Module 21

The Cold War

Essential Question
Did anyone win the Cold War?

About the Photograph: As anti- In this module you will learn about the Cold War, a five-decade struggle
Communist feelings rose in America, for world influence between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Senator Joseph McCarthy became a national
sensation. He charged that Communists
had infiltrated many areas of American life. What You Will Learn . . .
In this photograph, McCathy presents his Lesson 1: The Origins of the Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
The Big Idea  The United States and the Soviet Union emerged from
claims to a U.S. Senate subcommittee.
World War II as two “superpowers” with vastly different political and
economic systems.
Explore ONLINE! Lesson 2: The Cold War Heats Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
VIDEOS, including... The Big Idea  After World War II, China became a Communist nation
and Korea was split into a Communist north and a democratic south.
• Superpower
Lesson 3: The Cold War at Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
• The Firing of MacArthur
The Big Idea  During the late 1940s and early 1950s, fear of
• Fear of Communism at Home communism led to reckless charges against innocent citizens.
• The Arms Race Lesson 4: Two Nations Live on the Edge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
• U-2 Spy Plane Shot Down The Big Idea  During the 1950s the United States and the Soviet
• Bay of Pigs Declassified Union came to the brink of nuclear war.
• Cuban Missile Crisis Lesson 5: Mounting Tensions in the Sixties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
The Big Idea  The Kennedy administration faced some of the most
Document-Based Investigations dangerous Soviet confrontations in American history.
Lesson 6: The End of the Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Graphic Organizers The Big Idea  Changes in foreign policy beginning with the Nixon
administration gradually led to an easing of U.S.-Soviet tensions and
Interactive Games an end to the Cold War.
Causes and Effects of McCarthyism
Image with Hotspots: The Moon
Landing

910 Module 21
 Timeline of Events 1944–1992 Explore ONLINE!

United States Events World Events

1944
1945  The United Nations is established.

1948  The state of Israel is created

by the United Nations.
1949  The United States joins NATO. 1949  China becomes Communist under Mao Zedong.
1950  The first American troops arrive in Korea. 1950  The Korean War begins.

1954  Senator Joseph McCarthy alleges

Communist involvement in the U.S. Army.

1957  The Soviet Union

launches Sputnik.
1960  Francis Gary Powers’s U-2 spy
plane is shot down by the Soviets.

1962  The United States and the Soviet

Union face off in the Cuban missile crisis.

1966  U.S. troops enter Vietnam.

1968  Warsaw Pact troops invade Czechoslovakia.

1969  U.S. astronauts
land on the moon.

1972  President Nixon

visits China and the
Soviet Union.
1975  Angola declares its independence from Portugal.

1985  Mikhail Gorbachev becomes

leader of the Soviet Union.
1987  President Reagan and Soviet leader
Mikhail Gorbachev sign the Intermediate-Range
Nuclear Forces Treaty. 1989  Germans dismantle the Berlin Wall.

1991  The Soviet Union breaks apart.

1992

The Cold War 911

 Lesson 1

The Origins of the Cold War

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
Seventy miles south of Berlin, Joseph Polowsky and a patrol of
The United States and the Soviet
American soldiers were scouting for signs of the Soviet army advanc-
Union emerged from World War II
ing from the east. As the soldiers neared the Elbe River, they saw
as two “superpowers” with vastly
different political and economic lilacs in bloom. Polowsky later said the sight of the flowers filled
systems. them with joy.

Why It Matters Now

Across the Elbe, the Americans spotted Soviet soldiers, who signaled
After World War II, differences
for them to cross over. When the Americans reached the opposite
between the United States and
bank, their joy turned to shock. They saw to their horror that the
the Soviet Union led to a Cold
War that lasted almost to the bank was covered with dead civilians, victims of bombing raids.
21st century.
Key Terms and People “Here we are, tremendously
Harry S. Truman exhilarated, and there’s
satellite nation a sea of dead. . . . [The
iron curtain
platoon leader] was much
moved. . . . He said, ‘Joe,
Cold War
let’s make a resolution with
containment
these Russians here and
Central Intelligence Agency also the ones on the bank:
(CIA)
this would be an important
Truman Doctrine day in the lives of the two American
Marshall Plan countries.’ . . . It was a sol- and Soviet
soldiers meet
Berlin airlift emn moment. There were at the Elbe River in Germany
North Atlantic Treaty tears in the eyes of most of near the end of World War II. A 1996
Organization (NATO) us. . . . We embraced. We postage stamp commemorates the
historic meeting.
swore never to forget.”
—Joseph Polowsky, quoted in
The Good War

The Soviet and U.S. soldiers believed that their encounter would serve
as a symbol of peace. Unfortunately, such hopes were soon dashed.
After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged
as rival superpowers. Each was strong enough to greatly influence
world events.

912 Module 21
Former Allies Clash
At the end of World War II, many once-powerful countries in Europe were
devastated militarily and economically. In the wake of this destruction,
the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the world’s two lead-
ing nations. They were superpowers with the might and influence to shape
world events. However, the two former allies had very different ambi-
tions for the future. These differences created a climate of icy tension that
plunged the two countries into a bitter rivalry.
POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DIFFERENCES  The U.S.-Soviet rivalry
stemmed in large part from deep-rooted ideological differences. The two
countries represented opposite ends of the political spectrum. In the Ameri-
can democratic system, the people voted to elect a president and a Congress
from competing political parties. In the Soviet Union, the Communist Party
had removed the czar by force. In his place, it had established a totalitarian
government in which no opposing parties were allowed to exist. The Soviets
were deeply resentful that the United States had not recognized their Com-
munist government until 16 years after the revolution.
Economically, too, the countries were ideological opposites. Under Soviet
communism, the state controlled all property and all economic activity.
Individuals were expected to work only for the betterment of the country as
a whole. In the American capitalist system, citizens and corporations drove
almost all economic activity. Individuals had the right to work as they chose
and to potentially become wealthy through their own efforts.
WARTIME TENSIONS  Events during World War II widened the gap
between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States was
furious that Joseph Stalin—the leader of the Soviet Union—had been an
ally of Hitler for a time. Stalin had supported the Allies only after Hitler
invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. In return, Stalin resented the
Western Allies’ delay in attacking the Germans in Europe. Such an attack,
he thought, would have drawn part of the German army away from the
Soviet Union.
Relations worsened after Stalin learned that the United States had kept
its development of the atomic bomb secret. This revelation came at one of a
series of conferences held by the Allied leaders during the last year of World
War II. The goal of the conferences was to promote cooperation among the
Allies. Instead of cooperation, they resulted in increased tension between
President Harry S. Truman and Stalin. The American nuclear secret was
only the beginning of the growing problem.
Much of the new tension stemmed from Stalin’s refusal to allow democ-
racy in Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe. At the Yalta Conference in
January 1945, Stalin had agreed to allow free elections after the war. By the
time of the Potsdam Conference six months later, however, he had backed
off from his promise. The Soviet government banned democratic parties in
countries under its control and arrested non-Communist leaders. Truman
had hoped to spread democracy into areas that had been under Nazi control.
He viewed Stalin’s actions as intolerable.

The Cold War 913

 BIOGRAPHY

Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) Joseph Stalin (1879–1953)

Harry S. Truman, the son of a Missouri livestock As a young revolutionary, Iosif Vissarionovich
trader, did not seem destined for greatness. When Dzhugashvili took the name Stalin, which means
he graduated from high school in 1901, he drifted “man of steel” in Russian. His father was a failed
from job to job. After World War I, he invested in a shoemaker and an alcoholic. His mother helped
men’s clothing store, but the business failed. support the family by washing clothes.

Discouraged by his business failure, Truman Stalin is credited with turning the Soviet Union
sought a career in politics. As a politician, his into a world power but at a terrible cost to its
blunt and outspoken style won both loyal friends citizens. He ruled with terror and brutality and saw
and bitter enemies. As president, his decisiveness enemies everywhere, even among friends and
and willingness to accept responsibility for his supporters. He subdued the population with the
decisions (“The Buck Stops Here” read a sign on use of secret police and labor camps, and he is
his desk) earned him respect that has grown over believed to have been responsible for the murder
the years. of millions of Soviets.

In addition to spreading political freedom, Truman also felt that the United
States had a large economic stake in spreading democracy and free trade
across the globe. U.S. industry boomed during the war, making the United
States the economic leader of the world. To continue growing, American busi-
nesses wanted access to raw materials in Eastern Europe. They also wanted to
be able to sell goods to Eastern European countries.
SOVIETS TIGHTEN THEIR GRIP ON EASTERN EUROPE  Like the United
States, the Soviet Union had emerged from the war as a nation of enormous
economic and military strength. However, unlike the United States, the Soviet
Union had suffered heavy devastation on its own soil. Soviet deaths from the
war have been estimated at 20 million, half of them civilians. As a result, the
Soviets felt justified in laying claim to Eastern Europe. By dominating this
region, the Soviets felt they could stop future invasions from the west. Sta-
lin installed Communist governments in Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Romania, and Poland. These countries became known as satellite
nations, countries dependent upon and dominated by the Soviets.
In a 1946 speech, Stalin announced that communism and capitalism were
incompatible—and that another war was inevitable. Therefore, he said, the
Soviet Union would concentrate on producing weapons rather than consumer
goods. The United States interpreted this speech as a direct challenge.

914 Module 21
 As tensions mounted, Europe found itself divided into two political and
economic regions. One was the mostly democratic and capitalist West-
ern Europe. The other was Communist Eastern Europe. In March 1946
Winston Churchill traveled to the United States. He gave a speech that
described the situation in Europe.

“A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied vic-
tory. . . . From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron
curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all
the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe . . . .
All these famous cities and the populations around them lie in . . .
the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only
to Soviet influence but to a very high and . . . increasing measure
of control from Moscow.”
—Winston Churchill, from “Iron Curtain” speech in Fulton, Missouri, 1946

The phrase “iron curtain” came to stand for the division of Europe.
When Stalin heard about the speech, he declared Churchill’s words a
“call to war.”

Explore ONLINE!
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The Cold War 915
The Cold War, 1949
 CONFLICT IN THE UNITED NATIONS  Wars like the one Stalin predicted
were supposed to be prevented by the United Nations (UN). That organiza-
tion had been established in the closing years of World War II to prevent
conflict. In theory, the UN gave countries a forum in which to discuss and
peacefully resolve disputes. In practice, however, the UN became another
sort of battleground in which opposing nations could face off.
The unexpected tensions within the United Nations originated in part
from its structure. The UN charter established a General Assembly, in
which every member nation has a voice, and several councils. One of these
councils, the Security Council, is charged with maintaining global peace
and security. It was originally made up of 11 nations—later expanded
to 15. Five of these nations have permanent membership. China, France,
the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States are the per-
manent members. Each has the power to veto the discussion of any issue
brought before the council.
This veto power initially proved counterproductive to the Security
Council’s mission. The Soviet Union in particular used its veto to head off
discussion on any issue that it felt could hinder the spread of communism
or increase support for its opponents. By the end of 1947, the Soviets had
blocked discussion of more than 20 issues brought before the council. The
issues ranged from complaints about Soviet activity in Eastern Europe to
applications from Western European countries to join the UN. No other
member of the Security Council used a single veto during that period.
Reading Check 
Analyze Causes  Over the next few decades, the veto stalemate continued in the UN.
What caused the Although increasing tension between the United States and the Soviet
tension between the Union threatened to lead to war in hotspots around the world, the UN
Soviet Union and
the United States was kept from intervening. UN assistance was limited largely to conflicts
after the war? unrelated to U.S.-Soviet tension.

U.S. Aims Versus Soviet Aims in Europe

The United States wanted to . . . The Soviet Union wanted to . . .
• Create a new world order in which all • Encourage communism in other countries
nations had the right of self-determination as part of the worldwide struggle between
• Gain access to raw materials and markets workers and the wealthy
for its industries • Rebuild its war-ravaged economy using
• Rebuild European governments to ensure Eastern Europe’s industrial equipment and
stability and to create new markets for raw materials
American goods • Control Eastern Europe to balance U.S.
• Reunite Germany, believing that Europe influence in Western Europe
would be more secure if Germany were • Keep Germany divided and weak so that
productive it would never again threaten the Soviet
Union

Interpret Tables
1. Which aims involved economic growth of the United States?
2. Which Soviet aims involved self-protection?

916 Module 21
New Foreign Policies
The conflicting U.S. and Soviet aims in Eastern Europe led to the Cold
War. This was a conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union
in which neither nation directly confronted the other on the battlefield.
The Cold War would dominate global affairs—and U.S. foreign policy—
from 1945 until the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.
UNITED STATES ESTABLISHES A POLICY OF CONTAINMENT  Faced
with the Soviet threat, American officials decided it was time, in Tru-
man’s words, to stop “babying the Soviets.” This changed stance toward
the Soviet Union required the development of a new foreign policy. In
February 1946 George F. Kennan, an American diplomat in Moscow,
proposed a policy he called containment. By containment, he meant
taking measures to prevent any extension of Communist rule to other
countries. In Kennan’s plan, such measures would mostly include diplo-
matic outreach and financial assistance to countries to help them resist
Soviet influence.
Under the containment policy, assistance generally first went to coun-
tries near existing Communist states, where Communist influence was
likely to be strongest. As a result, Western Europe was the first region to
receive U.S. aid. This was a result of fears that communism would creep
into the area from Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe. Billions of dollars
in loans and material assistance flowed across the Atlantic into Western
Europe.
As time passed, however, the containment policy came to depend more
on military intervention than on purely financial assistance. When the
Soviet Union also began sending aid to its allies and exerting influence in
various parts of the world, the United States reacted. American troops and
funds went to Asia, Africa, Latin America, and elsewhere in hopes of keep-
ing communism in check.

American and Soviet Uses of Force

Number of Uses
United States Soviet Union
Location 1946–1975 1946–1979

Latin America 61 5
Western Europe 20 36
Eastern Europe 26 56
Middle East/North Africa 39 36
Sub-Saharan Africa/South Asia 11 15
Southeast/East Asia 61 42

Totals 218 190

Interpret Tables
Based on this table, how did proximity influence American and Soviet military
activity?

The Cold War 917

 The idea of containment began to guide the Truman administration’s
foreign policy. Naturally, this placed the United States directly in opposi-
tion to the Soviet Union on the world stage. Several times over the next
few decades, the United States intervened in conflicts around the globe in
support of those who sought to keep Communists out of their homelands.
In addition, the country would pour billions of dollars of economic aid into
building up and supporting democratic governments. All of these efforts
were focused on stopping the advance of communism.
UNITED STATES CREATES AN INTELLIGENCE COMMUNITY  Increas-
ingly complex foreign relations during the Cold War required the United
States to develop a more complex bureaucracy. In particular, the country
needed more intelligence-gathering organizations. These organizations
would collect information about Communist activity, both in Europe
and at home. The core of this new bureaucracy was formed in 1947 when
President Truman signed the National Security Act.
The 1947 act created two new intelligence agencies to help the
president formulate the country’s foreign policy and to prevent future
surprises like the attack on Pearl Harbor. The National Security Council
(NSC) was created as a coordinating agency. It sorted through reports
and diplomatic dispatches to identify potential national security con-
cerns. Its members included the president, vice-president, secretary of
state, and others. They met regularly to address both immediate and
long-term issues. The act also established the Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA). The CIA gathered intelligence from the military and the
state department. It also performed covert, or secret, operations in
foreign countries.
Reading Check  In addition to creating an intelligence community, the National Security
Analyze Motives 
What was Truman’s Act reorganized the U.S. military. The goal was to streamline military deci-
goal in establishing sion making. Three existing departments—the War Department, Navy
the policy of Department, and Department of the Air Force—were combined into the
containment and
creating new new Department of Defense. Each branch of the military still had its own
intelligence agencies? secretary, but the new secretary of defense oversaw all of them.

Efforts to Rebuild Europe

Truman’s new containment policy was tested almost immediately in
Europe. The heavy destruction caused by World War II had left much of
the continent in financial ruin. Economic devastation led to political insta-
bility and talk of revolution in some countries. Truman and his advisers
feared that these circumstances could lead to increased Soviet influence
and the establishment of new Communist regimes.
THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE  The United States first tried to contain Soviet
influence in Greece and Turkey. For years, Britain had been financially
supporting both nations’ resistance to growing Communist influence in
the region. However, Britain’s economy had been badly hurt by the war.
The formerly wealthy nation could no longer afford to give aid. It asked the
United States to take over the responsibility.

918 Module 21
 President Truman accepted the challenge. On March 12, 1947, Truman
asked Congress for $400 million in economic and military aid for Greece and
Turkey. In his statement, he expressed what became known as the Truman
Doctrine. He declared that the United States would be supporting people
around the world who were fighting against outside forces trying to take
over their governments. Congress agreed with Truman. It decided that the
doctrine was essential to keep Soviet political and economic influence from
spreading. Between 1947 and 1950, the United States sent $400 million in
aid to Turkey and Greece. This greatly reduced the danger of Communist
Vocabulary  subjugation in those nations.
subjugation 
bringing under control THE MARSHALL PLAN  Like post-war Greece, Western Europe was in chaos.
Most of its factories had been bombed or looted. Millions of people were liv-
ing in refugee camps while European governments tried to figure out where
to resettle them. To make matters worse, the winter of 1946–1947 was the
bitterest in several centuries. The weather severely damaged crops and froze
rivers, cutting off water transportation and causing a fuel shortage.

The Marshall Plan

Great Britain 2,826
France 2,445
Italy 1,316
West Germany 1,297
Holland 877
Austria 561
Belgium/Lux. 547
Greece 515
Denmark 257
Norway 237
Turkey 153
Ireland 146
Sweden 119
Portugal 51
Yugoslavia 33
Iceland 29
Other 350
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
U.S. Aid (in millions of dollars)
Source: Problemes Economiques, No. 306

Interpret Graphs
1. Which two countries received the most aid?
2. Why do you think these countries received so
much aid?

The Cold War 919

 Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

The Truman Doctrine

In a 1947 speech to Congress, President Truman announced a significant change in U.S. foreign policy.
With isolation no longer feasible and communism posing a threat around the world, Truman explained
why he supported taking action to contain Soviet influence.

“I believe that it must be the policy of the United essential to economic stability and orderly
States to support free peoples who are resisting political processes. . . .
attempted subjugation by armed minorities or
by outside pressures. Collapse of free institutions and loss of
independence would be disastrous not only
I believe that we must assist free peoples to for them but for the world. Discouragement
work out their own destinies in their and possibly failure would quickly be the lot of
own way. neighboring peoples striving to maintain their
freedom and independence. . . .”
I believe that our help should be primarily —Harry S. Truman, from a speech to a joint session of
through economic and financial aid which is Congress, March 12, 1947

Analyze Historical Sources

How does Truman intend to help other countries resist Communist influence?

Background In June 1947 Secretary of State George Marshall proposed that the
The Marshall Plan also United States provide aid to all European nations that needed it. He said
benefited America.
U.S. farm and factory that this move was directed “not against any country or doctrine but
production increased against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos.” The Marshall Plan
to supply Europe with
goods, and the wartime revived European hopes. Over the next four years, 16 countries received
economic boom some $13 billion in aid. Marshall’s original plan even offered assistance
continued.
to the Soviet Union and its allies. Stalin, however, refused to accept any
assistance from the United States.
Reading Check By 1952 Western Europe was flourishing, and the Communist Party had
Summarize lost much of its appeal to voters. In addition, the economic aid had helped
What was the U.S. the United States build strong alliances with the nations of Western
response to tensions
with the Soviets in the Europe. These alliances would prove valuable in the coming years as the
late 1940s? struggle against communism continued.

Superpowers Struggle over Germany

As Europe began to get back on its feet, the United States and its allies clashed
with the Soviet Union over the issue of German reunification. At the Potsdam
Conference near the end of World War II, Allied leaders agreed to leave
Germany divided into four zones occupied by the United States, Great Britain,
and France in the west and the Soviet Union in the east. In 1948 Britain,

920 Module 21
France, and the United States decided to combine their three zones into one
nation. The western part of Berlin, which had been occupied by the French,
British, and Americans, was surrounded by Soviet-occupied territory.
Although the three nations had a legal right to unify their zones, they had
no written agreement with the Soviets guaranteeing free access to Berlin.
Stalin saw this loophole as an opportunity. If he moved quickly, he might be
able to take over the part of Berlin held by the three Western ­powers. In June
1948 Stalin closed all highway and rail routes into West Berlin. As a result, no
food or fuel could reach that part of the city. The 2.1 million residents of the
city had only enough food to last for approximately five weeks.
THE BERLIN AIRLIFT  The resulting situation was dire. In an attempt to break
the blockade, American and British officials started the Berlin ­airlift to fly
food and supplies into West Berlin. For 327 days, planes took off and landed
every few minutes, around the clock. In 277,000 flights, they brought in 2.3
million tons of supplies—everything from food, fuel, and medicine to Christ-
mas presents that the planes’ crews bought with their own money.
West Berlin survived because of the airlift. In addition, the mission to aid
Berlin boosted American prestige around the world, while causing Soviet pres-
tige to drop. By May 1949 the Soviet Union realized it was beaten and lifted
the blockade.
In the same month, the western part of Germany officially became a
new nation, the Federal Republic of Germany, also called West Germany. It
included West Berlin. A few months later, from its occupation zone, the Soviet
Union created the German Democratic Republic, called East ­Germany. It
included East Berlin.

Beginning in June 1948 planes

bringing tons of food and other
supplies to West Berlin landed
every few minutes.

The Cold War 921

 THE NATO ALLIANCE  The Berlin blockade
increased Western European fear of Soviet
aggression. As a result, ten Western European
nations—Belgium, Denmark, France, Great
Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Neth-
erlands, Norway, and Portugal—joined with
the United States and Canada on April 4, 1949,
to form a defensive military alliance called the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
The 12 members of NATO pledged military
support to one another in case any member
was attacked. By signing the North Atlantic
Treaty, the United States also pledged to help
the countries of Western Europe rebuild their
defense capabilities. In the year following the
creation of NATO, Congress authorized more
than $1 billion to help restore European mili-
tary power.
This cartoon depicts the nations that signed the North Atlantic For the first time in its history, the United
Pact, which created NATO in 1949. The nations, shown as hats,
are arranged in a pyramid to show the bigger countries on the
States had entered into a military alliance with
bottom supporting the smaller, weaker nations on top. other nations during peacetime. The Cold War
had ended any hope of a return to U.S. iso-
lationism. Greece and Turkey joined NATO in 1952, and West Germany
Reading Check  joined in 1955. By then, NATO kept a standing military force of more
Analyze Effects 
What were the effects than 500,000 troops as well as thousands of planes, tanks, and other
of the Berlin airlift? equipment.

Lesson 1 Assessment

1. Organize Information  3. Evaluate  People who had served as aides to President

Use a table to describe the U.S. actions and the Soviet Franklin Roosevelt worried that Truman was not
actions that contributed most to the Cold War. qualified to handle world leadership. Considering what
U.S. Actions Soviet you learned in this section, evaluate Truman as a world
Actions leader.
Think About:
• his behavior toward Stalin
• his economic support of European nations
Write a paragraph explaining which country was more
• his support of West Berlin
responsible for increased tension and why you think so.
4. Make Inferences  Which of the two superpowers do
2. Key Terms and People  For each key term or person in
you think was more successful in achieving its aims
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
during the period 1945–1949? Support your answer by
referring to historical events.
5. Analyze Motives  What were Stalin’s motives in
supporting Communist governments in Eastern Europe?
6. Summarize  What steps did the United States take to
help rebuild Western Europe after the war?

922 Module 21
 Lesson 2

The Cold War Heats Up

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
First Lieutenant Philip Day Jr. vividly remembers his first taste of
After World War II, China became
battle in Korea. On the morning of July 5, 1950, Philip Day spotted a
a Communist nation and Korea
column of eight enemy tanks moving toward his company.
was split into a Communist
north and a democratic south.
“I was with a
Why It Matters Now
75-mm recoilless-
Ongoing tensions with China
rifle team. ‘Let’s
and North Korea continue to
involve the United States.
see,’ I shouted, ‘if
we can get one of
Key Terms and People those tanks.’ We
Chiang Kai-shek picked up the gun
Mao Zedong and moved it to
Taiwan where we could
38th parallel get a clean shot.
Korean War I don't know if
we were poorly
trained, . . . but we
set the gun on the
American soldiers in Korea, November 1950
forward slope of
the hill. When we fired, the recoilless blast blew a hole in the
hill which instantly covered us in mud and dirt. . . . When we
were ready again, we moved the gun to a better position and
began banging away. I swear we had some hits, but the tanks
never slowed down. . . . In a little less than two hours, 30
North Korean tanks rolled through the position we were sup-
posed to block as if we hadn’t been there.”
—Philip Day Jr., quoted in The Korean War:
Pusan to Chosin

Only five years after World War II ended, the United States became
embroiled in a war in Korea. The policy of containment had led the
United States into battle to halt Communist expansion. In this con-
flict, however, the enemy was not the Soviet Union, but North Korea
and China.

The Cold War 923

 China Becomes a Communist Country
American involvement in Korea grew out of events that took place during
World War II and the early years of the Cold War. For more than a decade
before the war, Chinese Communists had struggled against the national-
ist government of Chiang Kai-shek (chăngʹ kī´shĕkʹ). When the Japanese
invaded China in 1937, though, the two sides temporarily interrupted their
civil war and joined in the common cause against the invader. The Commu-
nists led the struggle in the north. The Nationalists under Chiang fought in
the south. The United States supported Chiang.
CHINA UNDER CHIANG  Many Americans were impressed by Chiang
Kai-shek and admired the courage and determination that the National-
ists showed resisting the Japanese. However, U.S. officials who dealt with
Chiang held a different view. They found his government inefficient and
hopelessly corrupt. They noted that his policies actually weakened support
for his own party. For example, the Nationalists collected a grain tax from
farmers even during the famine of 1944. When city dwellers demonstrated
against a 10,000 percent increase in the price of rice, Chiang’s secret police
opened fire on them.
In contrast, the Communists, led by Mao Zedong (mouʹ dzŭʹdŏngʹ),
gained strength throughout the country. In the areas they controlled,
Communists worked to win peasant support. They encouraged peasants to
learn to read, and they helped to improve food production. As a result, more
and more recruits flocked to the Communists’ Red Army. By 1945 much of
northern China was under Communist control.
RENEWED CIVIL WAR  As soon as the defeated Japanese left China at the
end of World War II, cooperation between the Nationalists and the Commu-
nists ceased. Civil war erupted again between the two groups. In spite of the
problems in the Nationalist regime, American policy favored the National-
ists because they opposed communism.
From 1944 to 1947 the United States played peacemaker between the
two groups while still supporting the Nationalists. However, U.S. officials
repeatedly failed to negotiate peace. Truman also refused to commit Ameri-
can soldiers to back up the Nationalists, although the United States did send
$2 billion worth of military equipment and supplies.
The aid wasn’t enough to save the Nationalists, whose weak military
leadership and corrupt, abusive practices drove many peasants to the Com-
munist side. In May 1949 Chiang and the remnants of his demoralized
government fled to the island of Taiwan, which Westerners called Formosa.
There, about 100 miles from the Chinese mainland, the United States
helped set up a Nationalist government—the Republic of China. From 1949
through the 1960s, the United States poured millions of dollars of aid into
the Taiwanese economy. However, Chiang had not attained his goal. After
more than 20 years of struggle, the Communists ruled all of mainland
China. They established a new government, the People’s Republic of China,
which the United States refused to accept as China’s true government.

924 Module 21
Nationalists Versus Communists, 1945
Chiang Kai-shek, Mao Zedong,
Leader of the Nationalists Leader of the Communists

• Ruled in southern and eastern China • Ruled in northern China

• Relied heavily on aid from United States • Relied heavily on financial aid from Soviet Union
• Struggled with inflation and a failing economy • Attracted peasants with promises of land reform
• Suffered from weak leadership and poor morale • Benefited from experienced guerrilla army and a highly
motivated leadership

AMERICA REACTS TO THE COMMUNIST TAKEOVER  The American public

was stunned that China had become Communist. Containment had failed.
In Congress, conservative Republicans and Democrats attacked the Tru-
man administration for supplying only limited aid to Chiang. If containing
communism was important in Europe, they asked, why was it not equally
important in Asia?
The State Department replied by saying that what had happened in
China was a result of internal forces. The United States had failed in its
attempts to influence these forces, such as Chiang’s inability to retain the
support of his people. Trying to do more would only have started a war in
Asia—a war that the United States wasn’t prepared to fight.
Some conservatives in Congress rejected this argument as a lame
Reading Check excuse. They claimed that the American government was riddled with
Analyze Causes Communist agents. Like wildfire, American fear of communism began to
What factors led
to the Communist burn out of control, and the flames were fanned even further by events in
takeover in China? Korea the following year.

The Korean War

As part of its imperialist expansion, Japan had taken over Korea in 1910.
During World War II, some 300,000 Japanese troops had occupied the
Korean peninsula, and millions of Koreans were forced into military ser-
vice or into hard labor. When the war ended in 1945, Japanese troops in
northern Korea, north of the 38th parallel (38° N latitude), surrendered
to the Soviets. Japanese troops south of the parallel surrendered to the
Americans. As in Germany, two nations developed, one Communist and
one democratic.

The Cold War 925

 TWO NATIONS  In 1948 the Republic of Korea, usually called South Korea,
was established in the zone that had been occupied by the United States.
Its government, headed by Syngman Rhee, was based in Seoul, Korea’s
traditional capital. Simultaneously, the Communists formed the Demo-
cratic People’s Republic of Korea in the north. Kim Il Sung led its govern-
ment, which was based in Pyongyang. Both Kim and Rhee were devoted
Nationalists who wanted to reunite the two halves of Korea. However, they
strongly disagreed about how the unified country should be governed.
By 1949, under a UN agreement, both the United States and the Soviet
Union had withdrawn their troops from Korea, although both nations left
advisers in place. Negotiations intended to reunite the peninsula went
nowhere, leaving the two new nations glaring at each other across the 38th
parallel. Each government claimed the sole right to rule all of Korea.
South Korean
president Syngman
NORTH KOREA ATTACKS SOUTH KOREA  On June 25, 1950, North
Rhee (center, wearing Korean forces swept across the 38th parallel in a surprise attack on South
a suit) meets with U.S. Korea. Supported by money and materials from the Soviet Union, the
General James Van
Fleet in 1952.
North Koreans intended to take control of all of Korea through one quick
strike. The conflict that followed became known as the Korean War.
Within a few days, North Korean troops had penetrated deep into South
Korea. South Korea called on the United Nations to stop the North Korean
invasion. When the matter came to a vote in the UN Security
ANOTHER PERSPECTIVE Council, the Soviet Union was not there. The Soviets were
India’s Viewpoint boycotting the council in protest over the UN’s decision to
recognize the Nationalist government in Taiwan rather than
Nonaligned nations such as India
Communist China. Thus, the Soviets could not veto the UN’s
were on neither side of the Cold War
and had their own perspectives. In plan of military action. In their absence, the United States
1951 the prime minister of India, pushed for intervention on behalf of South Korea. American
Jawaharlal Nehru, had this to say leaders feared that allowing communism to spread in the south
about the Korean War: would pose a threat to the free world and its security. The vote
passed.
“This great struggle between the On June 27, in a show of military strength, President Tru-
United States and Soviet Russia is man ordered troops stationed in Japan to support the South
hardly the proper role in this world
Koreans. He also sent an American fleet into the waters
for those great powers. . . . Their
role should be to function in their
between Taiwan and China. According to the Constitution,
own territories and not be a threat however, the power to declare war lies with the legislative
to others.” branch, and Congress never voted to declare war in Korea.
Therefore, Truman’s critics cried that he had overstepped his
constitutional authority by sending troops to Asia. Truman countered that
he was acting in response to a call for action by the United Nations, which
he claimed lay within his powers as Commander in Chief. As a result, the
United States was never officially at war in Korea, but instead was involved
Reading Check 
in a United Nations “police action.”
Analyze Events  In all, 16 nations sent some 520,000 troops to aid South Korea. Over 90
How did Korea percent of these troops were American. South Korean troops numbered an
become a divided
nation after World additional 590,000. The combined forces were placed under the command
War II? of General Douglas MacArthur, former World War II hero in the Pacific.

926 Module 21
 The United States Fights in Korea
At first, North Korea seemed unstoppable. Driving steadily south, its
troops captured Seoul. After a month of bitter combat, the North Kore-
ans had forced UN and South Korean troops into a small defensive zone
around Pusan in the southeastern corner of the peninsula.
MACARTHUR’S COUNTERATTACK  To stop the North Korean advance,
MacArthur launched a counterattack with tanks, heavy artillery, and fresh
troops from the United States. On September 15, 1950, his troops made a
Vocabulary  surprise amphibious landing behind enemy lines at Inchon, on Korea’s west
amphibious  capable coast. Other troops moved north from Pusan. Trapped between the two
of traveling both on
land and on water attacking forces, about half of the North Korean troops surrendered; the rest
fled back across the 38th parallel. MacArthur’s plan had saved his army from
almost certain defeat. His brilliant strategy and phenomenal success—both
in Korea and in World War II—made him a hero to the American public.
The UN army chased the retreating North Korean troops across the
38th parallel into North Korea. In late November, UN troops approached
the Yalu River, the border between North Korea and China. It seemed as if
Korea was about to become a single country again.
THE CHINESE FIGHT BACK  The Chinese, however, had other ideas. Com-
munist China’s foreign minister, Zhou Enlai, warned that his country
would not stand idly by and “let the Americans come to the border”—
meaning the Yalu River, the boundary between North Korea and China.
In late November 1950, 300,000 Chinese troops joined the war on the
side of North Korea. The Chinese wanted North Korea as a Communist
buffer state to protect the northeastern region of Manchuria. They also
felt threatened by the American fleet that lay off their coast. The fight
between North Korea and South Korea had escalated into a war in which
the main opponents were the Chinese Communists and the Americans.

American paratroopers
comb through a
village in North Korea
on October 20, 1950,
during the Korean War.

The Cold War 927

 By sheer force of numbers, the Chinese quickly drove the UN troops
southward. At some points along the battlefront, the Chinese outnum-
bered UN forces ten to one. By early January 1951 all UN and
South Korean troops had been pushed out of North Korea. The
Chinese advanced to the south, once again capturing the South
Korean capital, Seoul. “We face an entirely new war,” declared
MacArthur.
For two years, the two sides fought bitterly to obtain stra-
tegic positions in the Korean hills, but neither side was able
to make important advances. One officer remembered the
standoff.

“Our trenches . . . were only about 20 meters in front of

theirs. We were eyeball to eyeball. . . . We couldn’t move at
all in the daytime without getting shot at. Machine-gun fire
would come in, grenades, small- arms fire, all from within
spitting distance. It was like World War I. We lived in a maze
of bunkers and deep trenches. . . . There were bodies strewn
all over the place. Hundreds of bodies frozen in the snow.”
—Beverly Scott, quoted in No Bugles, No Drums:
Beverly Scott An Oral History of the Korean War

MACARTHUR RECOMMENDS ATTACKING CHINA  To halt the bloody

stalemate, in early 1951 MacArthur called for an extension of the war
into China. Convinced that Korea was the place “where the Communist
Vocabulary  conspirators have elected to make their play for global conquest,”
conspirator  a MacArthur called for a blockade of the Chinese coast and the use of
person who takes part
in secretly planning nuclear weapons. He also wanted to use Chiang Kai-shek’s troops to
something unlawful invade southern China.
Truman rejected MacArthur’s request. The president did not want the
United States involved in a massive land war in Asia. He preferred to fight
a limited war, focusing only on containing Communist forces, not destroy-
ing communism outright. Plus, the Soviet Union had a mutual-assistance
pact with China. Attacking China could set off World War III. As General
Omar N. Bradley, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said, an all-out
conflict with China would be “the wrong war, at the wrong place, at the
wrong time, and with the wrong enemy.”
Instead of attacking China, the UN and South Korean forces began to
advance once more, using the U.S. Eighth Army, led by Matthew B. Ridg-
way, as a spearhead. By April 1951 Ridgway had retaken Seoul and had
moved back up to the 38th parallel. The situation was just what it had
been before the fighting began.
MACARTHUR VERSUS TRUMAN  Not satisfied with the recapture of South
Korea, MacArthur continued to urge the waging of a full-scale war against
China. Certain that his views were correct, MacArthur tried to go over the
president’s head. He spoke and wrote privately to newspaper and magazine
publishers and, especially, to Republican leaders.

928 Module 21
 Explore ONLINE!
The Korean War, 1950–1953

0 100 200 mi SOVIET

UNION
0 100 200 km

[Link], Inc.

McDougal-Littell, The Americas Program

BookR/Unit 5/Chapter 18 - arpe-0518s2-10-e
The War in Korea June 1950 
North Korean troops
Vital Information Area (per page):8p wide X 4p deep invade South Korea
Mask Area (per page):8p wide x 4p deep and capture the
In-house McDougal edit: 6/14/01 capital, Seoul.

42°N
C H I N A

Sea of
Japan
r
ve September 1950 
Ri (East Sea) North Koreans push
South Koreans and UN
NORTH
lu

Truce Line, 1953  troops south to the

Ya

KOREA (present-day boundary) perimeter of Pusan.

Pyongyang
PACIFIC
38th Pa
rallel OCEAN
Panmunjom
Seoul September to
October 1950 
Inchon UN troops under
MacArthur land at
Yellow Inchon and move
Sea SOUTH north from Pusan.
This two-pronged
KOREA attack drives the North
Koreans out of South
Korea. UN troops then
continue into North
Pusan
Korea, take Pyongyang,
N and advance to the
Yalu River.
E
W

November 1950 to
January 1951 
The Chinese intervene
and force UN troops to
128°E retreat across the 38th
parallel.

Interpret Maps
1. Movement  How far south did North
Korean troops push the UN forces?
2. Place  Why do you think MacArthur chose
Inchon as his landing place? 30°N

HMH— High School U.S. History—2016

HS_SNLESE454194_1201M
The War in Korea, 1950-1953
The Cold War 929
Vital Information Area (per page): 7p wide x 47p deep
Mask Area (per page): 7p wide x 47p deep
 MacArthur’s superiors informed him that he had
no authority to make decisions of policy. Despite
repeated warnings to follow orders, MacArthur
continued to criticize the president. President Tru-
man, who as president was Commander in Chief of
the armed forces and thus MacArthur’s boss, was just
as stubborn as MacArthur. Truman refused to stand
for this kind of behavior. He wanted to put together
a settlement of the war and could no longer tolerate a
military commander who was trying to sabotage his
policy. On April 11, 1951, Truman made the shocking
announcement that he had fired MacArthur.
Many Americans were outraged over their hero’s
downfall. A public opinion poll showed that 69 per-
cent of the American public backed General MacAr-
thur. When MacArthur returned to the United States,
he gave an address to Congress, an honor usually
awarded only to heads of government. New York City
General Douglas MacArthur and President Truman
strongly disagreed about how best to proceed in the honored him with a ticker-tape parade. In his closing
Korean War. remarks to Congress, MacArthur said, “Old soldiers
never die, they just fade away.”
Throughout the fuss, Truman stayed in the background. After MacAr-
thur’s moment of public glory passed, the Truman administration began to
make its case. Before a congressional committee investigating MacArthur’s
dismissal, a parade of witnesses argued the case for limiting the war. The
committee agreed with them. As a result, public opinion swung around to the
view that Truman had done the right thing. As a political figure, MacArthur
did indeed fade away.
CONFLICT ENDS IN STALEMATE  As the MacArthur controversy died down,
the Soviet Union unexpectedly suggested a cease-fire on June 23, 1951.
Truce talks began in July 1951. The opposing sides reached agreement on
two points: the location of the cease-fire line at the existing battle line and
Vocabulary  the establishment of a demilitarized zone between the opposing sides. Nego-
demilitarize  to ban tiators spent another year wrangling over the exchange of prisoners. Finally,
military forces in an
area or region in July 1953 the two sides met in the town of Panmunjom and signed an
armistice ending the war.
At best, the agreement was a stalemate. On the one hand, the North
Korean invaders had been pushed back, and communism had been contained
without the use of atomic weapons. On the other hand, Korea was still two
nations rather than one.
On the home front, the war had affected the lives of ordinary Americans
in many ways. It had cost 54,000 American lives and $67 billion in expendi-
tures. The high cost of this unsuccessful war was one of many factors leading
Americans to reject the Democratic Party in 1952 and to elect a Republican
administration under World War II hero Dwight D. Eisenhower.

930 Module 21
 NOW & THEN

The Two Koreas

Korea was split into North Korea and South Korea
at the end of World War II. Today, more than 60
years later, the peninsula is still divided. South
Korea is booming economically, while North Korea,
still Communist, struggles with severe food and
energy shortages.

Periodically, discussions about reuniting the Korea for the first time since the nations were
two countries resume. In 2000 South Korean established in 1948. Although economic and
president Kim Dae-jung, pictured here, won the political differences continue to keep the two
Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to improve ties countries apart, there is hope that one day Korea
with North Korea. The two nations met in North will become a united nation.

In addition, the Korean War had long-lasting effects on U.S. foreign

policy. The hostilities put further strain on already tense relations between
the United States and China. After the Communist takeover and the Korean
War, it seemed unlikely that the two countries would find any sort of dip-
lomatic accord. At the same time, the repulsion of communism from South
Korea convinced U.S. officials that containment was a workable foreign
policy. As a result, the United States began to station more troops in Asia in
Reading Check  efforts to prevent any further Communist advances. Many of those troops
Compare  were stationed along the North Korea–South Korea border as a deterrent to
How did Truman further military action in that area. Increased anti-Communist sentiment
and MacArthur
differ over strategy also had repercussions at home, as government officials began a hunt for
in the Korean War? Americans who might be blamed for the Communist gains.

Lesson 2 Assessment
1. Organize Information  Use a timeline to list the major 4. Analyze Effects  What were the effects of the Korean
events of the Korean War. War on U.S. foreign policy?
5. Predict   What might have happened if MacArthur had
event two event four
convinced Truman to expand the fighting into China?
How might today’s world be different?
event one event three 6. Evaluate   At the end of China’s civil war, the United
States refused to accept the Communist People’s
Choose two events and explain how one event led to Republic of China as China’s true government. What
the other. were the advantages of such a policy? What were the
2. Key Terms and People  For each key term or person in disadvantages? Do you agree with this decision? Why or
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. why not?
3. Analyze Events  Many Americans have questioned
whether fighting the Korean War was worthwhile. What
is your opinion? Why?
Think About:
• the loss of American lives
• the fear of communism that enveloped the country at
the time
• the stalemate that ended the war

The Cold War 931

 Lesson 3

The Cold War at Home

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
Tony Kahn made the neighbors uncomfortable because they
During the late 1940s and early
thought his father, Gordon Kahn, was a Communist. In 1947 Gordon
1950s, fear of communism led
Kahn was a successful screenwriter. However, when a congressional
to reckless charges against inno-
cent citizens. committee began to investigate Communists in Hollywood, Kahn
was deemed unfit to hire. Later, in 1951, he was scheduled to testify
Why It Matters Now before the committee himself.
Americans today remain vigilant
about unfounded accusations.
To save himself, Gordon Kahn simply had to name others as Commu-
Key Terms and People nists, but he refused. Rather than face the congressional committee,
House Un-American Activities he fled to Mexico. Tony Kahn remembers how the Cold War hurt him
Committee (HUAC) and his family.
Hollywood Ten
blacklist
“The first time I was
Alger Hiss
called a Communist, I
Ethel and Julius Rosenberg
was four years old. . . . I'll
Joseph McCarthy never forget the look in
McCarthyism our neighbors’ eyes when
I walked by. I thought it
was hate. I was too young
to realize it was fear.”
—Tony Kahn, from The Cold
War Comes Home

Tony Kahn

The members of the Kahn family were among thousands of victims

of the anti-Communist hysteria that gripped this country in the late
1940s and early 1950s. By the end of the period, no one was immune
from accusations.

932 Module 21
Fear of Communist Influence
In the early years of the Cold War, many Americans believed that there was
good reason to be concerned about the security of the United States. The
Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and the Communist takeover of China
shocked the American public. These events fueled a fear that communism
would spread around the world. In addition, at the height of World War II,
about 80,000 Americans claimed membership in the Communist Party. Some
people feared that the first loyalty of these American Communists was to the
Soviet Union. Their fears led to a new Red Scare, an anti-Communist move-
ment similar to the one that had gripped the United States after World War I.
LOYALTY REVIEW BOARD  As U.S.-Soviet tensions increased after World
War II, strongly anti-Communist Republicans began to accuse Truman of
being soft on communism. They feared that Communists had infiltrated the
federal government and held positions of authority. Consequently, in March
1947 President Truman issued an executive order setting up the Federal
Employee Loyalty Program. This program included the Loyalty Review
Board. Its purpose was to investigate government employees and
to dismiss those who were found to be disloyal to the U.S. govern-
ment. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), a national law
enforcement agency, was responsible for the first round of screen-
ing. Under the leadership of director J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI
conducted extensive background checks of all federal employees
and applicants for federal jobs. Those found to have Communist ties
were dismissed, although they could appeal their cases to the Loyalty
Review Board. In addition, the U.S. attorney general drew up a list of
91 “subversive” organizations. Membership in any of these groups was
grounds for suspicion.
From 1947 to 1951 government loyalty boards investigated 3.2 million
employees and dismissed 212 as security risks. Another 2,900 resigned
because they did not want to be investigated or felt that the investigation
violated their constitutional rights. Individuals under investigation were not
allowed to see the evidence against them.
THE HOUSE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE  Other agencies inves-
tigated possible Communist influence, both inside and outside the U.S.
government. The most famous such agency was the House Un-American
Activities Committee (HUAC). HUAC first made headlines in 1947, when it
began to investigate Communist influence in the movie industry. The com-
mittee believed that Communists were sneaking propaganda into films. The
committee pointed to the pro-Soviet films made during World War II when
the Soviet Union had been an ally of the United States.
HUAC subpoenaed 43 witnesses from the Hollywood film industry in
September 1947. Many of the witnesses were “friendly,” supporting the accu-
sation that Communists had infiltrated the film industry. For example, the
movie star Gary Cooper said he had “turned down quite a few scripts because
I thought they were tinged with Communistic ideas.” However, when asked
which scripts he meant, Cooper couldn’t remember their titles.

The Cold War 933

 Ten “unfriendly” witnesses were called to testify but refused. These
men, known as the Hollywood Ten, decided not to cooperate with HUAC
because they believed that the hearings were unconstitutional. They
argued that the hearings violated their rights of freedom of speech and
assembly and the right of accused persons to be fully informed of the
nature of accusations against them. Because the Hollywood Ten refused to
answer the committee's questions, they were sent to prison.
In response to the hearings, Hollywood executives instituted a blacklist.
This was a list of people whom they condemned for having a Communist
background. Approximately 500 actors, writers, producers, and directors
were blacklisted. Their careers were ruined because they could no longer
work. For example, in 1950 actor and singer Paul Robeson refused to sign
an affidavit indicating whether he had ever been a member of the Commu-
nist Party. As a result, he was blacklisted and could not find work at home.
In addition, the State Department revoked his passport for eight years. He
was unable to travel abroad to perform. His income fell from $150,000 a
year to $3,000 a year.
THE MCCARRAN ACT As Hollywood tried to rid itself of Communists,
Congress decided that Truman’s Loyalty Review Board did not go far
enough in protecting the nation’s security. In 1950 it passed the McCar-
ran Internal Security Act. This act required all Communist organizations
in the United States to register with the federal government. It also made
it unlawful to plan any action that might lead to the establishment of a
totalitarian dictatorship in the United States. Immigrants suspected of
promoting communism or totalitarianism could be barred from entering
the country or—if already living in the United States—deported. Truman
vetoed the bill, saying, “In a free country, we punish men for the crimes
they commit, but never for the opinions they have.” But Congress enacted
the law over Truman’s veto.

Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

“It’s OK—We’re Hunting Communists”

The fear of Communist subversion affected the entire
society. People were so suspicious that almost any
unusual opinion might be labeled “un-American.” The
climate of suspicion was most severe in the years 1947–
1954, but it lasted throughout the 1950s. Loyalty boards
questioned federal employees about their memberships
and the books they read.

A 1947
Analyze Historical Sources Herblock
1. What organization does the car represent? Cartoon,
copyright by
2. What does the cartoon imply about the the Herb Block
methods of this organization? Foundation

934 Module 21
 THE VENONA PROJECT  In 1943 the U.S. Army Signal Intelligence Ser-
vice began the Venona Project. This organization was a predecessor of the
National Security Agency (NSA). The project’s goal was to decode messages
sent by Soviet intelligence agencies. Analysts soon decoded enough to
learn that Soviet spies had infiltrated all levels of the U.S. government.
The 3,000 decoded messages that make up the Venona Papers were
declassified in 1995. They confirm that 349 U.S. residents had secret
relationships with the Soviet Union. It is clear that these individuals
Reading Check 
Analyze Causes  delivered classified information to the Soviets. That information hindered
Why was Hollywood U.S. efforts during the Cold War. The suspicions that HUAC and others
a target of anti- had about Communist spies in the United States were in fact well founded.
Communist
investigations by However, their extreme investigative methods and scare tactics intensified
Congress? the fear and tension of the era.

Spy Cases Stun the Nation

Two spy cases added to the fear that was spreading across the country. One
case involved a former State Department official named Alger Hiss.
ALGER HISS  In 1948 a former Communist spy named Whittaker Cham-
bers accused Alger Hiss of spying for the Soviet Union. To support his
charges, Chambers produced microfilm of government documents. He
claimed that the documents had been typed on Hiss’s typewriter. Too
many years had passed for government prosecutors to charge Hiss with
espionage. However, a jury convicted him of perjury—lying about passing
the documents—and sent him to jail. A young conservative Republican
congressman named Richard Nixon gained fame for pursuing the charges
against Hiss. Within four years of the highly publicized case, Nixon was
elected vice-president.
Hiss claimed that he was innocent and that Chambers had forged the
documents used against him. However, in the 1990s Soviet cables released
by the National Security Agency seemed to prove Hiss’s guilt.
THE ROSENBERGS  Another spy case rocked the
nation even more than the Hiss case, in part due to
international events. On September 3, 1949, Ameri-
cans learned that the Soviet Union had exploded an
atomic bomb. Most American experts had predicted
that it would take the Soviets three to five more
years to make the bomb. People began to wonder
if Communist supporters in the United States had
leaked the secret of the bomb.
This second spy case seemed to confirm that
suspicion. In 1950 German-born physicist Klaus
Fuchs admitted giving the Soviet Union informa-
tion about America’s atomic bomb. The information
probably enabled Soviet scientists to develop their
own atomic bomb years earlier than they would have
Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were executed in June 1953 otherwise.
despite numerous pleas to spare their lives.

The Cold War 935

 NOW & THEN

Television: Making News

Some historians of popular culture believe that the early 1950s were the best years of television.
Most programs were filmed live and had a fresh, unrehearsed look. Along with variety shows, early
television presented some of the best serious drama of the age.
Since the 1950s, television has also become a major vehicle for reporting the news. Not only
does television report the news, it also has increasingly helped shape it.

1960
1954 In the 1960 presidential election,
In 1954 Communist-hunting 1967
a major factor in John Kennedy’s
senator Joseph McCarthy, in By 1967 American support for the
victory over Richard Nixon was a
U.S. Senate hearings that were Vietnam War had plummeted as
series of four televised debates,
televised live, accused the U.S. millions of TV viewers witnessed
the first televised presidential
Army of “coddling Communists.” the horrors of war on the nightly
debates in history. An estimated
As many as 20 million Americans news. Images of dead and
85 million to 120 million
watched the combative senator wounded soldiers helped turn
Americans watched one or more
malign people who had no some against the war effort.
of the debates, which turned the
chance to defend themselves.
tide in favor of Kennedy.

2000
During the 2000 presidential
1974 election, the TV networks first 2011
The Watergate scandal that projected that Al Gore would win With the rise of online
toppled Richard Nixon’s Florida. Later, George W. Bush was communication in the 21st
presidency in 1974 played to declared the winner of Florida. century, fewer Americans depend
a rapt TV audience. During the This declaration led Al Gore to on television news broadcasts
Senate hearings in 1973, the concede. Then, when the Florida for information. When President
televised testimony of John Dean, vote became too close to call, Barack Obama appeared on
the president’s counsel, and other Gore retracted his concession. television to announce the death
prominent government officials That “election muddle” blurred of terrorist Osama bin Laden, the
convinced two out of three even more the already unclear news had already been leaked
Americans that the president had line between reporting the news and spread across the country via
committed a crime. and making it. social media.

936 Module 21
 Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, minor activists in the American Communist
Party, were implicated in the Fuchs case. The Rosenbergs were asked if they
were Communists. They denied the charges against them and cited their
Fifth Amendment right not to incriminate themselves. They claimed they
were being persecuted both for being Jewish and for holding radical beliefs.
The Rosenbergs were found guilty of espionage and sentenced to death. In
pronouncing their sentence, Judge Irving Kaufman declared their crime
“worse than murder.” To him, they were directly responsible for one of the
deadliest clashes of the Cold War.

“I believe your conduct in putting into the hands of the Russians the
A-bomb years before our best scientists predicted Russia would perfect
the bomb has already caused, in my opinion, the Communist aggression
in Korea. . . .”
—Irving Kaufman, quoted in
The Unquiet Death of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

People from all over the world appealed for clemency for the Rosenbergs.
Reading Check 
Analyze Causes  Many considered the evidence and the testimony too weak to justify the
Why did the cases of death sentence. The case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, but the
Alger Hiss and the Court refused to overturn the conviction. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg died
Rosenbergs heighten
the anti-Communist in the electric chair in June 1953, leaving behind two sons. They became the
mood of Americans? first U.S. civilians executed for espionage.

McCarthy Launches His “Witch Hunt”

The most famous anti-Communist activist was Senator
Joseph McCarthy, a Republican from Wisconsin. Dur-
ing his first three years in the Senate, he had gained a
reputation for being an ineffective legislator. By Janu-
ary 1950 he realized that he needed a winning issue in
order to be reelected in 1952. Looking for such an issue,
McCarthy charged that Communists were taking over the
government.
Senator Joseph McCarthy MCCARTHY’S TACTICS  Taking advantage of people’s concerns about com-
claimed to have evidence
of Communist influence munism-especially after Mao’s rise in China-McCarthy made one unsup-
across the country. ported accusation after another. At various times, McCarthy claimed to have
in his hands the names of 57, 81, and 205 Communists in the State Depart-
ment. (He never actually produced a single name.) He also charged that the
Democratic Party was guilty of “20 years of treason” for allowing Commu-
Vocabulary  nist infiltration into the government.
infiltration  the
act of penetrating a
McCarthy’s style of attacking suspected Communists in the early
group or organization 1950s became known as McCarthyism. (Since that time, McCarthyism
without being noticed has referred to the unfair tactic of accusing people of disloyalty without
for purposes such as
spying
providing evidence.) When challenged, McCarthy simply launched more
accusations. He was always careful to do his name-calling only in the
Senate, though. There, he had legal immunity that protected him from
being sued for slander.

The Cold War 937

 However, McCarthyism’s tactics quickly spread beyond the Senate. The
fear they inspired also spread. Proof of a Communist Party connection
was no longer required. The FBI and other investigators compiled lists of
people who held questionable political views. Lists also included people
who had refused to cooperate with their investigations. These investiga-
tions spread to other branches of the government, universities, labor
unions, and private businesses. Americans feared that if they did not take
action against the listed individuals, they might be labeled “soft on com-
munism.” As a result, thousands of Americans lost their jobs for political
reasons.
The Republicans did little to stop the attacks of McCarthy and his allies.
Republicans believed they would win the 1952 presidential election if the
public saw them ridding the nation of Communists. But one group of six
senators, led by Senator Margaret Chase Smith of Maine, did speak out.

“I speak as a Republican. I speak as a woman. I speak as a United States

senator. I speak as an American. . . . I am not proud of the way in which
the Senate has been made a publicity platform for irresponsible sensa-
tionalism. I am not proud of the reckless abandon in which unproved
charges have been hurled from this side of the aisle.”
—Margaret Chase Smith, from Declaration of Conscience

Few Americans shared Smith’s willingness to denounce McCarthy, or her

legal protections as a senator. Across the country, people hesitated to criti-
cize McCarthy or any aspect of the government. People were afraid of being
called Communists or Communist sympathizers. Americans were particu-
larly cautious about speaking out against Cold War foreign policy. Such
opposition could make one an easy target. McCarthyism had, in effect, made
many American people wary of their own government.

Causes and Effects of McCarthyism

Causes Effects
• Soviets successfully establish • Millions of Americans are forced to take loyalty
Communist regimes in Eastern Europe oaths and undergo loyalty investigations.
after World War II. • Activism by labor unions goes into decline.
• Soviets develop the atomic bomb more • Many people are afraid to speak out on public
quickly than expected. issues.
• Korean War ends in a stalemate. • Anti-communism continues to drive U.S.
• Republicans gain politically by accusing foreign policy.
Truman and Democrats of being soft on
communism.

Interpret Tables
1. How did world events help lead to McCarthyism?
2. How did McCarthyism affect the behavior of individual Americans?

938 Module 21
 OTHER ANTI-COMMUNIST MEASURES  Others besides Joseph McCarthy
made it their mission to root communism out of American society. By 1953,
39 states had passed laws making it illegal to advocate the violent overthrow
of the government, even though such laws clearly violated the constitutional
right of free speech. Across the nation, cities and towns passed similar laws.
At times, the fear of communism seemed to have no limits. In Indiana,
professional wrestlers had to take a loyalty oath. In experiments run by
newspapers, pedestrians on the street refused to sign petitions that quoted
the Declaration of Independence because they were afraid the ideas were
Communist. The government investigated union leaders, librarians, newspa-
per reporters, and scientists. It seemed that no profession was safe from the
hunt for Communists.
MCCARTHY’S DOWNFALL  Finally, in 1954 McCarthy made accusations
against the U.S. Army. This resulted in a nationally televised Senate investi-
gation. The audience watched as McCarthy bullied witnesses. This behavior
Reading Check  alienated the audience and cost him public support. The Senate criticized
Summarize  What him for improper conduct that “tended to bring the Senate into dishonor and
tactics did McCarthy
use in his campaign disrepute.” Three years later, Joseph McCarthy, suffering from alcoholism,
against Communists? died a broken man.

Lesson 3 Assessment
1. Organize Information  Use a web diagram to fill in 4. Analyze Motives  Choose one of the following roles:
events that illustrate the anti-Communist fear in the Harry Truman, a member of HUAC, Judge Irving
United States. Kaufman, or Joseph McCarthy. As the person you
have chosen, explain your motivation for opposing
communism.
5. Analyze Primary Sources  What does this cartoon
Anti-Communist fear suggest about McCarthy’s downfall?
gripped the country.

Which event had the greatest impact on the country?

2. Key Terms and People  For each key term or person in
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
3. Form Opinions  If you had lived in this period and had
been accused of being a Communist, what would you
"I Can't Do This To Me!" a 1954 Herblock
have done? Cartoon, copyright by the Herb Block
Foundation.
Think About:
• the Hollywood Ten, who refused to answer questions
• the Rosenbergs, who pleaded the Fifth Amendment

The Cold War 939

 Lesson 4

Two Nations Live on the Edge

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
Writer Annie Dillard was one of thousands of children who grew
During the 1950s the United
up in the 1950s with the chilling knowledge that nuclear war could
States and the Soviet Union
obliterate their world in an instant. Dillard recalls practicing what to
came to the brink of nuclear war.
do in case of a nuclear attack.
Why It Matters Now
The Cold War continued into “At school we had air-
the following decades, affect-
raid drills. We took the
ing U.S. policies in Cuba, Central
America, Southeast Asia, and the
drills seriously; surely
Middle East. Pittsburgh, which had the
nation’s steel, coke, and
Key Terms and People aluminum, would be the
H-bomb enemy’s first target. . . .
arms race When the air-raid siren
Dwight D. Eisenhower sounded, our teachers
massive retaliation stopped talking and led
mutually assured destruction us to the school base-
John Foster Dulles ment. There the gym
brinkmanship
teachers lined us up
against the cement walls
Warsaw Pact
and steel lockers, and A father helps his daughter practice getting
Eisenhower Doctrine
showed us how to lean in into a bomb shelter.
Nikita Khrushchev and fold our arms over
Francis Gary Powers our heads. . . . The teachers stood in the middle of the room,
U-2 incident not talking to each other. We tucked against the walls and
lockers. . . . We folded our skinny arms over our heads, and
raised to the enemy a clatter of gold scarab bracelets and gold
bangle bracelets.”
—Annie Dillard, from An American Childhood

The fear of nuclear attack was a direct result of the Cold War. After
the Soviet Union developed its atomic bomb, the two superpowers
began a competition for power that enormously increased both the
number and the destructive capability of weapons.

940 Module 21
Brinkmanship Rules U.S. Policy
Although air-raid drills were not common until the Eisenhower years (1953–
1961), nuclear tensions had begun under Truman. When the Soviet Union
exploded its first atomic bomb in 1949, President Truman had to make a ter-
rible decision—whether to develop an even more horrifying weapon.
RACE FOR THE H-BOMB  The scientists who developed the atomic bomb had
suspected since 1942 that it was possible to create an even more destructive
thermonuclear weapon—the hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb. They estimated
that such a bomb would have the force of 1 million tons of TNT (67 times the
power of the bomb dropped on Hiroshima). But they argued fiercely about
the morality of creating such a destructive weapon.
Despite such concerns, the United States entered into a deadly race with the
Soviet Union to see which country would be the first to produce an H-bomb. On
November 1, 1952, the United States won the race when it exploded the first
H-bomb. However, the American advantage lasted less than a year. In August
1953 the Soviets exploded their own thermonuclear weapon.
THE ARMS RACE  With the Soviet development of the H-bomb, the two
superpowers were once again technologically matched. Leaders on each side,
however, feared that the other would gain an advantage. These fears led both
countries to build enormous stockpiles of weapons. Any improvement or tech-
nological advance made by one country was soon matched by the other. Thus,
the United States and the Soviet Union began an arms race—an international
contest between countries seeking a military advantage over each other.
Although it began under Truman, the arms race reached new heights
under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower’s foreign policy was
focused on keeping the lead in the arms race. This lead would allow for a
strategy of massive retaliation. Eisenhower’s goal was to discourage the
Soviet Union from launching a nuclear offensive. Eisenhower did this by
vowing to launch a devastating counterstrike to any attack, whether nuclear
or not. Such a counterattack would be as damaging—or even more damag-
ing—to the attacking nation as it was to the one attacked, thereby deterring
anyone from attacking the United States.
By the mid- to late 1950s, the Soviet Union had increased its nuclear capabili-
ties to match those of the United States. Both superpowers now had the ability
to retaliate to any attack with nuclear force. This essentially guaranteed that
any such attack would result in the total destruction of both parties. As a result,
neither country was willing to consider a direct attack against its opponent. This
policy of mutually assured destruction would form a cornerstone of American
and Soviet nuclear policy for the next few decades.
Eisenhower’s nuclear planning was supported and encouraged by his
secretary of state, John Foster Dulles. Like many Americans, Dulles was
staunchly anti-Communist. For him, the Cold War was a moral crusade
against communism. Dulles proposed that the United States could prevent
the spread of communism by promising to use all of its force, including
nuclear weapons, against any aggressor nation.

The Cold War 941

 Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Effects of the Arms Race

As the United States and the Soviet Union rushed to
produce nuclear weapons, many civilians lived in fear of
a catastrophic attack. Eisenhower’s policies of retaliation
and brinkmanship increased those fears. Across the
country, civil defense agencies tried to prepare people
for how to survive in the case of such an attack.

Analyze Historical Sources

How does this poster reflect Americans’ increased fears of
conflict with the Soviet Union?

The willingness of the United States under President Eisenhower to go

to the edge of all-out war became known as brinkmanship. Under this
policy, the United States trimmed its army and navy and expanded its air
force (which would deliver the bombs) and its buildup of nuclear weapons.
The Soviet Union did the same.
The threat of nuclear attack was unlike any the American people had ever
faced. Even if only a few bombs reached their targets, millions of civilians
would die. Schoolchildren like Annie Dillard practiced air-raid procedures.
Some families built underground fallout shelters in their backyards. Fear of
nuclear war became a constant in American life for the next 30 years.
THE MILITARY-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX In addition to social changes, the
arms race caused profound changes in the American economy. The produc-
tion of so many weapons created tremendous growth for the companies
that made them. In fact, some munitions companies grew so large that
many Americans began to fear they would begin to dominate the economy.
Among those who feared the growing influence of these companies was
President Eisenhower. Although he fully supported the beginning of the
arms race, he had quickly grown concerned that defense spending had
gotten out of hand. Before leaving office, Eisenhower warned against the
dangers of what he called the “military-industrial complex.” In his final
speech as president, he warned Americans to beware its growing power.

“This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large

arms industry is new in the American experience. The total influ-
ence—economic, political, and even spiritual—is felt in every city,
every statehouse, and every office of the federal government. We rec-
ognize the imperative need for this development. Yet we must not fail
to comprehend its grave implications. . . . The potential for the disas-
Reading Check
Analyze Causes trous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist.”
How did the United —Dwight D. Eisenhower, from his Farewell Address, January 17, 1961
States and the Soviet
Union start the Despite Eisenhower’s concerns, defense spending in the United States
arms race? would continue to grow long after his administration ended.

942 Module 21
 The Cold War Spreads Around the World
As the nation shifted to a dependence on nuclear arms for defense, the
Eisenhower administration began to depend heavily on the recently
formed Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for information. The CIA used
spies to gather information abroad. The CIA also began to carry out covert,
or secret, operations to weaken or overthrow governments unfriendly to
the United States. Most of these governments had ties to communism.
Background COVERT ACTIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND LATIN AMERICA  One
From ancient times
of the CIA’s first covert actions took place in the Middle East. In 1951
until 1935, Iran was
known as Persia. Iran’s prime minister, Mohammad Mossadegh, nationalized Iran’s oil
Persia once ruled a fields. That means that he placed the formerly private industries (mostly
great empire that ­British-owned) under Iranian control. To protest, the British stopped
stretched from the
Mediterranean Sea to ­buying Iranian oil. Fearing that economic trouble might lead Mossadegh
India’s Indus River. to seek Soviet assistance, the CIA began to support anti-Mossadegh rebels.
It wanted the pro-American shah of Iran, who had recently been forced to
flee, to return to power. The plan worked. The shah returned. He turned
over control of Iranian oil fields to Western companies.
In 1954 the CIA also took covert actions in Guatemala, a small Central
American country just south of Mexico. Eisenhower believed that Guate-
mala’s government had Communist sympathies because it had given more
than 200,000 acres of American-owned land to peasants. In response, the
CIA trained an army, which invaded Guatemala. The Guatemalan army
refused to defend the president, and he resigned. The army’s leader then
became dictator of the country.
INTERVENTION IN AFRICA AND ASIA  Even as the CIA was working
behind the scenes in some parts of the world, the U.S. government was
openly helping other nations fight against communism. Most of this
assistance went to former European colonies in Africa and Asia. Dur-
ing the 1940s and 1950s, many colonies sought independence, either
peacefully or through violent uprisings. American leaders feared that the
governments of these newly independent nations would be receptive to
Communist influence, especially if the Soviets promised them financial
or military aid.
To prevent this possible expansion of communism, the United States
offered its own aid to Africa and Asia. The government sent money,
technical assistance, and sometimes military forces to such countries as
Indonesia and Vietnam. This aid was intended to convince the new coun-
tries to form Western, democratic governments. Feeling trapped between
rival powers, many of these new nations chose to remain unaligned with
either the United States or the Soviet Union. They wanted no part of the
Cold War.
Some Asian countries, on the other hand, were eager to align with the
United States and its allies. In 1954 the governments of the Philippines,
Thailand, and Pakistan joined with the United States, France, Great Brit-
ain, Australia, and New Zealand to form the Southeast Asia Treaty Organi-
zation (SEATO). This organization was dedicated to fighting the spread of

The Cold War 943

 communism in Southeast Asia. Although most of its members were not
actually located in that region, they all had cultural or economic ties there.
None wanted to see it fall under Soviet domination.
THE WARSAW PACT  Despite the growing tension between the superpow-
ers, U.S.-Soviet relations seemed to thaw following the death of Joseph
Stalin in 1953. The Soviets recognized West Germany. They also concluded
peace treaties with Austria and Japan.
However, tensions flared up again in 1955 when NATO leaders invited
West Germany to join NATO. Soviet leaders saw this expansion of NATO
as a threat and grew fearful. The existence of so powerful an alliance
dedicated to containing communism threatened the very existence of the
Soviet Union and its satellite nations. To counter this threat, the Soviets
formed their own military alliance, known as the Warsaw Pact. The War-
saw Pact linked the Soviet Union with seven Eastern European countries.
Together, these countries believed they would be able to withstand any
NATO offensives.
Unlike NATO, which was governed jointly by a council of its member
states, the Warsaw Pact was firmly under Soviet control. In addition to
countering NATO threats, Soviet leaders used Warsaw Pact troops to crush
internal rebellions. In June 1956, for example, Pact troops violently put
down an anti-Communist protest in Poland, killing dozens of civilians.

Explore ONLINE!
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Interpret Maps UNITED
The Warsaw
KINGDOM
Pact and NATO, 1955
1. Region  Which Vital Information Area (per page): 8p wide x 4p deep
NETHERLANDS

nations shown on Mask Area (per page): 8p wide x 4p deep POLAND

EAST
AT L A N T IC BELGIUM
the map belonged to 1st proof date:GERMANY
01/15/01
O CE A N
WEST CZECH
NATO, and which to LUXEMBOURG GERMANY OSLO
VAKIA
the Warsaw Pact?
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
2. Region  Which ROMANIA
FRANCE
nations shown on the PORTUGAL YUGOSLAVIA
Black Sea
map did not belong SPAIN ITALY ALBANIA
BULGARIA
to either defense
40°N
alliance?
GREECE TURKEY
M ed i t erra n ea n S ea

944 Module 21
HMH—Middle School U.S. History—2016
THE SUEZ WAR  In 1955 Great Britain and the United States agreed to
help Egypt finance construction of a dam at Aswan on the Nile River.
However, Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt’s head of government, tried to play
the Soviets and the Americans against each other. He tried to improve
relations with each one in order to get more aid. In 1956, after learning
that Nasser was making deals with the Soviets, Secretary of State Dulles
withdrew his offer of a loan. Angered, Nasser responded by nationalizing
the Suez Canal, the Egyptian waterway that was owned by France and
Great Britain. The French and the British were outraged.
Egyptian control of the canal also affected Israel, which had become
independent following World War II. On May 14, 1948, the United Nations
created the nation of Israel out of the Palestine Mandate. The Palestine
Mandate was a territory in the Middle East created by the League of
Nations after World War I. Placed under British control, the mandate was
intended in part to eventually provide a home for Jews from around the
world. Thousands of Jews had migrated there from Europe before and dur-
ing World War II. Israel became the “promised land” they had been seeking
since biblical times. The creation of Israel was one of the few issues upon
which the United States and the Soviet Union agreed, as people around
the world reacted to the horror that had happened to the Jews in the
Holocaust. Arab nations in the region, however, considered the creation of
Israel an invasion of their territory. Several launched raids and large-scale
attacks on Israel. They were determined to reclaim what they considered
their land. Although outnumbered, the Israelis defended their borders.
When he took control of the Suez Canal, Nasser refused to let ships bound
for Israel pass through, even though the canal was supposed to be open to
all nations. Great Britain, France, and Israel responded by sending troops.
The three countries seized the Mediterranean end of the canal. Although the
United States had supported the creation of Israel and remained a supporter,
Eisenhower objected to the use of force to regain access to the canal. Soviet
leaders also objected. With both superpowers in agreement, the UN quickly
stepped in to stop the fighting. It persuaded Great Britain, France, and Israel
to withdraw. However, it allowed Egypt to keep control of the canal.
Because of its support for Egypt in the Suez Crisis, the Soviet Union
gained prestige in the Middle East. To counterbalance this development,
President Eisenhower issued a warning in January 1957. This warning,
known as the Eisenhower Doctrine, said that the United States would
defend the Middle East against an attack by any Communist country. In
March, Congress officially approved the doctrine.
THE HUNGARIAN UPRISING  Even as fighting was raging in the Middle East,
a revolt began in Hungary. Dominated by the Soviet Union since the end of
World War II, the Hungarian people rose in revolt in 1956. They demanded
the removal of the most oppressive leaders, to which Khrushchev agreed. The
Hungarians formed a new government led by Imre Nagy (ēmʹrĕ nŏdʹyә), the
most popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader. A great supporter of
reform, Nagy promised free elections. He also denounced the Warsaw Pact and
demanded that all Soviet troops leave Hungary.

The Cold War 945

 Crowds surround a captured Russian tank during the anti-Communist revolution in Hungary.

The Soviet response was swift and brutal. In November 1956 Soviet
tanks rolled into Hungary and killed approximately 30,000 Hungarians.
Armed with only pistols and bottles, thousands of Hungarian freedom
fighters threw up barricades in the streets and fought the invaders to no
avail. The Soviets overthrew the Nagy government and replaced it with
pro-Soviet leaders. Nagy himself was executed. Some 200,000 Hungarians
fled to the west.
Although the Truman Doctrine had promised to support free peoples
who resisted communism, the United States did nothing to help Hungary
break free of Soviet control. Many Hungarians were bitterly disappointed.
Reading Check 
Summarize  What
The American policy of containment did not extend to driving the Soviet
steps did the United Union out of its satellites.
States take to try to No help came to Hungary from the United Nations either. Although the
contain communism
in Asia, the Middle UN passed one resolution after another condemning the Soviet Union, the
East, and Africa? Soviet veto in the Security Council stopped the UN from taking any action.

The Cold War Takes to the Skies

After Stalin’s death in 1953, the Soviet Union had no well-defined way
for one leader to succeed another. For the first few years, a group of lead-
ers shared power. As time went by, however, one man did gain power.
That man was Nikita Khrushchev (kroosh´chĕf). Like Stalin, Khrushchev
believed that communism would take over the world, but Khrushchev
thought it could triumph peacefully. He favored a policy of peaceful coexis-
tence, in which two powers would compete economically and scientifically.
THE SPACE RACE  In the competition for international prestige, the Sovi-
ets leaped to an early lead in what came to be known as the space race. On
October 4, 1957, they launched Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite.
Sputnik traveled around the earth at 18,000 miles per hour, circling the
globe every 96 minutes. Its launch was a triumph of Soviet technology.

946 Module 21
American Literature

Science Fiction in the Cold War

Many science fiction writers draw on scientific and social trends to describe future events that might
occur if those trends were to continue. In the 1950s those trends included nuclear proliferation,
the space race, and the pervasive fear of Cold War dangers. In The Martian Chronicles, Ray Bradbury
describes how earthlings who have colonized Mars watch helplessly as their former planet is destroyed
by nuclear warfare.

The Martian Chronicles

They all came out and looked at the sky that night. They left
their suppers or their washing up or their dressing for the
show and they came out upon their now-not-quite-as-new
porches and watched the green star of Earth there. It was a
move without conscious effort; they all did it, to help them
understand the news they had heard on the radio a moment
before. There was Earth and there the coming war, and there
hundreds of thousands of mothers or grandmothers or fathers
or brothers or aunts or uncles or cousins. They stood on the
porches and tried to believe in the existence of Earth, much as
they had once tried to believe in the existence of Mars; it was a
problem reversed. To all intents and purposes, Earth now was
dead; they had been away from it for three or four years. Space
was an anesthetic; seventy million miles of space numbed RAY BRADBURY
you, put memory to sleep, depopulated Earth, erased the past,
and allowed these people here to go on with their work. But now,
tonight, the dead were risen, Earth was reinhabited, memory awoke,
a million names were spoken: What was so-and-so doing tonight
on Earth? What about this one and that one? The people on the
porches glanced sidewise at each other's faces.

At nine o'clock Earth seemed to explode, catch fire, and burn.

The people on the porches put up their hands as if to beat the fire
out.

They waited.

—Ray Bradbury, from The Martian Chronicles (1950)

Analyze American Literature

How might readers’ interpretations of Bradbury’s writing today differ from readers’ interpretations during
the Cold War?

Americans were shocked at being beaten and promptly poured money

into their own space program. U.S. scientists worked frantically to catch
up to the Soviets. The first attempt at an American satellite launch was a
humiliating failure, with the rocket toppling to the ground. However, on
January 31, 1958, the United States successfully launched its first satellite.

The Cold War 947

 A U-2 IS SHOT DOWN  In July 1955 Eisenhower traveled to
U.S. Budget, 1950–2010 Geneva, Switzerland, to meet with Soviet leaders. There, Eisen-
Percentage Spent on Defense hower put forth an “open skies” proposal. He suggested that the
United States and the Soviet Union allow flights over each oth-
1950 er’s territory to guard against surprise nuclear attacks. Although
32% the Soviet Union rejected this proposal, the world hailed the
“spirit of Geneva” as a step toward peace.
Following the rejection of Eisenhower’s “open skies” proposal,
1960
the CIA began making secret high-altitude flights over Soviet
52% territory. The plane used for these missions was the U-2, which
could fly at high altitudes without detection. As a U-2 passed
over the Soviet Union, its infrared cameras took detailed photo-
graphs of troop movement and missile sites.
2000
17% By 1960, however, many U.S. officials were nervous about the
U-2 program for two reasons. First, the existence and purpose of
the U-2 was an open secret among some members of the Ameri-
can press. Second, the Soviets had been aware of the flights since
2010 1958, as U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers explained.
19%

“We . . . knew that the Russians were radar-tracking at least

Source: Historical Tables, Budget of the United States Government
some of our flights. . . . We also knew that SAMs [surface-to-
air missiles] were being fired at us, that some were uncomfort-
Interpret Graphs ably close to our altitude. But we knew too that the Russians
1. By how much did the percent- had a control problem in their guidance system. . . . We were
age of the federal budget for concerned, but not greatly.”
defense increase between —Francis Gary Powers, from Operation Overflight:
1950 and 1960? The U-2 Spy Pilot Tells His Story for the First Time
2. Why do you think it increased
that much? Finally, Eisenhower himself wanted the flights discontinued.
He and Khrushchev were going to hold another summit confer-
ence on the arms race on May 15, 1960. “If one of these aircraft
were lost when we were engaged in apparently sincere deliberations, it
could . . . ruin my effectiveness,” he told an aide. However, Dulles per-
suaded him to authorize one last flight.
That flight took place on May 1, and the pilot was Francis Gary Pow-
ers. Four hours after Powers entered Soviet airspace, a Soviet pilot, Igor
Mentyukov, shot down his plane, and Powers was forced to parachute into
Soviet-controlled territory. The United States issued a false story that a
plane had disappeared while on a weather mission. Khrushchev announced
that the U-2 had been brought down 1,300 miles inside the Soviet Union
by a Soviet rocket and that Powers had been captured alive and had con-
fessed his activities. The Soviets tried Powers for espionage and sentenced
him to ten years in prison. After 17 months, however, he was returned to
the United States in exchange for a Soviet spy.

948 Module 21
 Recognized as American in part by his military
identification card (above), Francis Gary
Powers was arrested as a spy. Following his
release, Powers spoke at a Senate committee
hearing (right).

RENEWED CONFRONTATION  At first, Eisenhower denied that Powers

had been spying. With his confession, however, Eisenhower finally had to
admit it. Khrushchev demanded an apology for the flights and a promise
to halt them. Eisenhower agreed to stop the U-2 flights, but he would not
apologize.
Khrushchev angrily called off the summit. He also withdrew his invita-
tion to Eisenhower to visit the Soviet Union. Because of the U-2 incident,
Reading Check  the 1960s opened with tension between the two superpowers as great as
Compare  How were ever. The few hopeful events of the 1950s—such as the rise of a Soviet
Joseph Stalin and government willing to work toward peace—had been eclipsed by aggres-
Nikita Khrushchev
alike, and how were sion, competitiveness, and mutual suspicion. The Cold War would continue
they different? into the next decade, with an enormous effect on U.S. foreign policy.

Lesson 4 Assessment

1. Organize Information  Use a table to list Cold War 3. Predict  How might the Cold War have progressed if the
trouble spots in Iran, Guatemala, Egypt, and Hungary. U-2 incident had never occurred?
For each, write a newspaper headline that summarizes Think About:
the U.S. role and the outcome of the situation. • the mutual distrust between the Soviet Union and the
Trouble Spot Headline
United States
• the outcome of the incident
4. Draw Conclusions  How do you think opponents of the
policy of brinkmanship reacted to the stockpiling of
weapons during the arms race?
Choose one headline and write a paragraph about that
trouble spot. 5. Evaluate  Which of the two superpowers do you think
contributed more to Cold War tensions during the
2. Key Terms and People  For each key term or person in
1950s?
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
6. Form Generalizations  Should one nation have the
right to remove another nation's leader from power? If
so, when? If not, why?

The Cold War 949

 Lesson 5

Mounting Tensions in the Sixties

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
On May 5, 1961, American astronaut Alan Shepard climbed into
The Kennedy administration
Freedom 7, a tiny capsule on top of a huge rocket booster. The
faced some of the most danger-
capsule left the earth’s atmosphere in a ball of fire and returned the
ous Soviet confrontations in
American history. same way, and Shepard became the first American to travel into
space. Years later, he recalled his emotions when a naval crew fished
Why It Matters Now him out of the Atlantic.
America’s response to Soviet
threats developed the United
States as a military superpower. “Until the moment I stepped
out of the flight deck . . . I
Key Terms and People
hadn’t realized the intensity of
John F. Kennedy
the emotions and feelings that
flexible response so many people had for me,
domino theory for the other astro-
Lyndon Baines Johnson nauts, and for the
Fidel Castro whole manned space
Berlin Wall program. . . . I was
hot line very close to tears as I
Limited Test Ban Treaty
thought, it’s no longer
just our fight to get
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT)
‘out there.’ The strug-
gle belongs to every-
one in America. . . .
From now on there was no
turning back.”
—Alan Shepard, from Moon Shot: The Astronaut Alan Shepard
Inside Story of America’s Race to the Moon
prepares to enter the space
capsule for his Mercury flight.

Shepard’s journey into orbit was more than just a demonstration

of American ingenuity. It was another step in the continued Cold
War struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union,
which had launched a man into orbit a month earlier. As the 1960s
dawned, the competition between the two nations continued to
affect nearly every aspect of American life.

950 Module 21
 A New Military Policy
The improvements in the space program that sent Alan Shepard into orbit
were strongly supported by President John F. Kennedy. Since taking office
in 1961, Kennedy had focused on the Cold War. He thought the Eisen-
hower administration had not done enough about the Soviet threat. The
Soviets, he concluded, were outpacing Americans in technological develop-
ments. They were also gaining the loyalties of economically less-developed
Vocabulary third-world countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. He criticized the
third world during Republicans for allowing communism to develop in Cuba, at America’s
the Cold War, the
developing nations doorstep.
not allied with either
the United States or MILITARY STRATEGY REDEFINED  Kennedy believed his most urgent
the Soviet Union task as president was to redefine the nation’s nuclear strategy. The Eisen-
hower administration had relied on the policy of massive retaliation to
discourage Soviet aggression and imperialism. However, threatening to
use nuclear arms over a minor conflict was not a risk Kennedy wished to
take. Instead, his team developed a policy of flexible response. Kennedy’s
secretary of defense, Robert McNamara, explained the policy.

“The Kennedy administration worried that [the] reliance on nuclear

weapons gave us no way to respond to large non-nuclear attacks
without committing suicide. . . . We decided to broaden the range of
options by strengthening and modernizing the military’s ability to
fight a nonnuclear war.”
—Robert S. McNamara, from In Retrospect

Kennedy increased defense spending to boost conventional, nonnuclear

forces such as troops, ships, and artillery. He also created an elite branch of
the army called the Special Forces, or Green Berets. In addition, he tripled
the overall nuclear capabilities of the United States. These changes enabled
the United States to fight limited wars around the world, while maintain-
ing a balance of nuclear power with the Soviet Union. Kennedy hoped to
reduce the risk of nuclear war. However, his administration found itself
drawn into conflict in Vietnam that threatened to increase that risk.
CONTAINMENT IN VIETNAM  The developing conflict in Vietnam had
been continuing for more than a decade. In the 1940s Vietnam was a
French colony. The people had declared their independence. For more
than a decade, Vietnamese forces led by Ho Chi Minh battled the French.
Presidents Truman and Eisenhower had supported the French with money
and troops. By 1954, however, the French had surrendered and withdrawn
from the region.
When Kennedy took office, Vietnam was divided. A Communist gov-
ernment headed by Ho Chi Minh held power in the north. Democrati-
cally elected president Ngo Dinh Diem governed the south. The Kennedy
administration wanted to contain any further spread of communism in
Southeast Asia. It supported Diem, pouring financial assistance into the
region. It sent thousands of military advisers to train South Vietnamese
troops.

The Cold War 951

 Kennedy’s foreign policy in Vietnam was based on the domino theory.
President Eisenhower first expressed the domino theory. It proposed that
one country falling to Communist influence would quickly lead to other
countries in the same area falling as well. He feared that if South Vietnam
became Communist, then the rest of Southeast Asia would be vulnerable.
Kennedy was determined to stop that.
After Kennedy’s death in 1963, his successor, Lyndon Baines Johnson,
continued the policies he had begun. Like Kennedy, Johnson was deter-
Reading Check  mined to contain communism in Vietnam. During his term, however, the
Summarize  What conflict in Vietnam escalated. Johnson sent tens of thousands of soldiers to
was the goal of the
doctrine of flexible Vietnam. When Johnson left office in 1969, the struggle against commu-
response?` nism in Vietnam was still going on.

Crises over Cuba

Another test of Kennedy’s foreign policy came in Cuba, just 90 miles off
the coast of Florida. About two weeks before Kennedy took office, on
January 3, 1961, President Eisenhower had cut off diplomatic relations
with Cuba because of a revolutionary leader named Fidel Castro. Castro
openly declared himself a Communist and welcomed aid from the Soviet
Union.

Vocabulary THE CUBAN REVOLUTION  Castro gained power with the promise of
guerrilla  a soldier democracy. From 1956 to 1959 he led a guerrilla movement to overthrow
who travels in a small dictator Fulgencio Batista. Castro won control in 1959. He later told report-
group, harassing and
undermining the ers, “Revolutionaries are not born, they are made by poverty, inequality,
enemy and dictatorship.” Castro then promised to eliminate these conditions from
political repression  Cuba.
government
Although the United States was suspicious of Castro’s intentions, it did
intimidation of those
with different political recognize the new government. However, when Castro seized three
views American and British oil refineries, relations between the United States
and Cuba worsened. Castro also broke up commer-
cial farms into communes that would be worked
by formerly landless peasants. American sugar
companies controlled 75 percent of the cropland
in Cuba. They appealed to the U.S. government for
help. In response, Congress established trade barri-
ers against Cuban sugar.
To put his reforms into action, Castro relied
increasingly on Soviet aid. He also depended on
using political repression on those who did not
agree with him. Some Cubans were impressed by
his charisma and his willingness to stand up to the
United States. Others saw Castro as a tyrant who
had replaced one dictatorship with another. About
10 ­percent of Cuba’s population went into exile.
Most went to the United States. By 1962 more
than 200,000 Cubans had fled their homeland
Castro celebrates after gaining power in Cuba.
for new homes in the United States. The majority

952 Module 21
 of these Cuban exiles settled in Florida, especially in and around the city
of Miami. Many hoped that the political turmoil in Cuba would be resolved
quickly so that they could return home. That did not happen, however, and
most never went back.
THE BAY OF PIGS  With Castro in power, American policymakers became
alarmed by a Communist government so close to the United States. In March
1960 President Eisenhower gave the CIA permission to secretly train Cuban
exiles for an invasion of Cuba. The CIA and the exiles hoped it would cause a
mass uprising that would overthrow Castro.
Kennedy learned of the plan only nine days after his election. Although he
had doubts about the operation, he approved it anyway. On the night of April
17, 1961, some 1,300 to 1,500 Cuban exiles supported by the U.S. military
landed on the island’s southern coast at Bahía de Cochinos, the Bay of Pigs.
Nothing went as planned. An air strike had failed to knock out the Cuban
air force, although the CIA reported that it had succeeded. A small advance
group sent to distract Castro’s forces never reached shore. When the main
unit landed, it lacked American air support as it faced 25,000 Cuban troops
backed up by Soviet tanks and jets. Some of the invading exiles
were killed, others imprisoned.
Castro turned the failed invasion into a public relations
victory. The Cuban media announced the defeat of “North
American mercenaries.” One United States commentator said
that Americans “look like fools to our friends, rascals to our
enemies, and incompetents to the rest.” The disaster left Ken-
nedy embarrassed. Publicly, he accepted blame for the failure.
Privately, he asked, “How could that crowd at the CIA and the
Pentagon be this wrong?”
Kennedy negotiated with Castro for the release of surviving
commandos and paid a ransom of $53 million in food and medi-
cal supplies. In a speech in Miami, he promised exiles that they
would one day return to a “free Havana.” Kennedy warned that
he would resist further Communist expansion in the West-
The Bay of Pigs mission was said to have ern Hemisphere. However, Castro defiantly welcomed further
blown up in Kennedy’s face.
Soviet aid.
THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS  Castro had a powerful ally in Moscow. Soviet
premier Nikita Khrushchev promised to defend Cuba with Soviet arms.
During the summer of 1962, the flow of Soviet weapons to Cuba increased
greatly. These weapons included nuclear missiles. President Kennedy
responded with a warning that America would not tolerate offensive nuclear
weapons in Cuba. Then, on October 14, photographs taken by American U-2
planes revealed Soviet missile bases in Cuba. Some contained missiles ready
to launch. They could reach U.S. cities in minutes.
On October 22 Kennedy spoke to an anxious nation. He told Americans
about the Soviet missile sites in Cuba and his plans to remove them. He
made it clear that any missile attack from Cuba would trigger an attack on
the Soviet Union.

The Cold War 953

 Explore ONLINE!
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OCT. 24  Kennedy implements

a naval “quarantine” of Cuba,
Caribbean Sea
blocking Soviet ships from
reaching the island. A U.S. OCT. 28  Khrushchev
patrol plane flies over a Soviet announces plan to remove
freighter. missiles from Cuba.

OCT. 14  U.S. spy planes OCT. 22  OCT. 25  Soviet
reveal nuclear missile Kennedy tells ships approaching
sites in Cuba. the nation of his Cuba come to a halt.
intention to halt the
missile buildup.

Interpret Maps
1. Movement  About how long would it have taken for a
missile launched from Cuba to reach New York?
2. Human-Environment Interaction  Why do you think it
may have been important for Soviet missiles to reach
the U.S. cities shown above?

954 Module 21
 For the next six days, the world faced the terrifying possibility of imminent
nuclear war. Soviet ships in the Atlantic Ocean headed toward Cuba. They
presumably were carrying more missiles. The U.S. Navy prepared to quaran-
tine Cuba and prevent the ships from coming within 500 miles of it. In Florida,
100,000 troops waited. This was the largest invasion force ever assembled in the
United States. C. Douglas Dillon was Kennedy’s secretary of the treasury and a
veteran of nuclear diplomacy. He recalled those tension-filled days of October.

“The only time I felt a fear of nuclear war or a use of nuclear weapons
was on the very first day, when we’d decided that we had to do what-
ever was necessary to get the missiles out. There was always some
background fear of what would eventually happen, and I think this is
what was expressed when people said they feared they would never see
another Saturday.”
—C. Douglas Dillon, quoted in On the Brink

BIOGRAPHY

John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971)

John F. “Jack” Kennedy grew up in a politically “No matter how humble a man’s beginnings,”
powerful family that helped make his dreams boasted Nikita Khrushchev, “he achieves the
possible. His parents instilled in him the drive to stature of the office to which he is elected.”
accomplish great things. Khrushchev, the son of a miner, became a
Communist Party organizer in the 1920s. Within
During World War II, he enlisted in the navy and four years of Stalin’s death in 1953, Khrushchev
was decorated for heroism. In 1946 he won his first had consolidated his own political power in the
seat in Congress from a Boston district where he Soviet Union.
had never lived. While a senator, he won a Pulitzer
Prize for his book Profiles in Courage. During his regime, which ended in 1964,
Khrushchev kept American nerves on edge with
Although he radiated self-confidence, Kennedy alternately conciliatory and aggressive behavior.
suffered many ailments, including Addison’s During a 1959 trip to the United States, he met for
disease—a debilitating condition that he treated friendly talks with President Eisenhower. The next
with daily injections of cortisone. “At least one year, in front of the UN General Assembly, he took
half of the days that he spent on this earth were off his shoe and angrily pounded it on a desk to
days of intense physical pain,” recalled his younger protest the U-2 incident.
brother Robert.

The Cold War 955

 The first break in the crisis occurred when the Soviet ships stopped sud-
denly to avoid a confrontation at sea. Secretary of State Dean Rusk said,
“We are eyeball to eyeball, and the other fellow just blinked.” A few days
later, Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles in return for an Ameri-
can pledge not to invade Cuba. The United States also secretly agreed to
remove missiles from Turkey. The leaders agreed, and the crisis ended.
“For a moment, the world had stood still,” Robert Kennedy wrote years
later, “and now it was going around again.”
KENNEDY AND KHRUSHCHEV TAKE THE HEAT  The crisis severely dam-
aged Khrushchev’s prestige in the Soviet Union and the world. Kennedy
did not escape criticism, either. Some people criticized Kennedy for prac-
ticing brinkmanship. They thought that private talks might have resolved
the crisis without the threat of nuclear war. Others believed he had passed
up an ideal chance to invade Cuba and oust Castro. (It was learned in the
1990s that the CIA had underestimated the numbers of Soviet troops and
nuclear weapons on the island.)
The effects of the crisis lasted long after the missiles had been removed.
Many Cuban exiles blamed the Democrats for “losing Cuba” and switched
their allegiance to the Republican Party. Kennedy had earlier made the
same charge against the Republicans.
Meanwhile, Castro closed Cuba’s doors to the exiles in November 1962.
He banned all flights to and from Miami. Three years later, hundreds of
thousands of people took advantage of an agreement that allowed Cubans
Reading Check  to join relatives in the United States. By the time Castro sharply cut down
Analyze Causes 
What led to the Cuban on exit permits in 1973, the Cuban population in Miami had increased to
missile crisis? about 300,000 people.

U.S.-Soviet Tensions
One goal had guided Kennedy through the Cuban missile crisis. That goal
was to prove to Khrushchev his determination to contain communism. All
the while, Kennedy was thinking of their recent confrontation over Berlin.
That confrontation had led to the construction of the Berlin Wall, a con-
crete wall topped with barbed wire that divided the city in two.
THE BERLIN CRISIS  In 1961 Berlin was a city in great turmoil. In the
11 years since the Berlin Airlift, almost 3 million East Germans had fled
into West Berlin because it was free from Communist rule. These refugees
represented 20 percent of East Germany’s population. They demonstrated
the failure of that country’s Communist government. Their departure also
dangerously weakened East Germany’s economy.
Khrushchev realized that this problem had to be solved. At a summit
meeting in Vienna, Austria, in June 1961, he threatened to sign a treaty
with East Germany. The treaty would enable that country to close all the
access roads to West Berlin. Kennedy refused to give up U.S. access to West
Berlin. Khrushchev furiously responded, “I want peace. But, if you want
war, that is your problem.”

956 Module 21
 After returning home, Kennedy spoke to the nation in a televised
address. He said that Berlin was “the great testing place of Western cour-
age and will.” He pledged “We cannot and will not permit the Communists
to drive us out of Berlin.”
Kennedy’s determination and America’s superior nuclear striking power
prevented Khrushchev from closing the air and land routes between West
Berlin and West Germany. Instead, the Soviet premier surprised the world
with a shocking decision. Just after midnight on August 13, 1961, East
German troops began to unload concrete posts and rolls of barbed wire
along the border. Within days, the Berlin Wall was erected, separating East
Germany from West Germany. The wall isolated West Berlin from a hos-
tile German Democratic Republic (GDR). Passing from East to West was
almost impossible without the Communist government’s permission.
During the 28 years the wall was standing, approximately 5,000 people
succeeded in fleeing. Almost 200 people died in the attempt. Most were
shot by the GDR border guards.
The construction of the Berlin Wall ended the Berlin crisis, but it
heightened Cold War tensions. The wall and its armed guards successfully
reduced the flow of East German refugees to a tiny trickle. This solved
Khrushchev’s main problem. At the same time, however, the wall became
an ugly symbol of Communist oppression.

The Berlin Wall

The “death strip” stretched like a

barren moat around West Berlin,
with patrols, floodlights, electric
fences, and vehicle traps between
the inner and outer walls.

Walls and other

barriers 10–15 feet
high surrounded 0 4 mi
West Berlin. The
length of the 0 4 km
French East
barriers around the Zone Berlin
city totaled about West Brandenburg
110 miles. Berlin Gate
British Checkpoint
Zone Charlie
American
Zone

Baltic Sea
North
Sea
Guard dogs and POL.
machine guns West Berlin East
dissuaded most Berlin
people from crossing FED. REP.
over illegally, yet OF GERMANY GER. DEM.
some still dared. REPUBLIC
Bonn
The Berlin Wall was first made of
brick and barbed wire, but was 0 100 mi CZECH.
later erected in cement and steel. 0 100 km

HMH— High School U.S. History—2016

HS_SNLESE454194_1233M
Berlin Wall The Cold War 957
Vital Information Area (per page): 12p wide x 10
 EFFORTS TO EASE TENSIONS Showdowns like Cuba and Berlin made
both Kennedy and Khrushchev aware of the seriousness of split-second
decisions that separated peace from nuclear disaster. A rash decision or
unfortunate hesitation could lead to global catastrophe.
Faced with this realization, Kennedy searched for ways to tone down
his hardline position. In 1963 he announced that the two nations had
established a hot line between the White House and the Kremlin. This
dedicated phone enabled the leaders of the two countries to communicate
immediately should another crisis arise. Later that year, the United States
and the Soviet Union also agreed to a Limited Test Ban Treaty. The treaty
banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere.
The Limited Test Ban Treaty was a good beginning to easing nuclear
fears. However, both American and Soviet leaders believed more steps
were necessary to prevent catastrophe. Over the next few years, more
treaties were signed to limit nuclear activity. For example, a 1967 treaty
banned the deployment of nuclear weapons in space and on the moon.
This had been a common fear as the space race continued.

Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Ich Bin ein Berliner

Two years after the construction of the Berlin Wall, President
Kennedy traveled to West Berlin to renew his commitment
to the city. In a famous speech, he praised the spirit of the
city’s people. He also declared the Berlin Wall a symbol of
communism’s weakness.

“There are many people who really don’t understand, or

say they don’t, what is the great issue between the free
world and the Communist world. Let them come to Berlin. Reading from this note card during a speech
in West Berlin, Kennedy proclaimed “Ich bin
There are some who say that communism is the wave of ein Berliner” (“I am a Berliner”).
the future. Let them come to Berlin. And there are some
who say in Europe and elsewhere we can work with the
Communists. Let them come to Berlin. . . . When all are
free, then we can look forward to that day when this city will be joined as one. . . . All free men,
wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the
words ‘Ich bin ein Berliner!”
—John F. Kennedy, from a speech in Berlin, June 26, 1963

Analyze Historical Sources

1. Why does Kennedy repeatedly call on people to visit Berlin?
2. What does Kennedy seek to accomplish by calling himself a Berliner?

958 Module 21
 By the late 1960s the fear of nuclear catastrophe had spread around
the world. The United States and the Soviet Union were no longer the
only countries capable of launching nuclear attacks. The United King-
dom, France, and China had all successfully tested nuclear weapons
by 1964. As the number of nuclear-capable countries increased, so did
fears of global disaster. Some world leaders were concerned about the
idea of nuclear weapons in the hands of developing nations, especially
those not influenced by either side in the Cold War. Such nations
would not be kept in check by Cold War rivalries. In addition, many
were involved in bitter border disputes with their neighbors. These
disputes could invite a preemptive attack.
To help reduce some of these fears, world leaders agreed to take
During the 1950s and steps to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. In 1968 representatives from
1960s, the buildup of
nuclear weapons led to
more than 60 countries signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
worldwide fears. (NPT). Signers included both the United States and the Soviet Union. Under
this treaty, nuclear powers agreed not to sell or give nuclear weapons to any
other country. Nonnuclear powers promised not to develop or acquire such
Reading Check  weapons. The NPT did not completely end the spread of nuclear weapons.
Analyze Motives  Some countries refused to sign it, and some of those, including India and
What led Khrushchev
to erect the Berlin Pakistan, eventually developed their own weapons. But the treaty was a sig-
Wall? nificant step toward relieving some of the world’s fears of total destruction.

The Space Race Continues

While American diplomats were trying to soothe hostilities with Soviet
leaders, scientists were hard at work challenging Soviet technological
advances. In the 1950s the Soviets had launched the first artificial satellite.
Americans soon matched this feat. Then, on April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmo-
naut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human in space. Kennedy saw this as
a challenge. He grew determined to surpass the Soviets by sending a man to
the moon.
In less than a month, the United States had also successfully launched a
man into space: astronaut Alan Shepard. Later that year, a communications
satellite called Telstar relayed live television pictures across the Atlantic
Ocean from Maine to Europe. Meanwhile, America’s National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) had begun new construction projects. It
built new launch facilities at Cape Canaveral, Florida, and a mission control
center in Houston, Texas. America’s pride and prestige were restored. Speak-
ing before a crowd at Houston’s Rice University, Kennedy expressed the
spirit of “the space race.”

“We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things,
not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal
will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills,
because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are
unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win, and the
others, too.”
—John F. Kennedy, from his address on the nation’s space effort,
September 12, 1962

The Cold War 959

 Seven years later, the United States would achieve its goal. However,
Kennedy himself would not live to see it. Early on the morning of July 16,
1969, more than 5,000 dignitaries and reporters gathered at Cape Canav-
eral’s Kennedy Space Center. They witnessed the beginning of the first
flight to the moon. Nearly half a million more people flocked to the fields
around the site, hoping to see the historic event. Following the successful
launch, oversight of the mission shifted to Houston, Texas. Technicians
there monitored the craft’s progress.
Four days later on July 20, an excited nation sat glued to its televisions.
Americans watched as U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong climbed down the
ladder of his lunar module and stepped onto the surface of the moon.
“That’s one small step for man,” Armstrong said, “one giant leap for man-
kind.” Americans swelled with pride as they watched the historic moon
landing on their televisions. President Richard Nixon, who had taken
office a few months earlier, spoke to the astronauts from the White House.
He said, “For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives.”
As a result of the space program, universities expanded their science
programs. The huge federal funding for research and development gave
Reading Check  rise to new industries and new technologies. Many could be used in busi-
Analyze Causes  ness and industry and also in new consumer goods. Space- and defense-
How did the Cold War
help bring about related industries sprang up in the southern and western states, which
the space race? grew rapidly.

Lesson 5 Assessment
1. Organize Information  Use a series of web diagrams to
list two outcomes for each of these events: the Bay of
Pigs invasion, the Cuban missile crisis, and construction
of the Berlin Wall.
Outcome

Event

Outcome

Which of these outcomes led directly to other events

listed here or described in this lesson?
2. Key Terms and People  For each key term or person in 4. Analyze Primary Sources  Examine the cartoon above
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. of Kennedy (left) facing off with Khrushchev and Castro.
3. Evaluate  How well do you think President Kennedy What do you think the cartoonist was trying to convey?
handled the Cuban missile crisis? Justify your opinion 5. Draw Conclusions  What kind of political statement was
with specific examples from the text. made by the United States’ support of West Berlin?
Think About:
• Kennedy’s decision to impose a naval “quarantine” of
Cuba
• the nuclear showdown between the superpowers
• Kennedy’s decision not to invade Cuba

960 Module 21
 Lesson 6

The End of the Cold War

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
Colin Powell did not start out in life with any special privileges. Born
Changes in foreign policy begin-
in Harlem and raised in the Bronx, he only tolerated school. Then,
ning with the Nixon administra-
while attending the City College of New York, he joined the Reserve
tion gradually led to an easing of
U.S.-Soviet tensions and an end Officer Training Corps (ROTC). He got straight A's in ROTC, and so he
to the Cold War. decided to make the army his career.

Why It Matters Now

Powell served in several Cold War hotspots, first in Vietnam and then
The end of the Cold War led to
in Korea and West Germany. He rose in rank to become a general;
more open political and eco-
then President Reagan made him national security advisor. In this
nomic ties between the United
States and the Soviet Union, post, Powell noted that the Soviet Union was a factor in all the
despite some continued administration’s foreign policy decisions.
differences.
Key Terms and People “Our choosing sides in
Richard Nixon conflicts around the
Henry Kissinger world was almost always
realpolitik decided on the basis of
détente
East–West competition.
The new Soviet leader,
SALT I Treaty
Mikhail Gorbachev, how-
Gerald Ford
ever, was turning the old
Jimmy Carter Cold War formulas on
Ronald Reagan their head. . . . Ronald
Mikhail Gorbachev Reagan . . . had the General Colin Powell
Strategic Defense Initiative vision and flexibility,
glasnost lacking in many knee-jerk Cold Warriors, to recognize that
perestroika Gorbachev was a new man in a new age offering new opportu-
Intermediate-Range Nuclear nities for peace.”
— Colin Powell, from My American Journey
Forces (INF) Treaty

After nearly 50 years of tension between the United States and

the Soviet Union, Powell was witnessing the end of the Cold War.
Though U.S. foreign policy in the early 1980s was marked by intense
hostility toward the Soviet Union, economic problems destroyed
the Soviets’ ability to continue the standoff.

The Cold War 961

 Nixon’s Foreign Policy Triumphs
Although the Cold War finally wound down in the late 1980s and early
1990s, tensions still ran high when Richard Nixon became president in
1969. Throughout his presidency, Nixon’s foreign policy focused on sooth-
ing Cold War tension. His top priority was gaining an honorable peace in
Vietnam. At the same time, he also made significant advances in America’s
relationships with China and the Soviet Union.
KISSINGER AND REALPOLITIK  The architect of Nixon’s foreign policy
was his adviser for national security affairs, Henry Kissinger. Kissinger,
who would later become Nixon’s secretary of state, promoted a philoso-
phy known as realpolitik (rā-älʹpō´lĭ-tēkʹ), from a German term meaning
“political realism.” According to realpolitik, foreign policy should be based
solely on consideration of power, not ideals or moral principles.
Kissinger believed in evaluating a nation’s power, not its philosophy or
beliefs. If a country was weak, Kissinger argued, it was often more practical
to ignore that country, even if it was Communist. This marked a departure
from the former policy of containment, which refused to recognize the
major Communist countries. On the other hand, Kissinger’s philosophy
called for the United States to confront powerful nations. In realpolitik,
however, confrontation meant negotiation as well as military engagement.
Nixon shared Kissinger’s belief in realpolitik. Together the two adopted
a more flexible approach in dealing with Communist nations. They called
their policy détente—a policy aimed at easing Cold War tensions. One
of the most startling applications of détente came in early 1972 when
Nixon—who had risen in politics as a strong anti-Communist—visited
Communist China.
NIXON VISITS CHINA  Since the Communist takeover of mainland China
in 1949, the United States had not formally recognized the Chinese Com-
munist government. In late 1971 Nixon decided to reverse that policy. He
announced that he would visit China “to seek the normalization of rela-
tions between the two countries.”

President Nixon tours

the Great Wall as part
of his visit to China in
1972.

962 Module 21
Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Kissinger on Détente
“The differences between us are apparent.
Under President Richard Nixon and
Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, the Our task is not to intensify those differences.
focus of U.S. foreign policy shifted from Our task is to advance our relationship on
containment to détente. Kissinger offered a the basis of our mutual interests. Such a
clear explanation of what this policy meant relationship would strengthen each of us. It
while visiting China in 1975. would threaten no one and it would contribute
to the well-being of all peoples. . . . Each
country must pursue a policy suitable to its
own circumstances. . . . In this policy we will
be guided by actions and realities and not
Analyze Historical Sources rhetoric.”
—Henry Kissinger, from a toast to Chinese officials,
How does Kissinger’s description of détente
October 19, 1975
differ from earlier Cold War foreign policies?

By going to China, Nixon was trying, in part, to take advantage of the

decade-long rift between China and the Soviet Union. China had long criti-
cized the Soviet Union as being too “soft” in its policies against the West.
The two Communist superpowers officially broke ties in 1960. Nixon had
thought about exploiting the broken relationship for several years. “We
want to have the Chinese with us when we sit down and negotiate with
the Russians,” he told a reporter in 1968. Upon his arrival at the Beijing
Airport in February 1972, Nixon recalls his meeting with Chinese premier
Zhou Enlai.

“I knew that Zhou had been deeply insulted by Foster Dulles’s refusal
to shake hands with him at the Geneva Conference in 1954. When I
reached the bottom step, therefore, I made a point of extending my
hand as I walked toward him. When our hands met, one era ended
and another began.”
—Richard M. Nixon, from The Memoirs of Richard Nixon

Besides its enormous symbolic value, Nixon’s visit also was a huge suc-
cess with the American public. U.S. television crews flooded American
living rooms with film clips of Nixon at the Great Wall of China, at the
Imperial Palace, and even toasting top Communist leaders at state dinners.
Observers noted that Nixon’s visit opened up diplomatic and economic
relations with the Chinese and resulted in important agreements between
China and the United States. The two nations agreed that neither would
try to dominate the Pacific and that both would henceforth cooperate in
settling disputes peacefully. They also agreed to participate in scientific
and cultural exchanges. In addition, the United States recognized Taiwan
as a part of mainland China and promised to eventually withdraw Ameri-
can forces from the island.

The Cold War 963

 During the Cold War, the
Soviet Union regularly
displayed its military
strength in parades.
Shown here is an ICBM in
a 1965 parade through
Moscow’s Red Square.

NIXON TRAVELS TO MOSCOW  In May 1972, three months after visiting

Beijing, President Nixon headed to Moscow. He was the first U.S. president
ever to visit the Soviet Union. By the time he arrived for a summit meeting
with Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev, relations with the Soviet Union had
already warmed. In 1971 the two nations reached an agreement about Berlin.
The Soviets promised to guarantee Western nations free access to West Berlin
and to respect the city’s independence. In return, the Western allies agreed to
officially recognize East Germany.
Like his visit to China, Nixon’s trip to the Soviet Union received wide
approval. Nixon and Brezhnev held a series of meetings called the Strategic
Arms Limitation Talks. Then they signed the SALT I Treaty. This five-year
agreement limited the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)
and submarine-launched missiles to 1972 levels. It appeared that Nixon’s
policy of détente was helping to slow the arms race.
The foreign policy triumphs with China and the Soviet Union helped reelect
Nixon as president in 1972. So did the administration’s announcement that
peace “is at hand” in Vietnam. But peace in Vietnam proved elusive. The
Nixon administration grappled with the war for nearly six more months
before withdrawing troops and ending America’s involvement in Vietnam.
COLD WAR HOTSPOTS UNDER NIXON  While the attention of most Ameri-
cans was focused on events in Asia, President Nixon also kept a wary eye on
developments in South America and the Middle East.
In 1970 the people of Chile elected Marxist candidate Salvador Allende
(ä-yĕnʹdā) president. Allende’s election alarmed Nixon and his advisers, who
feared that he would introduce communism to Chile. To prevent such a devel-
opment, the CIA began covert operations, secretly providing funding and
training to opposition groups in Chile, including some units of the Chilean
military. On September 11, 1973, the military rebelled, killing Allende and
more than 3,000 others. General Augusto Pinochet (pē´nō-chĕtʹ), who was
staunchly opposed to socialism, was named Chile’s new president.

964 Module 21
 Also in 1973 Nixon sent military aid to Israel, which had been invaded
by forces from Syria and Egypt. This was not the first time the United
States had helped Israel defend against its neighbors. In the 1960s
President Johnson had sold tanks and aircraft to the Israeli military to
offset aid the Soviets had given to Israel’s Arab neighbors. When war
broke out between Israel and its neighbors in 1967, the United States did
not actively take part. It did, however, attempt to negotiate a cease-fire.
Johnson feared that continued hostilities in the region would force the
Soviet Union to come to the aid of its Arab allies, potentially beginning a
major world conflict.
Like Johnson had before, Nixon feared that Israeli conflict
would lead to direct confrontation with the Soviets. Although the United
States supplied massive amounts of military aid to Israel, U.S. officials
also worked to broker a cease-fire between the warring nations. In what
Reading Check  became known as “shuttle diplomacy,” Secretary of State Kissinger trav-
Analyze Effects  eled back and forth between Middle Eastern countries in an attempt to
How did Nixon’s forge a peace agreement. His efforts eventually paid off. Israel signed
trip change the
U.S. relationship a cease-fire with Egypt in January 1974. Four months later, it signed
with China? another with Syria.

Ford Confronts the Cold War

Nixon resigned as president in 1974 amid political scandal, making ­
Gerald Ford president. Ford mostly continued on the path Nixon had
begun, relying heavily on the assistance of Secretary of State Kissinger.
CONTINUING NIXON’S FOREIGN
POLICIES  Following Kissinger’s advice,
Ford pushed ahead with Nixon’s policy
of negotiation with China and the Soviet
Union. In November 1974 he met with
Soviet premier Brezhnev. Less than a year
later, he traveled to Helsinki, Finland,
where 35 nations, including the Soviet
Union, signed the Helsinki Accords—
a series of agreements that promised
greater cooperation between the nations
of Eastern and Western Europe. The
Helsinki Accords would be Ford’s greatest
presidential accomplishment.
President Ford signs ONGOING TURMOIL IN SOUTHEAST ASIA  Like presidents before him,
the Helsinki Accords,
August 1, 1975. Ford encountered trouble in Southeast Asia. The 1973 cease-fire in Viet-
nam had broken down. Heavy fighting resumed, and Ford asked Congress
for over $722 million to help South Vietnam. Congress refused. Without
American financial help, South Vietnam surrendered to the North in 1975.
Also in 1975 the Communist government of Cambodia seized the U.S.
merchant ship Mayagüez in the Gulf of Siam. President Ford responded with a
massive show of military force. He ordered air strikes against ­Cambodia.

The Cold War 965

 He also sent an elite team of U.S. Marines to rescue 39 crew members aboard
the ship. The operation cost the lives of 41 U.S. troops. Most Americans
applauded the action as evidence of the country’s strength. However, crit-
ics argued that the mission had cost more lives than it had saved. They also
argued that the president had acted without consulting Congress.
CRISIS IN AFRICA  In late 1974 the Ford administration was faced with a
new crisis far from Vietnam. American forces became involved in a civil war
in Angola, a country in southern Africa. Newly independent from Portuguese
control, Angola was nominally governed by three political organizations
working together. Each organization wanted power for itself, however, and
the country soon fell into civil war.
The struggle in Angola soon became an international affair. World super-
powers took sides in the conflict, lending aid to opposing factions. The
United States supported two of the three warring factions, while the Soviet
Union and China backed the third. The Soviet-backed forces quickly drove
their opponents from the capital. Ford requested additional funds to provide
more aid to the Angola rebels, but Congress, unwilling to get involved in
another foreign war so soon after Vietnam, refused. A Marxist government
took control of the country.
Reading Check  The Angola crisis put a new strain on U.S.-Soviet relations during a period
Summarize  Why when the relationship between the two countries seemed to be thawing. The
did American forces conflict in Angola, especially coming as it did on the heels of Vietnam, led
become involved in
events in Cambodia many to believe détente would not be a successful strategy for dealing with
and Angola? the Soviet Union. Many began to call for a new foreign policy.

A New Direction Under Carter

Gerald Ford ran for reelection in 1976. He was defeated by Democrat Jimmy
Carter. Carter was inexperienced in national politics and had no previous
foreign policy experience. However, he did have a sincere devotion to human
rights. This became the cornerstone of his actions as president. This devo-
tion strained relations between Carter and Soviet leaders and necessitated
changes in foreign policy.
THE COLLAPSE OF DÉTENTE  When Jimmy Carter took office, détente had
reached a high point. There was a relaxation of tensions between the world’s
superpowers. It had begun with President Nixon and continued with Presi-
dent Ford. U.S. officials had worked to ease relations with the Communist
superpowers of China and the Soviet Union.
However, Carter’s firm insistence on human rights led to a breakdown in
relations with the Soviet Union. President Carter was unhappy about the
Soviet Union’s treatment of dissidents, or opponents of the government’s
policies. He delayed a second round of SALT negotiations. President Carter
and Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev finally met in June 1979 in Vienna,
Austria. There they signed an agreement known as SALT II. The agreement
did not reduce armaments. However, it did limit the number of strategic
weapons and nuclear-missile launchers that each side could produce.

966 Module 21
 The SALT II agreement met sharp opposition
in the Senate. Critics argued that it would put the
United States at a military disadvantage. Then, in
December 1979 the Soviets invaded the neighbor-
ing country of Afghanistan. This action struck a
major blow to U.S.-Soviet relations.
THE SOVIET-AFGHAN WAR  Afghanistan is an
Islamic country along the southern border of the
Soviet Union. It had been run by a Communist,
pro-Soviet government for a number of years.
However, a strong Muslim rebel group known as
the mujahideen was intent on overthrowing the
Afghan government. The Soviet Union feared a
rebel victory in Afghanistan. It sent troops to
Afghanistan in late 1979. The rebels used guer-
rilla tactics and their knowledge of the country’s
mountainous landscape. The Soviets had supe-
rior weaponry, but the rebels fought them to a
stalemate.
When President Carter heard of the invasion, he
activated the seldom-used White House-Kremlin
hot line. He protested to Brezhnev that his actions
posed a serious threat to world peace. As a result of
the invasion, Carter withdrew his support for the
Soviet military
SALT II agreement, and the treaty died.
helicopters and tanks Several days later, Carter outlined the American response to the Soviet
patrol in Afghanistan invasion. He called the invasion a “gross interference in the internal affairs
several years after the
1979 invasion. of Afghanistan.” He said that the United States would block all exports of
grain to the Soviet Union. In addition, the United States would boycott the
Reading Check  1980 Olympics, which were to be held in Moscow. Both the grain embargo
Analyze Causes  and the Olympic boycott proved to be unpopular with the public. Many
What led to Americans felt that these actions punished Americans as much as they
the collapse of
détente with the hurt the Soviets. They also argued that the government’s response made
Soviet Union? both Carter and the country appear weak.

Reagan and the End of the Cold War

Carter served only one term as president. Ronald Reagan was elected in
1980 on a platform that included staunch opposition to communism. Yet
as president, Reagan helped bring about the end of the Cold War. Dur-
ing his administration, Reagan developed a complex relationship with
Mikhail Gorbachev. Gorbachev became the general secretary of the
Communist Party in the Soviet Union in March 1985. Gorbachev’s rise
to power marked the beginning of a new era in the Soviet Union.

The Cold War 967

 REAGAN AND COMMUNISM  As president, Reagan rejected the policy of
détente. He was not interested in accommodating communism. He wanted
to utterly destroy it. In speeches, he referred to the Soviet Union as “the evil
empire” and “the focus of evil in the modern world.”
To support his anti-Soviet foreign policy, Reagan greatly increased the U.S.
defense budget. In part, he hoped that any effort to match his spending would
bankrupt the struggling Soviets. During his first term in office, the Penta-
gon’s annual budget grew by almost 25 percent. Much of the new spending he
authorized went toward new weapons systems. In 1981 Reagan announced
plans to add thousands of nuclear warheads to the U.S. arsenal. He revived
two discontinued weapons systems—the MX missile and the B-1 bomber.
In 1983 Reagan asked U.S. scientists to develop a special defense system
to keep Americans safe from missiles. Officially called the Strategic Defense
Initiative, or SDI, it quickly became known as Star Wars. With a projected
price tag of trillions of dollars, SDI immediately met with opposition. Oppo-
nents, including many scientists, argued that the system would not work.
Reagan’s hardline anti-Communist position and increased defense spend-
ing worsened U.S.-Soviet relations during his first term. For example, Soviet
leaders saw SDI as an offensive weapon rather than a defensive one. They said
that it would allow the United States to launch a nuclear strike without fear
of retaliation. The Soviets ended arms control talks and boycotted the 1984
Olympic Games in Los Angeles. Reagan’s policies also drew criticism from
Americans. Hundreds of thousands of protesters marched in demonstrations.
They called for a nuclear freeze, a halt in the production of nuclear weapons.
Critics feared that Reagan’s aggressive position could provoke a nuclear war.
However, Reagan’s position also gained him support from some Americans
and from like-minded world leaders. These included conservative British
prime minister Margaret Thatcher and Polish-born Pope John Paul II. Like
Reagan, they believed the Soviet Union was devoted to global conquest.
GORBACHEV INITIATES REFORM  Within the Soviet Union, however, lead-
ers were more focused on internal issues. When he took control in 1985,
Gorbachev had inherited a host of problems. Many of them revolved around
the Soviet economy, which was under a great amount of stress. Reagan added
pressure by increasing U.S. defense spending. When the Soviets tried to keep
up, their economy was pushed to the brink of collapse.
A skilled diplomat and politician, Gorbachev promoted a policy known as
glasnost (Russian for “openness”). He allowed open criticism of the Soviet
government and granted limited freedom of the press. In 1985 he outlined his
plans for perestroika, a restructuring of Soviet society. He called for less gov-
ernment control of the economy and the introduction of some private enter-
prise. He also took steps toward establishing a democratic government.
IMPROVED U.S.-SOVIET RELATIONS  Gorbachev recognized that better rela-
tions with the United States would allow the Soviets to reduce their military
spending and reform their economy. Realizing that Gorbachev represented a
dramatic change in Soviet leadership, Reagan was also willing to negotiate.
Between 1985 and 1988 the two leaders met four times to discuss the future
of relations between their countries.

968 Module 21
President Reagan (right) and Gorbachev sign the INF Treaty, which includes the strictest
nuclear arms verification system up to that time.

The most obvious sign of the changing U.S.-Soviet relationship was the
signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty on Decem-
ber 8, 1987. The treaty eliminated two classes of weapons systems in Europe.
It allowed each nation to make on-site inspections of the other’s military
installations. More than 2,500 missiles were destroyed under the treaty.
THE COLLAPSE OF COMMUNIST REGIMES  As the leader of the Soviet Union,
Gorbachev encouraged the people of East Germany and Eastern Europe to
go their own ways. People in some Eastern European nations had been call-
ing for increased freedom even before Gorbachev rose to power. In Poland,
for example, workers had begun calling for economic change. In 1980 some
17,000 workers in the Polish city of Gdansk had locked themselves in a factory
to protest rising food prices. The workers were led by Lech Walesa (wä-lĕnʹsә).
They wanted the Soviet-backed Polish government to recognize their labor
union, called Solidarity. The protest inspired thousands of other workers
throughout Poland. They also went on strike. Eventually, the government
gave in. It officially recognized Solidarity as a union. To the people of Poland,
this recognition represented much more than an economic victory. It was a
first step toward freedom from Communist control.
Once in power, Gorbachev reduced the number of Soviet troops in Eastern
Europe. He allowed non-Communist parties to organize in satellite nations,
such as East Germany and Poland and encouraged these nations to move
toward democracy. During a speech at the Berlin Wall in 1987, President Rea-
gan challenged Gorbachev to back up his reforms with decisive action.

“General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek

prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek
liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr.
Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”
—Ronald Reagan, speech at the Brandenburg Gate, June 12, 1987

The Cold War 969

 In October 1989 East Germans startled the world by rejecting their
Communist government. At a celebration of the 40th anniversary of East
Germany, protesters began calling for more freedom. “Gorby, help us!,”
they chanted, seeking more of Gorbachev’s reforms.
On November 9, 1989, in an effort to calm rising protests, East German
officials threw open the gates of the Berlin Wall. This allowed free pas-
sage between the two parts of the city for the first time in 28 years. East
German border guards stood by and watched as Berliners from both sides
pounded away with hammers and other tools-or with their bare hands-
at the despised wall. Television signals carried images of the jubilant
Germans around the world. In early 1990 East Germany held its first free
elections. On October 3 of that year, less than a year after the wall came
down, the two German nations were united.
Other European nations also adopted democratic reforms. Czechoslova-
kia withdrew from the Soviet bloc. Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania made
successful transitions from communism. The United States sought to help
these countries in their transition away from Communist governments,
promoting the growth of multiparty governments and market economies.
After East Germany, Poland, and Czechoslovakia left the Warsaw Pact in
1990, the alliance dissolved within a year.
Yugoslavia, however, collapsed. Four of its six republics seceded. Ethnic
rivalries deteriorated into a brutal war among Muslims, Orthodox Serbs,
and Roman Catholic Croats, who were dividing Yugoslavia, each claiming
parts of it. Serbia backed Serb minorities who were stirring up civil unrest
in Croatia and Bosnia. Although President Bush tried to convince the vari-
ous parties to avoid bloodshed and resolve their issues democratically, he
was unsuccessful. The former Yugoslavia became embroiled in a civil war
that would last for many years.

A demonstrator
pounds away on the
Berlin Wall as East
German border guards
look on from above at
the Brandenburg Gate,
on November 11, 1989.

970 Module 21
 THE SOVIET UNION DECLINES  Gorbachev’s introduction of democratic
ideals led to a dramatic increase in nationalism on the part of the Soviet
Union’s non-Russian republics. In December 1991, 14 non-Russian repub-
lics declared their independence from the Soviet Union. Muscled aside by
Russian reformers who thought he was working too slowly toward democ-
TK racy, Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president on December 25. After 74
TK years, the Soviet Union dissolved.
A loose federation known as the Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS) took the place of the Soviet Union. In February 1992 President
George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin met at Camp David
to discuss the future of Russia and its neighbors. On behalf of the United
States, Bush promised to aid Russia in its transition to democracy, and he
This magazine cover marking
pledged more than $4 billion in economic aid to help the Russian economy.
the end of the Soviet Union
depicts Vladimir Lenin, the At the conclusion of the meeting, the two leaders issued a formal state-
founder of Soviet communism. ment declaring an end to the Cold War that had plagued the two nations
and divided the world since 1945. In January 1993, Yeltsin and Bush
signed the START II pact, designed to cut both nations’ nuclear arsenals by
two-thirds.
Reading Check  Upon his return to Russia, Yeltsin ended price controls and increased
Evaluate  Which
evidence in the
private business ownership. The Russian parliament opposed Yeltsin’s poli-
text supports the cies, even though a majority of voters supported them.
viewpoint that In December 1993 Russian voters installed a new parliament and
Gorbachev was a
skilled politician and approved a new constitution, parts of which resembled the U.S. Constitu-
diplomat? tion. In 1996 Yeltsin won reelection as president of Russia.

Lesson 6 Assessment
1. Organize Information  Use a table to identify steps 3. Analyze Causes  What factors caused the end of the
taken by Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev that Cold War?
helped end the Cold War. Think About:
Reagan Gorbachev • events in the Soviet Union
•
• events in Germany and Eastern Europe
•
•
• how leaders responded to these events
•
•
4. Draw Conclusions  Why were Nixon’s foreign policy
•
achievements particularly important?
Which leader do you think was more responsible for 5. Evaluate  Do you think the United States was justified
ending the conflict? Support your answer. in supporting military efforts in places like Chile and
2. Key Terms and People  For each key term or person in Angola? Support your answer with evidence from the
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. text.
6. Form Generalizations  Is it possible for an authoritarian
government to make economic reforms without also
making political reforms? Support your answer with
details from the text.

The Cold War 971

Module 21 Assessment
Key Terms and People 11. How did the Rosenberg case fuel anti-Com-
For each key term or person below, write a munist feelings?
sentence explaining its significance to the Cold 12. How did McCarthyism affect public views of
War. the government?
1. containment Two Nations Live on the Edge
2. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 13. What was the strategy behind the arms
3. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) race?
4. Mao Zedong 14. Why did the Soviet Union form the Warsaw
5. Korean War Pact?
6. McCarthyism 15. What were the results of the Suez War?
7. John Foster Dulles 16. How did the nuclear arms race affect life in
8. brinkmanship the United States in the 1950s?
9. Nikita Khrushchev 17. What was the role of the CIA in the Cold
War?
10. U-2 incident
Mounting Tensions in the Sixties
Main Ideas 18. How did relations between the United
Use your notes and the information in the module States and Cuba change after the Cuban
to answer the following questions. Revolution?
19. What were the most significant results of
The Origins of the Cold War
the Cuban missile crisis?
1. What were the goals of U.S. foreign policy in
20. What goal did presidents Kennedy and
the early Cold War?
Johnson have in sending U.S. troops to Viet-
2. What did Stalin do to make President nam? Did they attain that goal?
Truman distrust him?
21. What steps did Kennedy and Khrushchev
3. Describe the Truman Doctrine and how take to relieve tensions between their
America reacted to it. countries?
4. What was the purpose of the NATO 22. How did the world react to the growth of
alliance? nuclear-capable countries in the 1960s?
5. What necessitated the Berlin airlift?
The End of the Cold War
The Cold War Heats Up 23. What was the philosophy of realpolitik?
6. What global events led to U.S. involvement 24. What effects did the Soviet invasion of
in Korea? Afghanistan have on the United States?
7. What constitutional issue arose when What was the American response to the
Truman ordered troops to Korea? invasion?
8. What issue between General Douglas 25. What caused the downfall of the Soviet
MacArthur and President Truman eventu- Union and the founding of the Common-
ally cost MacArthur his job? wealth of Independent States?
9. How did the involvement of Communist 26. What events signaled that the Cold War had
China affect the Korean War? come to an end?
The Cold War at Home 27. How did arms talks affect relations between
10. What actions of Joseph McCarthy worsened the United States and the Soviet Union?
the national hysteria about communism?

972 Module 21
Module 21 Assessment, continued
Critical Thinking Engage with History
1. Analyze Causes  List at least two causes for Suppose your best friend has been accused of
each of these events and explain how they being a Communist. You have been called to
relate to the event: (a) the United States’ serve as a character witness for him or her. Write
adoption of a policy of containment, and a speech that you will present to the House Un-
(b) the beginning of the nuclear arms race American Activities Committee (HUAC). In your
between the United States and the Soviet speech, explain why you feel that your friend’s
Union. constitutional rights are being violated.
2. Contrast How did foreign policy in the
early Cold War represent a shift in foreign Focus on Writing
policy from the period before World War II? In a brief essay, trace the development of U.S.
3. Interpret Maps  Look carefully at the “Iron foreign policy over the course of the Cold War.
Curtain” map in Lesson 1. How did the Note major changes in approaches taken to
absence of a natural barrier on the western fighting communism by various presidents
border of the Soviet Union affect post– during the period, and explain how each presi-
World War II Soviet foreign policy? Explain dent built upon or rejected the policies of his
your answer. predecessors.
4. Form Generalizations  What role did the
United Nations play in the Cold War? Multimedia Activity
5. Summarize What were the effects of the In a small group, discuss American fears of
Marshall Plan on Western Europe? nuclear holocaust during the Cold War. Consider
6. Synthesize How did the Cold War lead to factors that worried citizens, such as the stock-
an expansion of government bureaucracy piling of nuclear weapons, civil defense strate-
in the United States? gies based on retaliation and mutually assured
7. Analyze Effects  How did the space race destruction, and the Soviet development of
affect U.S.-Soviet relations during the Cold missiles and Sputnik. With your group, create a
War? What other effects did it have? multimedia presentation that highlights Ameri-
8. Evaluate Consider the U.S. presidents from can concerns and the decisions that caused
Richard Nixon to Ronald Reagan. Who do them. In addition, identify strategies that Ameri-
you think was most effective in resolving cans developed to deal with the possibility of
Cold War tensions? Who do you think was nuclear war.
least effective? Support your answer.
9. Form Generalizations  How did the policy
of containment shape U.S. foreign policy in
the Cold War?
10. Analyze Events  What role did the United
States play in the creation of Israel, and how
did it affect foreign policy?

The Cold War 973

 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

0ctober F ury
The Cuban Missile Crisis
:

The Cuban missile crisis was perhaps the most blockade, a confrontation seemed inevitable. However,
dangerous event of the Cold War period. For several at the last moment, the Soviet ships turned back and war
days in October 1962, the United States and the Soviet was averted.
Union stood on the brink of nuclear war. The crisis began Explore the development and resolution of the Cuban
when the Soviet Union sent weapons, including nuclear missile crisis online. You can find a wealth of information,
missiles, to Cuba. It deepened when the United States video clips, primary sources, activities, and more through
blockaded Cuba to prevent the Soviets from delivering your online textbook.
more missiles. With Soviet ships sailing toward the

973 MC1 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

 Go online to view these and
other HISTORY® resources.

Getting Ready for War

Watch the video to see how the missiles in Cuba
created tension between the United States and
Prelude to Crisis the Soviet Union.
Watch the video to learn about the buildup
to the Cuban missile crisis.

Crisis Averted?
Watch the video to see how the Cuban missile crisis
brought the United States and the Soviet Union to
the brink of nuclear war.

Lessons Learned
Watch the video to learn about the impact of the
Cuban missile crisis.

THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS 973 MC2