.e., “correct diagnosis of trouble, quickness of response, and minimum disturbance to the
power system”
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 2 The University of Jordan
Multi-Layered Structure of Power Systems
• Power apparatus -- generate and distribute electric energy.

• Control equipment -- local and global.

• Protection equipment -- specific and system.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 3 The University of Jordan

Bus/system configurations
• Protection system configuration directly related to power system configuration.

 Uni/Bi-directional protection schemes.

 Weak infeed.
 3rd Zone of Distance Relay.
 System grounding.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 4 The University of Jordan

 The nature of Relaying
• Must be reliable (perform as intended), i.e.,
 Dependable (operate correctly for faults it is designed to detect)
 and secure (will not operate for other faults).

• Must be Selective:
 Closed Vs open.
 How to define the zones.
 The purpose.

• Must be Fast: To operate speedily when it is called upon to do so, thereby minimizing
damage to the surroundings and ensuring safety to personnel.

• Must be Sensitive: To detect even the smallest values of fault current or system abnormalities
and operate correctly at its setting before the fault causes irreparable damage.
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 5 The University of Jordan
Zones of Protection
• Every element must be within a zone.
• Zones must overlap

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 6 The University of Jordan

Zones of Protection
• Every element must be within a zone.
• Zones must overlap

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 7 The University of Jordan

Example: Relay Reliability
Comment on the relay performance on each case

V W X Y
1 2 3 4 7 8

5
Z
6

a) Relays 3, 4, & 7 and their associated circuit breakers have detected and isolated the fault.

b) Relays 3, 4, & 8 and their associated circuit breakers have detected and isolated the fault.

c) Relays 3, 8 and their associated circuit breakers have detected and isolated the fault since there is a problem in fault
detection and/or isolation in relay 4 location.

d) The circuit breaker at location 3 did not isolate the fault, so the relays at 4 and 1 and their associated circuit breakers
have detected and isolated the fault.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 8 The University of Jordan

The nature of Relaying
• Relay speed - minimize damage and circuit interruption

– instantaneous -- no inherent time delay

– time-delay -- intentional time delay added
– high-speed -- approx. 3 cycles on a 60 Hz system
– ultra high-speed -- 1/4 cycle or less.

 Fault clearance time?

• Primary & back-up protection

– duplicate/alternate -- independent, slower.

– local back-up vs. remote back-up
– breaker failure!
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 9 The University of Jordan
The nature of Relaying
• Single vs. 3-phase tripping

– Most faults are single-phase to ground

– System stability issues
– Pole Discrepancy.

• Automatic reclosing

– Most faults are temporary!

– must synchronize!
– high speed vs. delayed!
– NOT on transformers, generators and motors

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 10 The University of Jordan

Elements of a Protection System
• Transducer - provides input to relay.

• Relay - makes decision if and when to trip CB.

• Circuit breaker – interrupts fault current.

• Battery - provides “power” to operate CB.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 11 The University of Jordan

Relay Operating Principles
• Relay Functions:
 Protective.
 Regulating.
 Monitoring.
 Auxiliary.

• Relay Inputs:
 Current.
 Voltage.
 Frequency (or speed).
 Temperature.
 Contact status.
 Combinations of above.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 12 The University of Jordan

Fault Detection Techniques
• Level detection - may also be a function of time
– may be over or under

• Magnitude comparison [e.g., parallel lines]

• Differential comparison

• Phase angle comparison - provides directional capability

• Distance measurement

• Harmonic content

• Frequency
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 13 The University of Jordan
Relay Construction
Relays are divided based on their construction into three types:

 Electro-magnetic-mechanical.
 Solid-state.
 Digital/ Numerical.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 14 The University of Jordan

Electromechanical Relays
• The early relay designs utilized actuating forces that were
produced by electromagnetic interaction between currents
and fluxes, much as in a motor. Some relays were also based
upon the forces created by expansion of metals caused by a
temperature rise due to a flow of current. In
electromechanical relays, the actuating forces were created by
a combination of the input signals, stored energy in springs,
and dashpots. The plunger-type relays are usually driven by a
single actuating quantity, while the induction-type relays may
be activated by single or multiple inputs.

• A) Plunger type relay:

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 15 The University of Jordan

Electromechanical Relays
• B) Induction-Type Relays:
These relays are based upon the principle of
operation of a single-phase AC motor. As such,
they cannot be used for DC currents. Two
variants of these relays are fairly standard: one
with an induction disc and the other with an
Induction disc
induction cup. In both cases, the moving
element (disc or cup) is equivalent to the rotor
of the induction motor. However, in contrast to
the induction motor, the iron associated with
the rotor in the relay is stationary. The moving
element acts as a carrier of rotor currents,
while the magnetic circuit is completed
through stationary magnetic elements. Induction cup
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 16 The University of Jordan
Solid-State Relays
• The expansion and growing complexity of modern power systems have brought a need for
protective relays with a higher level of performance and more sophisticated characteristics.
This has been made possible by the development of semiconductors and other associated
components that can be utilized in relay designs, generally referred to as solid-state or
static relays. All of the functions and characteristics available with electromechanical
relays can be performed by solid-state devices, either as discrete components or as
integrated circuits.

• There are performance, and perhaps economic, advantages associated with the flexibility
and reduced size of solid-state devices. In general, solid-state relays are more accurate.
Their settings are more repeatable and hold to closer tolerances. Their characteristics can
be shaped by adjusting logic elements as opposed to the fixed characteristics of induction
discs or cups.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 17 The University of Jordan

Solid-State Relays

• Solid-state relays are not affected by vibration or dust, and often require less mounting
space and need not be mounted in a particular orientation. Solid-state relays are designed,
assembled, and tested as a system.

• Solid-state relay circuits may be divided into two categories: analog circuits that are
either fault-sensing or measuring circuits, and digital logic circuits for operation on
logical variables. There is a great variety of circuit arrangements that would produce a
desired relaying characteristic.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 18 The University of Jordan

 Solid-State Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays
• The input current I is passed through the resistive shunt R, full-wave
rectified by the bridge rectifier B, filtered to remove the ripple by the
R–C filter, and applied to a high-gain summing amplifier A. The other
input of the summing amplifier is supplied with an adjustable
reference voltage er.
• When the input on the positive input of the summing amplifier exceeds
the reference setting, the amplifier output goes high, and this step
change is delayed by a time-delay circuit, in order to provide immunity
against spurious transient signals in the input circuit.

Schematic diagram Relay signals and output

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 19 The University of Jordan

 Solid-State Distance (mho) Relays
• The performance equation of the mho relay can be written as:
Z = Zr sin(θ + ϕ)
• Where θ and ϕ are angles defined in electromechanical cup
relay. If we multiply both sides by the current I, and replacing IZ
with E, the voltage at the relay terminals, we will have:
E − IZr sin(θ + ϕ) = 0

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 20 The University of Jordan

 Solid-State Distance (mho) Relays
• The mho characteristic may be visualized as the
boundary of the circle, with all points inside the
circle leading to a trip and all points outside the
circle producing a no-trip – or a block – signal.
The points external to the circle are such that the
phase angle between the phasor E and the
phasor (IZr − E) is greater than 90◦, while for all
the points inside the circle the angle between
those two phasors is less than 90◦. Conversely, if
the angle between (E − IZr) and E is greater than
90◦, the fault is inside the zone of the relay; if this
angle is smaller than 90◦, the fault is outside the
zone.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 21 The University of Jordan

Solid-State Distance (mho) Relays
An analog circuit may be designed to measure the angle
between the two input waveforms corresponding to
those two phasors as shown.

Schematic diagram
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 22 The University of Jordan
Numerical Relays
• With the advent of rugged, high-performance microprocessors, it is obvious that
a digital computer can perform the same function. Since the usual relay inputs
consist of power system voltages and currents, it is necessary to obtain a digital
representation of these parameters. This is done by sampling the analog
signals, and using an appropriate computer algorithm to create suitable digital
representations of the signals. This is done by a digital filter algorithm.

• The current and voltage signals from the power system are processed by signal
conditioners consisting of analog circuits, such as transducers, surge
suppression circuits, and antialiasing filters, before being sampled and
converted to digital form by the analog to digital converter. The sampling clock
provides pulses at sampling frequency.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 23 The University of Jordan

Numerical Relays
Numerical relays features:

• High performance microprocessor.

• Sampling of analog signals.

• Communication abilities.

• Ability to diagnose itself.

• Ability to apply adaptive relaying.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 24 The University of Jordan

Numerical Relays

• RAM: Process and hold the input signals. (Store

them).

• ROM: Relaying algorithm.

• EPROM: Relay settings.

• Surge filters: low pass and anti-aliasing filter.

• Signal Conditioning: convert the current and voltage

signals to values that the relay can deal with.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 25 The University of Jordan

Numerical Relays

• RAM: Process and hold the input signals. (Store

them).

• ROM: Relaying algorithm.

• EPROM: Relay settings.

• Surge filters: low pass and anti-aliasing filter.

• Signal Conditioning: convert the current and voltage

signals to values that the relay can deal with.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 26 The University of Jordan

Control Circuits for Relaying Schemes

• What if the relay contact does not latch?

• What is the purpose of the seal-in coil?

• Why to introduce the CB contact in the control circuit?

• What is function of the trip circuit supervision.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 27 The University of Jordan

Faults in Power Systems
• A power system fault is the breakdown of insulation (between conductors, or between a phase conductor
and ground) which results in excess current flow. It could happen in a cable, transformer, generator, or a
busbar.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 28 The University of Jordan

Types of Faults

• Balanced Faults: 3-Phase Fault (with or without ground) ( possibility: 5%)

• Unbalanced Faults:
• Single phase (Phase-Ground) (possibility: 70%)
• Two phase to ground (Phase-Phase-Ground) (possibility: 15%)
• Two phase (Phase-Phase) (possibility: 10%)

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 29 The University of Jordan

Causes of Faults in Power System
• The causes of faults in Overhead lines are mainly:
• Lightning
• Contaminated Insulators
• Punctured or broken insulators
• Birds and animals
• Ice and snow loading
• Wind

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 30 The University of Jordan

Causes of Faults in Power System
• The causes of faults in Transformers, generators, and Under ground cables are mainly:

• Failure of insulation because of moisture and heat.

• Mechanical damage
• Flashover caused by over-voltages or abnormal loading.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 31 The University of Jordan

Example: Fault Calculation

Source S.C. MVA = 350 Base. MVA = 100

33 kV Line Impedance Assume HIGH X/R
Z=12  resistances are ignored
33 kV/11 kV Transformer Impedance
20 MVA Z=7.7%

Feeder Impedance
Z=5 
11 kV FAULT

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 32 The University of Jordan

Example: Fault Calculation
100 MVA
SOURCE P.U. Z   0.286 pu
350. MVA
12 100 MVA
33 kV Line Z PU  2
 1.1 pu
(33 kV)
7.7% 100 MVA
TRANSFORME R P.U. IMPEDANCE Z PU    0.385 pu
100 20 MVA
100 MVA
11 kV FEEDER P.U. Z  5  2
 4.13 pu
(11 kV)
Total Impedance from Source to FAULT   5.90 pu
100 MVA
3  Phase S.C. MVA at FAULT   16.95 MVA
5.90 pu
16.95 MVA
RMS SYMM. S.C. CURRENT at FAULT   889.6 A
3 11 kV
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 33 The University of Jordan
Circuit Breakers
• A circuit breaker is an equipment that breaks a circuit either manually or automatically
under all conditions at no load, full load or short circuit conditions.
• The CB mainly consists of fixed contact and moving contacts. In normal “on” condition
of CB, these two contacts are physically connected together.
• An arc is struck when contacts are separated. The current is thus able to continue.
• The arc provides the low resistance path to the current and the current in the circuit
remains uninterrupted
• Thus the main duty of a circuit breaker is to extinguish (quench) the arc within the
shortest possible time.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 34 The University of Jordan

Circuit Breakers Tripping Circuit

Equipment

CT RELAY

Trip Coil of
Breaker
CB
Battery

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 35 The University of Jordan

Elements of a Circuit Breakers
• Main Contact
• Insulation between main contacts
• Interruption chamber
• Control, supervisory and auxiliary devices
• Insulating link between control unit and main contact.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 36 The University of Jordan

Circuit Breakers Requirements
• Opens & closes in shortest possible time.
• Conducts rated current.
• Withstands thermally & mechanically any short circuit.
• Maintains its voltage to earth across open contacts.
• Does not create over-voltages during circuit opening

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 37 The University of Jordan

Types of Circuit Breakers

Vacuum Circuit breaker

Oil Circuit Breaker

Air-Blast Circuit breaker SF6 Circuit Breaker

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 38 The University of Jordan

Types of Circuit Breakers
Oil: Oil is vaporized and gas extinguishes arc, old technology (but still existing) –
maintenance is intensive vulnerable to explosion and fire risk.

Air-Blast: Arc chute designed to lengthen arc and then extinguish it, used for high voltage AC
and DC.

SF6: Low maintenance, soft switching, gas disposal issue.

Vacuum: Maintenance free, suitable for < 36kV, hard switching – voltage transients, problem
of monitoring vacuum condition.

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 39 The University of Jordan

Oil Circuit Breakers
• Heat from the arc breaks some oil to form gases mostly hydrogen.
• The high pressure of the gas blows out the arc.
• Cold oil flows onto the arc which is extinguished.
• Used in low and medium voltages up to 110 kV.

Disadvantages:
• It is inflammable and there is a risk of fire.
• It may form an explosive mixture with air.
• It requires maintenance.
• Absorbs moisture, so dielectric strength reduces.
• Oil leakage problem.
• Oil has to be replaced frequently.
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 40 The University of Jordan
Air-Blast Circuit Breakers
• Air is compressed in reservoir up to 14 atmospheric pressure.
• The contact opens and the heat causes the arc to rise towards the arc splitter.
• High compressed air is released and directed towards the arc at high velocity.
• Blowing the arc through the splitters cools and quenches the arc.
• Used for 110 kV and above

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 41 The University of Jordan

 SF6-Gas Circuit Breakers
• SF6-Sulphur Hexafluoride gas is used as an arc quenching medium.
• SF6 is an electro-negative inert insulating gas. It has strong tendency to
absorb electrons.
• When contacts are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas, arc
produced.
• Free electron in the arc are captured by the gas, which build up enough
insulation strength to extinguish arc.
• SF6 circuit breakers are smaller than air-blast breakers.
• Temperature of up to 30,000 K are experienced in breakers.
• It is much effective for high power and high voltages services. SF6
breakers are used from low voltage system and up to 1300 kV (rating
45 GVA). Usually used at 66kV and up.
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 42 The University of Jordan
 Advantages of SF6 Over Oil Circuit Breakers
• Vacuum is used as an arc quenching medium.
• Interruption chamber is vacuumed. No gas ionized to form the arc.
• An arc is formed from the vaporized contact material.
• Have greatest insulating strength.
• 10-7 to 10-5 pressure is to be maintained.
• Widely used in low voltage applications. Used in 11kV indoor panel in control rooms in stations.
• Very small damage to contacts (life up to 30 years).

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 43 The University of Jordan

 Fuses
• The most basic overcurrent protective element within the system.
• Fuses are relatively inexpensive and maintenance-free.
• They are generally used in large numbers on most utility
distribution systems to protect individual transformers and feeder
branches.
• Simple, reliable, economic protection device.
• Combines actions of relays and circuit breakers in one unit.
• A metallic element melts and physically opens a circuit if currents
are high.
• Single action only.
• Has an “inverse time” characteristic (i.e. operates faster the
higher the current)
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 44 The University of Jordan
 Fuse Characteristics
• Each fuse is usually defined by two
characteristic curves (Time-Current
Curves). These curves are called:
• Minimum melting curve (pre- Total clearing
Minimum
arcing): The lowest current that will melting curve
curve

melt the fuse’s fusible element at a

specified time and under specified Total Clearing
Time Curve

conditions. (detection)
• Total clearing curve: The time that
elapses from the initiation of a
Minimum Melting
current that will melt the element to Time Curve

the final interruption of the circuit.

(Interruption)
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 45 The University of Jordan
 Fuse Characteristics
• The fundamental purpose of fuses is to operate on permanent faults and isolate (sectionalize)
the faulted section from the sound portion of the feeder
• Fuses detect overcurrent by melting the fuse element, which generally is made of a metal
such as tin or silver.
• This initiates some sort of arcing action that will lead to the interruption of the current.
• There are two basic types of fuse technologies used in power systems:

 Re-wireable Type – (Fusible wire)

 Cartridges Type Fuse

Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 46 The University of Jordan

 Rewireable Type Fuses
• The fuse carrier is a separate part and can be taken out or
inserted in the base without risk, even without opening the
main switch. If fuse holder or carrier gets damaged during
use, it may be replaced without replacing the complete unit.

• On occurrence of a fault, the fuse element blows off and the

circuit is interrupted. The fuse carrier is pulled out, the
blown out fuse element is replaced by new one and the
supply can is resorted by re-inserting the fuse carrier in the
base.
• Such fuses have the advantage of easy removal or
replacement without any danger of coming into the contact
with a live part and negligible replacement cost.
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 47 The University of Jordan
 Cartridges Type Fuse

• Silver element enclosed in a

barrel of insulating material
(sometimes filled with quartz
sand) and is provided with metal
contacts on both sides. These
fuses are further classified as:

• D- Type Cartridges Fuses .

• Link type Cartridge or High
Rupturing Capacity (HRC)
HRC D- Type
Dr. Mohammed Hajahmed 48 The University of Jordan