CHAPTER ONE

Introduction — Concept of Stress

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Forces And Stresses
1.3 Axial Loading: Normal Stress
1.4 Shearing Stress
1.5 Bearing Stress In Connections
1.6 Application To The Analysis Of Simple Structures
1.7 Stress On An Oblique Plane Under Axial Loading
1.8 Stress Under General Loading Conditions: Components Of Stress
1.9 Ultimate And Allowable Stress: Factor Of Safety
Review And Summary

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The main objective of the study of the 《mechanics of materials》 is to
provide the engineer with the means of analyzing and designing various
machines and load-bearing structures. Both the analysis and the design
of a given structure involve the determination of stresses and
deformations. This first chapter is devoted to the concept of stress.

1
1.2 FORCES AND STRESSES
Forces (external and internal): Consider the structure in
Fig. 1.1, from the knowledge of statics we know that the
boom AB and rod BC are two-force members. The forces
in the two members can be determined by “Equilibrium
Conditions” using the “Free-body Diagram” as the
following.

Fig. 1.1
2
 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3

Or :
We consider the equilibrium of
pin B, by conditions that
∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 ··· FAB = 40 kN

∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 ··· FBC = 50 Kn

We will use the “equilibrium

conditions” in each lecture!

Fig. 1.4

From the free-body diagram of pin B and the force triangle (Fig. 1.3),
we obtain:

3
Stresses: The force per unit area, or the intensity of the forces
distributed over a given section, is called the stress on that section and
is denoted by Greek letter σ. The stress formula:
𝑃
𝜎= 𝑝=𝐴·𝜎 (1.1)
𝐴

The internal force is “distributed”

over the cross-section!

Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6

The sign of stress: + tensile stress (member in tension)

Or to make it elongated
− compressive stress (member in compression)
Or to make it shortened
𝑁
The unit of stress: 𝑃𝑎 = , a Pascal. SI metric unites are used.
𝑚2
1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/m2
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2
1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/m2

4
1.3 AXIAL LOADING: NORMAL STRESS

• Axial loading: Forces directed along the axis of

the rod

• Normal stress: Average of the force per unit area

in a member under axial loading
𝑃
𝜎= (1.1)
𝐴
• Stress at point Q: Fig. 1.7

• The relation between the axial load P

And stress 𝝈 (by equilibrium)

dF = σ ∙ dA
𝑑𝐹
=𝜎
𝑑𝐴
Fig. 1.8

• The actual distribution of stresses in any given section is statically

indeterminate. (we will study this later on)

5
• A uniform distribution of stress is possible only if the line of action
of the concentrated load P pass through the centroid of the section
considered.

Fig. 1.9

• If a two-force member is loaded axially, but eccentrically as

shown in Fig. 1.11 , then the internal forces in a given section
must be equivalent to a force P applied at the centroid of the
section and a couple M of moment M = Pd, the distribution of
stresses cannot be uniform.
Free-body diagram  How to make it?

Eccentrically

Centrically
M=P·d
ically

Fig. 1.10 Fig. 1.11

6
1.4 SHEARING STRESS
• Shearing Force or Shear
• Average Shearing Stress
• Bolt, Pins and Rivets
• Single shear and Double shear
B

Fig. 1.12 Fig. 1.13

• Average shearing stress:

P
 ave =
A
• The real distribution of shearing stresses across the section
cannot be assumed uniform and will be studied later on!
• Rivet – single shear (free body diagram analysis)

Fig. 1.14 Fig. 1.15

7
“Equilibrium Condition” → “Free-body diagram”

Fig. 1.16

Fig. 1.17

• Double shear (free-body diagram)

P F
 ave = =
A 2A

8
1.5 BEARING STRESS IN CONNECTIONS

Fig. 1.18

Fig. 1.19

• Bearing stress:
P P
b = =
A td

9
1.6 APPLICATION TO THE ANALYSIS OF
SIMPLESTRUCTURES

Fig. 1.20

• Determination of the normal stress in two-force members

First to calculate the force in each of the members by free-body
diagram analysis and equilibrium equation for a rigid body:
Σ 𝐹𝑋 = 0, Σ 𝐹𝑌 = 0, ΣM=0
• Calculate the tensile stress in each cross-section of rod BC

10
• Determination of the shearing stress
in various connections
Single shear (Pin at C)
Double shear (Pin at A)

For example:
P 50  103 N
 ave PinC = = = 102 MPa
A 491 10− 6 m2
Fig. 1.21

Fig. 1.22
For example: Pin at B, the largest shearing stress
occur in section G and H, where

Fig. 1.23
P 25 kN
 B ,ave = G = = 50.9 MPa
A 49110−6 m 2
• Determination of bearing stresses in members, pins and
brackets.

11
 1.7 STRESS ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE UNDER AXIAL
LOADING

• Axial force cause both normal and

shearing stresses on planes not
perpendicular to the axis of the member.

Considering the equilibrium of

Fig. 1.26 (b) and resolving P into normal
Fig. 1.24
component F and shearing component V,
we have:

F = P cos  V = P sin 
The corresponding average normal and
shearing stresses are
F P cos P
= = = cos2 
A A0 A0
cos
V P sin  P
= = = sin  cos
A A0 A0
cos

Fig. 1.26

θ
45°

12
Or:
𝑃
σ= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 𝜎0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝐴0
𝑃
𝜏 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜎0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴0

We can see that:

𝑃
At 𝜽 = 𝟎, σ = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝜎0
𝐴0

and 𝛔 0 when 𝛉 90°

At 𝜽 = 𝟎 and 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎°， 𝜏 = 0
and at 𝜃 = 45°,
𝑃 1
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝜎
2𝐴0 2 0 Fig. 1.27

𝜎0
At 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓°, 𝜏 =σ=
2

13
1.8 STRESS UNDER GENERAL LOADING
CONDITIONS: COMPONENTS OF STRESS

∆F

∆A

Fig. 1.28

• Consider a body subjected to several

loads 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , etc. Now let’s define the stress at a
point Q inside the body. Define the stress on a
small area Δ𝐴 normal to the x axis:

F x V y Vz
x x

, ,
A A A
Fig. 1.30
Letting Δ𝐴 0, we define the stress
components at point Q as
F x
 x = lim
A → 0  A

V yx Vzx
 xy = lim  xz = lim
A → 0 A A → 0  A

14
• The sign of stresses
Fig. 1.31
Similarly, we can define the stress
components on the small area (or
point Q) normal to the y and z axes:
𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑥
( 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 )
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
• Important relations between Fig. 1.32
shearing stress components: M=0 M
Considering the six equilibrium
conditions of small cube of side a

F = F = F = 0
x y z

1M = M = M = 0
M=0
x y z

From Fig. 1.33

 M = (z xy A)a − ( yx A)a = 0

We have  xy =  yx

Similarly,  yz =  zy  yz =  zy

Fig. 1.34

15
• Only 6 stress components are required to define the
condition of stress at a given point Q, instead of 9 as originally
assumed

3 Normal Stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧

3 Shear Stresses 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥

• At a given point, shear cannot take place in one plane only; an equal
shear must be exerted on another plane perpendicular to the first
one

Fig. 1.35

• Same loading condition may

lead to different
interpretations of stress
situation at a given point, →
depending upon the
orientation of the
element considered. More detail
will be discussed in Chapter 6. Fig. 1.36

16
1.9 ULTIMATE AND ALLOWABLE STRESS: FACTOR
OF SAFETY

• Concept of ultimate load and its determination

Ultimate normal stress and ultimate shear stress

• Concept of allowable load—working load or design load

ultimate load
• Factor of safety = F.S.=
allowable load

ultimae stress
Factor of safety =
allowable stress

• The determination of the factor of safety should be based upon

many considerations.

Fig. 1.37 Fig. 1.38

17
 REVIEW AND SUMMARY
(On PP.44-46 of the text book)

Axial loading. Normal stress

Transverse forces. Shearing stress

Single and double shear

18
Bearing stress

Stresses on an oblique section

Stress under general loading

Ultimate strength
Ultimate load and allowable load
Factor of safety

19