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Hatha Yoga Practices: Energy Expenditure, Respiratory Changes and Intensity

of Exercise

Article  in  Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · June 2011

DOI: 10.1093/ecam/neq046 · Source: PubMed

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Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2011, Article ID 241294, 12 pages
doi:10.1093/ecam/neq046

Original Article
Hatha Yoga Practices: Energy Expenditure, Respiratory
Changes and Intensity of Exercise

Uday Sankar Ray,1 Anjana Pathak,2 and Omveer Singh Tomer2

1 Environmental Physiology Division, Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences, Defence Research and Development
Organization, Timarpur, Lucknow Road, Delhi 110054, India
2 Work Physiology and Yoga, Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences, Defence Research and Development Organization,

Delhi, India

Correspondence should be addressed to Uday Sankar Ray, [email protected]

Received 7 August 2009; Accepted 12 April 2010

Copyright © 2011 Uday Sankar Ray et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

The aim of this study was to critically observe the energy expenditure, exercise intensity and respiratory changes during a full
yoga practice session. Oxygen consumption (V̇O2 ), carbon dioxide output (V̇CO2 ), pulmonary ventilation (V̇E), respiratory
rate (Fr) and tidal volume (VT), were measured in 16 physical posture (asanas), five yoga breathing maneuvers (BM) and two
types of meditation. Twenty male (age 27.3 ± 3.5 years, height 166.6 ± 5.4 cm and body weight 58.8 ± 9.6 kg) yoga instructors were
studied. Their maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2 max ) was recorded. The exercise intensity in asanas was expressed in percentage
V̇O2 max . In asanas, exercise intensity varied from 9.9 to 26.5% of V̇O2 max . Highest energy cost was 3.02 kcal min−1 . In BM highest
V̇E was 53.7 ± 15.5 l min−1 . VT was 0.97 ± 0.59, 1.41 ± 1.27 and 1.28 ± l/breath with corresponding Fr of 14.0 ± 5.3, 10.0 ± 6.35,
10.0 ± 5.8 breaths/min. Average energy expenditure in asanas, BM and meditation were 2.29, 1.91 and 1.37 kcal min−1 , respectively.
Metabolic rate was generally in the range of 1-2 metabolic equivalents (MET) except in three asanas where it was >2 MET. V̇O2 was
0.27 ± 0.05 and 0.24 ± 0.04 l min−1 in meditation and Shavasana, respectively. Although yogic practices are low intensity exercises
within lactate threshold, physical performance improvement is possible owing to both better economy of breathing by BM and also
by improvement in cardiovascular reserve. Other factors such as psycho-physiological and better relaxation may contribute to it.

1. Introduction reduced by yoga intervention [11–14]. It helps in the reversal

of coronary artery diseases [15]. It has even helped to
There is literature on the ancient Indian system of yoga improve physical performance and to reduce the level of
regarding its positive effects on various physiological systems. inflammatory markers in chronic heart failure patients with
Raub [1] in a review has shown that psycho-physiological 25% ejection fraction [16]. Yogic practices are useful in the
changes by yoga help in the improvement of both muscu- management of diabetes [17, 18] and bronchial asthma [19].
loskeletal and cardiopulmonary functions. Long-term yoga It has also been shown that if the intensity and duration of
practice improves depth of breathing and alters chemore- yoga training is not proper the expected effect of yoga may
ceptive sensitivity [2, 3]. It also reduces metabolic rate in not be observed as in case of diabetic patients [20]. Yoga has
healthy subjects [4]. Meditation leads to hypo-metabolic its great psychological benefits by reduction of stress, anxiety
state [5, 6], but specific respiratory exercises (pranayama) and depression [10, 21–23]. Its role in the treatment of
do the opposite [6]. Yoga improves physical performance chronic insomnia has also been reported [24]. Yoga is rapidly
[7, 8], body flexibility [9] and mental health [10]. Its gaining popularity. The number of people practicing yoga
therapeutic potentials in various diseases particularly for for health benefits in India as well as abroad has increased
life-style-related ones have been explored and are being significantly in the past decade [25]. In spite of continued
utilized. The four leading risk factors like overweight, high interest of the scientific community, there is still paucity
blood pressure, high blood glucose and cholesterol, which of data on basic physiological responses related to yoga
are linked to life-style-related chronic diseases, may be practices. The data on energy expenditure during its practice
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

as well as relevant data to express the intensity of exercise in hormonal profile of two genders. There was a study [4]
terms of exercise physiology or nutritionist have not been that showed that magnitude of response to basal metabolic
documented systematically as it has been done for various rate by yoga training in male and female volunteers was
sports or other day-to-day activities or for occupational different. In one of our previous study [10] also, in view of
activities. “The compendium of physical activities” [26] gender differences, the data of male and female subjects were
a coding scheme that classifies physical activity based on presented separately. Therefore, to get a better resolution
energy expenditure does not include energy expenditure of the facts only one gender (male) was selected. Again,
while performing various types of yoga. The literature in subjects selected for this study were experienced yoga
this regard either reported it by citing single yoga practice practitioners/instructors. This was due to the following facts.
or by giving it in a more general way [27–38]. Kyeongra Yang The main aim of this study was to have some standard values
[11] stressed this point in his review article. The report in with respect to different asanas and other yogic practices.
this regard for a full yoga session has been provided only by Earlier in a same type of study (unpublished) recordings were
four groups of workers [34–37]. First group is ours [34] that taken by us during yoga training in two phases on people
focused on Suryanamaskar (Sun salutation). Second group who were novice in yoga practice. The limitation of that
studied on women and on the mixed samples of a wider age study was the variations in physiological responses based on
range, that is, 19–40 years old [35]. Two studies [35, 36] the subjects’ daily activity pattern; if they were athletic type
reported on the yoga sessions which comprised of Surya their energy expenditure during yoga practice was lower than
namaskar as a major part of the entire session. Another was sedentary individuals. So, again it may vary to a certain extent
based only on six yoga positions [37]. These studies have in different populations based on the respective physical
given intensity of exercise in terms of percentage of maximal activity level. As there were no data available in this field
heart rate (%MHR) and on energy expenditure. However, where similar type of study had been done, preference was
none has evaluated the intensity of exercise in yoga postures given more to provide the data with respect to those people
in terms of each subject’s percentage of actual maximal (yoga instructors) who were supposed to be more accurate
oxygen uptake capacity (%V̇O2 max ). Hence, the true relative and perfect in performing yoga postures/practices. These
intensity of physical activity could not be revealed. In view subjects were supposed to have more stable responses. Thus,
of the evidences that in yoga %MHR overestimates the it also helped to exclude the effects those likely to have in
corresponding level of oxygen consumption [37], a study semi-trained or untrained persons.
incorporating %V̇O2 max has been long due. Moreover, no
study is available where the parameters like ventilatory equiv- 2.2. General Protocol. In this study only one group of subject
alent for oxygen and carbon dioxide, pulmonary ventilation who practiced only yoga was considered (i.e., “Yoga” group).
have been provided with the oxygen consumption to evaluate Another group, that is, “control” who would have practiced
the yogic exercises in terms of exercise physiology. The data in other form of conventional exercises was not included. The
this regard will be helpful for nutritionist, therapists as well as reason behind this was the very purpose of this study where
researchers involved in this field. It will also be helpful for the measurements of various physiological parameters needed to
people involved in various yoga programs to get an idea of be done during actual yoga practice. However, logically the
energy expenditure and intensity of exercise of different yoga people of the “control group” who would have been trained
practices for incorporating them in yoga sessions according in aerobics in a conventional way could not have been trained
to the need. In this background, the aim of this study was in yoga. So, they could not have practiced yoga. Thus, it
to evaluate the energy expenditure during a full session would not have been possible to get their values during the
of yoga practice on professional male yoga practitioners of actual yoga practice. If they also would have practiced yoga,
comparatively shorter age range and to express its intensity they could not have been treated as “control” group (it would
in terms of metabolic equivalent (MET) and %V̇O2 max for have been a mixed yoga and non-yoga-aerobics group).
each of its components individually. The study also noted the Subjects were explained about the various tests, the
behavior of other relevant respiratory parameters. purpose of the study and the risk involved as in maximal
exercise test. They were also made aware of the precautions
2. Methods taken thereof. They gave their informed consent to partici-
pate in the study and the ethical committee of the institute
2.1. Subjects. Twenty healthy male yoga practitioners/instru- who scrutinizes the standards with respect to the ethical
ctors who had been practicing yoga for 6–10 years volun- principles for research involving human subjects approved
teered for the study. Their mean age, height, body weight, the test protocol. Test trial of the protocol was given to each
body fat percentage and lean body weight (LBW) were individual few days prior to the day of actual test to acquaint
27.4 ± 3.45 years, 166.6 ± 5.4 cm, 58.8 ± 9.62 kg, 10.9 ± 3.1 them with the procedure so as to avoid anxiety that would
and 52.2 ± 2.8 kg respectively. have otherwise interfered with the results. It also helped in
All subjects of this study were of one gender that is, the standardization of the experiment.
only male instead of both male and female. This is due to
the scientifically well-accepted fact that the male and female 2.3. Yoga Practices. The study wanted to encompass greater
have different range of physiological parameters in normal variety of yoga postures/practices in its purview to get
condition. Again, the magnitude of the effect of physical closer view of the behavior/range of various physiological
training on them also differs. This happens due to different parameters within a reasonable time frame to arrive at a
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

realistic conclusion. Hence, a representative yoga practice Table 1: Particulars about yoga practices.
schedule as usually been practiced by normal healthy person
Time (in
of this age group was considered. No. Asanas Remarks
minutes)
The subjects performed various yoga practices as listed
in Table 1 and Figure 1 for about 1 h in the laboratory. The 1 KB 2 —
abbreviations with respect to different yoga practices are two postures, each
2 YM 1 and YM 2 2
given in Figure 1. Various Yoga practice schedule consisted two times
of hatha yoga asanas (various static physical postures), 3 PSN 2 —
pranayama (breathing maneuvers—BMs) and meditation. 4 SPVM 1 —
Hatha yoga exercises were administered according to the 5 PVM 1 —
standard procedure [39, 40]. Duration (in minutes) for each 1/2 min rest after
yogic practice as performed during the yoga session is also 6 DHN 2
first min
given in Table 1. The entire Yogic exercise schedule consisted 1/2 min rest after
of hatha yoga asana (24 min), BMs (8 min) and meditation 7 MYS 2
first min
(5 min). Usually after every asana adequate rest in the form 8 VAJ 1 —
of Shavasana (SAV) was given. During this time oxygen 9 SVAJ 1 —
consumption (V̇O2 ) along with heart rate were monitored.
10 GMK1, GMK2 2
Stability of these parameters by arriving at basal resting
values was considered as indicator of adequate rest and 11 SARV 1
washout in between asanas. This was done to get stable state 12 HAL1 1 —
to avoid the carry-over effect on the subsequent asanas. The 13 HAL2 1 —
basic requirement of any yoga program is also to provide 14 KPED 1
adequate rest in the form of SAV in between asanas or other 1/2 min rest after
practices. 15 BHUJ 2
first min
1/2 min rest after
16 UTP 2
2.4. Measurements. In general, measurements were con- first min
ducted in two sets on two different days. First set was done 17 SAVa
after every
during a full yoga session in the laboratory when measure- asanas
ments were conducted while subjects were performing the 18 BHAS 2 1/2 min rest
actual yogic practices. Second set was carried out on some 5–7 s rest after each
19 KAKI 1
other day when their maximal exercise test was conducted on 1/2 min practice
an ergometer to get their maximal oxygen uptake capacity 5–7 s rest after each
20 YONI 1
(V̇O2 max ) values. This was used to calculate intensity of 1/2 min practice
exercise in terms of %V̇O2 max for different yoga postures. 21 BHRA 2 —
22 OM MED 3 —
2.4.1. Anthropometry 23 MED 2
after
Body weight of the subjects was recorded by a precalibrated pranayama,
human weighing machine (ATCO Electronic Platform Scale 24 SUKHa —
kaki mudra,
EW Series, India) and skin fold thickness was taken by yoni mudra
Harpendon skin fold caliper (Holtain Ltd, UK). Body fat was a Practiced until steady resting values in heart rate and V̇O2 were achieved.
calculated by the method of Sloan [41].

2.5. Rest and during Yoga Practice. Their V̇O2 , ventila- day of experiment the duration between various practices
tion (V̇E), respiratory rate (Fr) and tidal volume (VT) were taken into consideration. For Bhastrika (BHAS), the
were recorded by oxygen-consumption measurement system breathing mask was removed for the time being during its
(Model Oxycon Champion, Erich Jaeger, Germany), while practice as with the mask it was not possible to perform
they were actually performing the yoga practices after these maneuvers properly. Recording was taken just after its
30 min rest in supine position. The system was calibrated practice. All the tests were conducted in the forenoon (09:00–
regularly for volume of air by a standard 2 l syringe and 11:00 h). Temperature of the laboratory was maintained at
for oxygen and carbon dioxide percentage by standard gas 26–28◦ C and humidity at 60–80% during the period of
mixture. During trial runs, days before the actual tests, experiment.
approximate duration in between and heart rate to get stable
state. In this way, approximate time period required for 2.6. Maximal Exercise Test. Subjects performed maximal
stabilization by achieving basal values of those parameters exercise on a bicycle ergometer (Ergoline, Gmbh, and
(recovery) was determined after each yoga practice for better ergometrics ER 900, Germany) on a day other than the
guidance during the day of actual experiment. Based on this day when they practiced yoga. Their V̇O2 , V̇E, Fr and VT
and also by studying in the same way during the actual were measured by oxygen consumption measurement system
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

1 3 4
2 7
5 6

13
8 9 10 11 12 14

18
15 16 17

20 21 22 23 24
19

25 26 27 28

Figure 1: The various yoga postures as practiced by the subjects during a full yoga session. (1) Yoga mudra asana 1-YM 1, (2) Yoga
mudra asana 2-YM 2, (3) Paschimottanasana-PSN, (4) Supta pavan muktasana-SPVM, (5) Pavan muktasana-PVM, (6) Dhanurasana-
DHN, (7) Matsyasana-MYS, (8) Vajrasana-VAJ, (9) Supta Vajrasana-SVAJ, (10) Gomukhasana 1-GMK1, (11) Gomukhasana 2-GMK 2,
(12) Sarvangasana-SARV, (13) Halasana 1-HAL1, (14) Halasana 2-HAL 2, (15) Karnapeedasana-KPED, (16) Bhujangasana-BHUJ, (17)
Utthanpadasana-UTP, (18) Shavasana-SAV, (19) Kapalbhati-KB, (20) Bhastrika-BHAS, (21) Kaki mudra-KAKI, (22) Yoni mudra-YONI,
(23) Bhramari pranayama-BHRA, (24) Sukhasana-SUKH, (25) Omkar meditation-OMMED, (26) Meditation-MED, (27) Sukhasana-
SUKH, (28) Shavasana-SAV.

(Oxycon Champion, Erich Jaeger, Germany). Heart rate oxygen (V̇O2 max ) is expressed as %V̇O2 max . Only first cluster
was monitored from ECG recording (MX lead by the same (asanas) have been considered to express intensity of exercise
system). They pedaled at zero load for 5 min as warm up in terms of V̇O2 max as in the rest of the yoga practice V̇O2
exercise. Then, they were given a brief rest while sitting on was very low.
the ergometer. Subsequently, when heart rate and V̇O2 were
in steady resting level, they were administered exercise in a 2.8. Statistics. Statistical analysis of the data was performed
graded exercise protocol starting from 25 W workload and by two-way classification of analysis of variance technique
progressively increasing it by 25 W every minute (at 60 rpm) using the Newman-Keuls multiple range test to compare the
until exhaustion. Exercise was stopped when subjects could same group at different situations.
not keep the rhythm of pedaling and V̇O2 reached a plateau.
3. Results
2.7. Data Analysis. For analysis and comparison, different
yoga practices were grouped as separate clusters. First 3.1. V̇O2 . Changes in V̇O2 and other parameters are given in
cluster was having various asanas (static physical postures). Tables 2, 3 and 4. The V̇O2 value during the practice of
Second cluster was having various BMs, that is, Kapal Bhati Pavan muktasana (PVM), Dhanurasana (DHN), Sarvanga-
(KB), BHAS, Kaki Mudra (KAKI), Yoni Mudra (YONI) and sana (SARV), Halasana 1 (HAL1), Halasana 2 (HAL2) and
Bhramari pranayama (BHRA). The third cluster consisted Karnapedasana (KPED) were 0.542 ±0.12, 0.624±0.07,
of various meditative practices along with the postures in 0.562±0.14, 0.571±0.18, 0.631±0.19 and 0.571±0.17l min−1 ,
which meditation is practiced when V̇O2 was supposed to be respectively, and those were of significantly higher range
in the lower range, that is, Omkar meditation (OM MED), as compared with other asanas. In Matsyasana (MYS),
Meditation (MED), SAV and Sukhasanas (SUKH). For the Gomukhasana (GMK2), Bhujangasana (BHUJ) and Uttan-
calculation of MET, the ratio of V̇O2 required during yoga gpadasana (UTP) it was 0.471 ± 0.12, 0.521 ± 0.10, 0.471 ±
practice to the V̇O2 at rest was considered. The energy 0.08 and 0.502 ± 0.10 l min−1 respectively. It was significantly
cost of each yoga practice was derived using V̇O2 corrected higher (P < .01) in PVM as compared with Supta Pavan
to non-protein respiratory quotient [42]. The amount of Muktasana (SPVM). Value of Supta Vajrasana (SVAJ) was
oxygen required for a person for a particular activity in higher (P < .05) than Vajrasana (VAJ). In SAV it was
terms of percentage of his maximum ability to consume 0.243 ± 0.04 l min−1 . Other than SAV lowest value was
 Table 2: Metabolic rate, energy cost, %V̇O2 max and various respiratory parameters during the actual practice of asanas.

Parameters
−1 −1 −1
V̇O2 (l min ) V̇CO2 (l min ) V̇E (l min ) Fr (breaths/min) VT (l/breath) EQO2 EQCO2 RQ MET Energy cost (kcal) %V̇O2 max
YM1 0.401 ± 0.12 0.331 ± 0.10 10.4 ± 3.16 14.0 ± 5.23 0.83 ± 0.36 22.8 ± 4.71 27.7 ± 2.95 0.82 ± 0.11 1.37 ± 0.41 1.93 ± 0.60 14.1 ± 2.4
YM2 0.369 ± 0.07 0.302 ± 0.05 9.3 ± 1.90 13.0 ± 5.92 0.86 ± 0.58 21.2 ± 3.53 26.5∗ ± 2.54 0.80 ± 0.09 1.30 ± 0.32 1.80 ± 0.33 17.4 ± 2.34
PSN 0.433 ± 0.13 0.371 ± 0.11 11.8 ± 3.24 20.0 ± 5.01 0.61 ± 0.13 23.9 ± 4.72 27.6 ± 5.72 0.86 ± 0.08 1.49 ± 0.43 2.08 ± 0.61 15.7 ± 3.8
†
SPVM 0.391 ± 0.09 0.352 ± 0.07 11.6 ± 2.47 20.0 ± 5.35 0.67 ± 0.30 26.2 ± 5.27 29.1 ± 4.27 0.90 ± 0.13 1.34 ± 0.28 1.87 ± 0.43 15.9 ± 2.93
∗ † ∗
PVM 0.542 ± 0.12 0.451 ± 0.11 14.9 ± 3.71 24.0 ± 6.18 0.68 ± 0.26 24.2 ± 4.29 29.0 ± 3.95 0.83 ± 0.12 1.88 ± 0.49 2.62 ± 0.57 21.0 ± 5.51
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
DHN 0.624 ± 0.07 0.543 ± 0.09 17.9 ± 2.32 24.0 ± 4.33 0.73 ± 0.15 26.6 ± 2.76 28.4 ± 5.83 0.89 ± 0.13 2.19 ± 0.49 3.03 ± 0.35 26.5 ± 6.02
MYS 0.471 ± 0.12 0.412 ± 0.09 13.7 ± 2.90 17.0 ± 4.70 0.79 ± 0.19 26.6 ± 5.03 28.9 ± 3.75 0.89 ± 0.13 1.63 ± 0.44 2.28 ± 0.59 19.8 ± 4.89
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

‡
VAJ 0.372 ± 0.09 0.321 ± 0.07 10.9 ± 2.23 17.0 ± 3.76 0.65 ± 0.15 26.3 ± 4.25 29.8 ± 3.51 0.88 ± 0.07 1.28 ± 0.26 1.81 ± 0.43 15.5 ± 2.78
SVAJ 0.433 ± 0.11‡ 0.392 ± 0.11 13.3 ± 3.39 21.0 ± 4.22 0.72 ± 0.22 26.8 ± 4.62 29.8 ± 3.64 0.91 ± 0.09 1.49 ± 0.31 2.09 ± 0.54 17.5 ± 2.35
GMK1 0.421 ± 0.10 0.362 ± 0.09 12.7 ± 2.79 20.0 ± 4.53 0.65 ± 0.16 26.8 ± 4.38 30.5 ± 3.81 0.88 ± 0.10 1.45 ± 0.39 2.02 ± 0.50 18.4 ± 3.68
GMK 2 0.521 ± 0.10 0.441 ± 0.09 14.9 ± 3.11 22.0 ± 5.2 0.70 ± 0.16 25.5 ± 3.54 29.9 ± 3.66 0.85 ± 0.06 1.82 ± 0.44 2.45 ± 0.49 22.8 ± 5.38
∗ ∗
SARV 0.562 ± 0.14 0.452 ± 0.09 15.1 ± 2.40 25.0 ± 5.23 0.61 ± 0.10 22.3 ± 3.48 27.4 ± 3.35 0.82 ± 0.09 1.94 ± 0.46 2.73 ± 0.69 22.7 ± 5.5
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
HAL 1 0.571 ± 0.18 0.513 ± 0.14 16.9 ± 3.79 27.0 ± 4.23 0.61 ± 0.13 24.3 ± 2.57 28.8 ± 5.32 0.82 ± 0.08 2.03 ± 0.68 2.79 ± 0.89 25.9 ± 7.68
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
HAL 2 0.631 ± 0.19 0.524 ± 0.13 16.7 ± 3.24 27.0 ± 6.21 0.63 ± 0.15 22.0 ± 3.78 27.1 ± 4.33 0.81 ± 0.09 2.19 ± 0.68 3.05 ± 0.91 24.6 ± 7.77
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
KPED 0.571 ± 0.17 0.471 ± 0.10 15.6 ± 3.20 27.0 ± 6.29 0.57 ± 0.11 22.3 ± 3.27 27.43 ± 4.16 0.79 ± 0.08 2.00 ± 0.62 2.79 ± 0.81 22.7 ± 6.05
BHUJ 0.471 ± 0.08 0.412 ± 0.08 13.8 ± 2.70 19.0 ± 5.47 0.73 ± 0.19 26.6 ± 4.47 30.2 ± 4.27 0.87 ± 0.09 1.66 ± 0.37 2.30 ± 0.36 20.7 ± 4.51
UTP 0.502 ± 0.10 0.451 ± 0.13 16.1∗ ± 3.34 21.0 ± 4.75 0.71 ± 0.17 27.8∗ ± 5.26 29.5 ± 3.90 0.98 ± 0.10 1.76 ± 0.48 2.42 ± 0.50 23.9 ± 5.04
SAV 0.243 ± 0.04 0.222 ± 0.04 6.9 ± 1.43 13.0 ± 3.24 0.54 ± 0.15 24.7 ± 4.61 27.7 ± 4.07 0.89 ± 0.10 1.16 9.9 ± 1.21
Data are mean ± SD.
∗ indicates asanas (posture) statistically significant (P < .05 and above) as compared with others.
† significantly (P < .001) different.
‡ significantly (P < .05) different among themselves.
5
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table 3: Metabolic rate, energy cost and various respiratory parameters during the actual practice of BMs as compared with those of SUKH.

Parameters KB BHAS KAKI YONI BHRA SUKH

V̇O2 (l min−1 ) ∗
0.451 ± 0.15 †
0.262 ± 0.04 0.514∗ ± 0.16 † 0.503∗ ± 0.18† 0.331 ± 0.07 0.312 ± 0.07
V̇CO2 (l min−1 ) 0.714 ± 0.34 0.174 ± 0.04 0.424 ± 0.12 0.381 ± 0.15 0.281 ± 0.06 0.242 ± 0.07
V̇E (l min−1 ) 53.5∗ ± 15.47 6.6 ± 1.38 12.7 ± 4.02 11.7 ± 3.79 8.9 ± 2.29 8.8 ± 2.58
Fr (breaths/min) 65.0∗ ± 27.41 12.0 ± 4.66 14.0 ± 5.33 13.0 ± 4.90 10.0 ± 6.35 16.0 ± 4.86
VT (l/breath) 0.64 ± 0.31 0.59 ± 0.21 0.97 ± 0.59 0.77 ± 0.37 1.41∗ ± 1.27 0.59 ± 0.15
EQO2 79.0∗ ± 33.62 21.5 ± 5.49 22.1 ± 5.17 23.2 ± 5.84 24.5 ± 5.39 24.7 ± 5.71
EQCO2 60.8∗ ± 13.90 27.9 ± 11.99 27.9 ± 5.31 28.7 ± 5.84 28.6 ± 3.11 31.1 ± 5.91
RQ 1.60 ± 0.52 0.64 ± 0.14 0.79 ± 0.10 0.81 ± 0.10 0.85 ± 0.11 0.78 ± 0.1
MET 1.55∗ ± 0.55 0.92 ± 0.21 1.78∗ ± 0.61 1.72∗ ± 0.56 1.17 ± 0.34 1.07 ± 0.28
Energy cost (kcal) 2.17∗ ± 0.73 1.28 ± 0.21 2.50∗ ± 0.80 2.45∗ ± 0.90 1.61 ± 0.34 1.49 ± 0.34
Data are mean ± SD.
∗ indicates BMs statistically significant (P < .05 and above) as compared with others.
† significantly different compared to SUKH.

Table 4: Metabolic rate, energy cost and various respiratory parameters during the actual practice of meditation as compared with those of
SAV and SUKH.
Parameters OM MED MED SAV SUKH
V̇O2 (l min−1 ) 0.301∗ ± 0.08 0.272 ± 0.05 0.243∗ ± 0.04 0.312 ± 0.07 †
V̇CO2 (l min−1 ) 0.272∗ ± 0.11 0.213∗ ± 0.06 0.222∗ ± 0.04 0.242 ± 0.07
V̇E (l min−1 ) 8.5∗ ± 2.42 6.9∗ ± 1.62 6.9∗ ± 1.43 8.8∗ ± 2.58†
Fr (breath/min) 10.0∗ ± 5.82 13.0 ± 4.36 13.0 ± 3.24 16.0∗ ± 4.86
VT (l/breath) 1.28∗ ± 1.14 0.61∗ ± 0.26 0.54∗ ± 0.15 0.59∗ ± 0.15
EQO2 25.2∗ ± 6.43 22.3∗ ± 4.39† 24.7 ± 4.61 24.7∗ ± 5.71
EQCO2 29.1∗ ± 3.51† 29.9 ± 4.1† 27.7 ± 4.07 31.1∗ ± 5.91†
RQ 0.85∗ ± 0.16 0.74∗ ± 0.09† 0.89 ± 0.1 0.78∗ ± 0.1†
MET 1.04∗ ± 0.29 0.93 ± 0.23 0.83∗ ± 0.12 1.07 ± 0.28†
Energy cost (kcal) 1.46∗ ± 0.38 1.29∗ ± 0.27† 1.16∗ ± 0.19 1.49 ± 0.34†
Data are mean ± SD.
∗ indicates statistically significant difference (P < .05 and above) as compared to the corresponding asterisk-marked ones except in VCO : MED Versus SAV;
2
VE: MED Versus SAV, OMMED Versus SUKH; VT: MED Versus SUKH, SAV Versus MED, SAV Versus SUKH; EQO2 : OMMED Versus SUKH; RQ: OMMED
Versus SUKH.
† significantly (P < .01) than SAV.

observed in Yoga Mudra (YM2), that is, 0.369 ± 0.07 l min−1 . MED (1.29 kcal). Energy cost also reduced from OM MED to
In PSM, SPVM, VAJ, SVAJ and GMK1 it varied from 0.372 MED to SAV. Total energy expenditure of this program was
to 0.433 l min−1 . Among the yogic BMs highest values were 55.45 kcal (asanas 41.2 kcal, BMs 11.50 kcal and meditation
0.514 ± 0.16 and 0.503 ± 0.18 l min−1 in KAKI and YONI, 2.75 kcal).
respectively. Value of KB was 0.451 ± 0.15 l min−1 . BHAS
showed lowest value, that is, 0.262 ± 0.04 l min−1 . Other 3.3. Intensity of Exercise
than BHAS and BHRA, values of all other yogic BMs were
significantly (P < .01) higher than SUKH. Value of OM 3.3.1. %V̇O2 max . As given in Figure 2 intensity of exercise
MED, that is, 0.301 ± 0.08 l min−1 was significantly (P < .01) in terms of %V̇O2 max among asanas was in highest range
higher than SAV, that is, 0.243 ± 0.04 l min−1 . Value of MED in DHN (26.5%), HAL-1 (25.9%), and HAL-2 (24.6%) and
was 0.272 ± 0.05 l min−1 and it was not significantly different in UTP (23.9%). It was in the lower range in YM1 (14.1%),
from OM MED. YM2 (17.4%), Paschimottanasana (PSN) (15.7%), SPVM
(16.0%) and in VAJ (15.5%).
3.2. Energy Cost. DHN and HAL2 showed significantly
higher energy cost among asanas, that is, 3.03 and 3.05 kcal, 3.3.2. MET. Most of the yoga practices were in the range of
respectively. In KB, KAKI and YONI values were significantly 1-2 MET. Exception was in DHN, HAL-1 and HAL2 where
higher among BMs and in BHAS and BHRA it was lower. values were of >2 MET. In KB, KAKI and YONI values were
Energy cost in SUKH (1.49 kcal) significantly reduced in in higher range among BMs. Lowest value was in BHAS.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

26.5

25.9
24.6

23.9
22.7
22.9
22.7
30

20.7
19.8
21
25

18.4
17.4

17.5
15.7
% VO2 max

15.5
14.1
20

16

12.3
15

9.9
10
5
0

YM1

YM2

SPVM
PSN

2.2 PVM
DHN
MYS
VAJ
SVAJ

KPED
GMK1
2.2 GMK2

1.8 HAL1
HAL2

BHUJ

SUKH
SARV

UTP
SAV
1.9
2.5

1.9

1.8
1.8

1.7
1.6

1.7
1.5

1.5

1.5
2
1.4

1.5
1.3

1.3

1.3
MET

1.2

1.1
0.9
0.9
1.5

0.8
1
1
0.5
0
KB
YM1
YM2

SPVM

OMMED
MED
PSN

PVM

BHRA
DHN
MYS

SAV
VAJ
SVAJ

KPED
GMK1
GMK2

BHAS
HAL1
HAL2

BHUJ

KAKI
UTP

SUKH
SARV

YONI
Figure 2: Intensity of exercise in terms of percent aerobic capacity (V̇O2 max ) in different asanas and MET in full yoga session (values are
mean ± SEM).

In SUKH it was 1.08 which significantly reduced to 0.93 3.3.5. VT. Among asanas, lowest VT was in KPED, that
(P < .05) in MED. Sequentially, it was lower from OM MED is, 0.57 ± 0.11 l/breath and it was significantly lower than
to MED to SAV (P < .01). There was no significant difference YM1 (P < .01), YM2 (P < .01), MYS (P < .05). Values of VT
between OM MED and SUKH and also between MED and in PSN, SARV, HAL1, HAL2 and DHN were in the range
SAV but it significantly (P < .05) reduced from SUKH to of 0.61–0.73 l/breath. In BHRA (1.41 ± 1.27 l/breath) it was
MED. significantly (P < .05 to P < .01) higher than other BMs.
Value of OM MED (1.28 ± 1.14 l/breath) was significantly
3.3.3. V̇E. Among the asanas, highest V̇E was observed (P < .01) higher than MED, SAV and SUKH.
in DHN (17.9 ± 2.32 l min−1 ). It was significantly higher
than other asanas except HAL-1 (16.9 ± 3.79 l min−1 ), HAL2 3.4. Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen. Among asanas high-
(16.7 ± 3.24 l min−1 ) and UTP (16.1 ± 3.34 l min−1 ). In SAV est value was observed in UTP (27.8 ± 5.3), which was
and YM2, mean value of V̇E was lowest, that is, 6.9 ± 1.43 and significantly higher than all other asanas. Lowest value was
9.3 ± 1.90 l min−1 respectively and those were significantly observed in YM2, that is, 21.2 ± 3.53. In rest of the asanas,
(P < .01) lower among asanas except VAJ. In other asanas, ventilatory equivalent for oxygen (EQO2) was in the range
values were in the range from 9 to 15 l min−1 . Among the of 22.8–26.8. Highest EQO2 was observed in KB, that is,
yoga BMs V̇E was significantly (P < .05 to P < .01) higher in 79.0 ± 33.6 (P < .01) compared with other yogic BMs and
KB (53.5 ± 15.47 l min−1 ) than BHAS, KAKI, YONI, BHRA SUKH. EQO2 in OM MED was 25.2 ± 6.4, which was
(values were in the range of 6.6–12.7 l min−1 ). Mean value significantly higher (P < .05) than MED.
of OM MED (8.5 ± 2.4 l min−1 ) was significantly (P < .05)
higher than MED (6.9 ± 1.62 l min−1 ). 3.5. Ventilatory Equivalent for Carbon Dioxide. The highest
value was observed in GMK1 (30.5 ± 3.8). Values of YM1,
3.3.4. Fr. Values in HAL1, HAL2 and KPED were 27.0 ± 4.2, YM2, SARV, HAL2 and KPED were in the same range. Values
27.0 ± 6.2 and 27.0 ± 6.3 breaths/min respectively and were of SVAJ (29.8 ± 3.6), GMK2 (29.9 ± 3.7), VAJ (29.8 ± 3.5),
significantly higher (P < .01) than all other asanas except SPVM (29.1 ± 4.3), PVM (29.0 ± 3.95), DHN (28.4 ± 5.8),
SARV and PVM. Fr in SARV (25.0 ± 5.2 breaths/min) was MYS (28.9 ± 3.8), were next to the highest range. Lowest
also significantly higher (P < .01) than that of other asanas value was in YM2 (26.5 ± 2.54) and it was significantly
except PVM, DHN, UTP and GMK2. In PSN, PVM, MYS, lower (P < .01) than other asanas except YM1, PSN, SARV,
SVAJ, GMK1, GMK2 and BHUJ it was in the range from HAL2 and KPED. Ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide
17 to 24 breaths/min. It was significantly higher (P < .05) (EQCO2) in KB was significantly higher (P < .01) than that
in PVM as compared with SPVM. Among BMs highest and of BHAS, KAKI, YONI, BHRA and SUKH.
lowest values were observed in KB (65 ± 27.4 breaths/min)
and in BHRA (10.0 ± 6.35 breaths/min), respectively. Val- 4. Discussion
ues of Fr in KB were significantly higher (P < .01) than
other BMs. Lowest value was observed in OM MED Intensity of exercise of the yoga practices in this study
(10.0 ± 5.82 breaths/min) among MED, OM MED, SAV and was in the range from 9.9% (SAV) to 26.5% (DHN) of
SUKH and it was significantly (P < .01) lower than SUKH. V̇O2 max (Figure 2). In general, it was in the lower range of
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

sub-maximal level of exercise in most of the asanas except down posture but where neck is in twisted position. He
in SAV where it could be considered as in the resting level. showed in another study [29] that vital capacity was least
It is also directly related to the greater involvement of active in head-down posture (Shirsasana) and it was attributed
muscle mass from the different parts of the body as in PVM. to strong postural contraction of the respiratory muscles.
In PVM both legs are involved. Hence, it had higher V̇O2 Moreover, the visceral contents of abdomen slightly shifting
than SPVM where only one leg is involved. In SARV, HAL1, towards thoracic cage may also cause certain impediments
HAL2, KPED, BHUJ, UTP, DHN and PVM it was in the range for diaphragmatic and thoracic respiratory movements.
of 20–26.5% of V̇O2 max . In rest of the asanas V̇O2 remained Hemodynamic influence through baroreflex mechanism due
<20% of V̇O2 max . This is due to the slow execution of various to shift of blood to the head and neck region may also
asanas with adequate rest pause during SAV which is being influence the VT and Fr due to the interrelated effects
performed intermittently as a norm in hatha yoga practices. of medullary vasomotor areas and respiratory centers. Rai
Now, by studying the dynamics of the various respiratory et al. [30–32] studied energy expenditure and ventilatory
parameters one can determine the nature of hatha yoga responses during Siddhasana, Veerasana and MYS. There was
exercises in terms of exercise physiology as compared with moderate rise in V̇E and V̇O2 as compared with the SAV.
conventional physical exercises. During the yogic practice the Brahmachari et al. [47] compared individual yogic postures
rise in V̇CO2 was comparatively lower than the correspond- in yoga-proficient subjects and observed that the metabolic
ing V̇O2 as it happens in conventional dynamic exercises at cost computed for Siddhasana, PSN and BHUJ were 1.23,
sub-maximal level. V̇E and V̇CO2 increased proportionately 1.45 and 2.62 kcal min−1 , respectively against the resting SAV
with the increase in V̇O2 in all the yoga asanas and in value of 1.06 kcal min−1 . In our study, values of PSN and
some yoga BMs also. Maximum Respiratory Quotient (RQ) BHUJ were 2.08 and 2.3 kcal min−1 , respectively, as against
was 0.94 in UTP and it never crossed 1.0 in any of the 1.16 kcal min−1 in SAV. Highest value of energy cost in this
asana. The lowest range of EQO2 as observed among the study was 3.02 kcal min−1 in HAL2. To our knowledge no
asanas was from 22 to 24, as in SARV, HAL1, HAL2 study is available to show the energy expenditure separately
and KPED where corresponding V̇O2 was from 0.626 to for each components of yoga practice, that is, for asanas,
0.533 l min−1 . Closer to that, DHN was having a value of V̇O2 pranayama and meditation. Average energy expenditure in
(0.622 l min−1 ) with an EQO2 of 26.6. In dynamic exercises this program if expressed for its different components,
with gradually increasing exercise intensity the nadir of that is, asanas, pranayama and meditation were 2.29, 1.91
EQO2 usually remains between 22 and 27 while EQCO2 and 1.37 kcal min−1 , respectively. Same was reported by
remains between 26 and 30. Thus, a close look into the other investigators [48] during the practice of yoga as
pattern of changes in EQO2 and EQCO2 in different asanas 3.7 kcal min−1 , but the values of specific yoga exercises were
reveals that in most of the cases while practicing yogasana, not available. Clay et al. [35] and Hagins et al. [36] showed
the exercise is well within lactate threshold. From this, there that the mean caloric expenditure in the entire yoga session
are also indirect indications about normal physiological dead was 2.23 and 3.2 kcal min−1 respectively. Those studies par-
space/tidal volume ratio (VD/VT) and uniform matching of ticularly of Hagins et al. [36] included mostly Sun salutation
ventilation with respect to perfusion (V̇A/Q̇) [46]. This non- (Suryanamaskar, a combination of yogic physical postures
invasive technique is possibly the only way to establish it practiced in a sequence continuously), which covered 50–
as collecting the blood samples during yoga practice would 60% of entire yoga session. We have already conducted a
disturb the subject. separate study on Suryanamaskar [34]. This part of the study
In many cases while practicing asanas wherever VT has focused on other aspects of yogic practices, that is, asanas,
reduced, Fr increased. This helps to maintain the level different BMs and meditation excluding the Suryanamaskar
of V̇E as per the requirement of V̇O2 for that particular because it is generally not prescribed for the patients or
posture. In PSN, SPVM, PVM, HAL1, HAL2, VAJ, GMK, people with poor body flexibility or older people but is
SARV and KPED values of VT were in the range of 0.57– suitable for comparatively physically fit individuals.
0.68 l/breath and the corresponding Fr were from 27 to In our earlier study, Sinha et al. [34] reported energy
24 breaths/min. This trend was not common for all the expenditure of 3.79 kcal min−1 in Suryanamaskar. Hagins et
asanas. In this study in YM1, YM2, MYS, SVAJ, GMK2, al. [36] also showed the energy expenditure in the entire yoga
BHUJ and UTP, VT was in the range of 0.78–0.86 l/breath session (comprising Suryanamaskar) to be 3.2 kcal min−1 ,
and corresponding Fr was in the range of 13–22 breaths/min which is very much similar to the values found by us. The
showing increasing trend for both VT and Fr. Brahmachari et mask used for the measurement of V̇O2 in this study was
al. [47] compared individual yoga postures in yoga proficient very comfortable to the subjects. Hence, the issue raised by
subjects and have shown that the increased demand for Hagins et al. [36] that the differences in energy expenditure
oxygen in PSN has been met by increasing Fr and increase between their study and the study of Clay et al. [35] (with
in VT. The variation in VT in aforementioned asanas is due mask, showing lower energy expenditure) appears to be
to restricted movement of the rib cage, respiratory muscles insignificant in this regard.
and upper respiratory tract as a result of twisted posture of Energy expenditure during cycling (5.5 mph) is
the neck, chest and upper torso. In a separate study, Rao 3.8 kcal min−1 and walking on treadmill (2.0 mph) is
[28] reported the cost of standing on head was 336 mL V̇O2 3.1 kcal min−1 [48]. While comparing these with yoga the
or 1.62 kcal min−1 . In our study values of V̇O2 were 562 mL average energy expenditure during the practice of asanas
or 2.73 kcal min−1 (Table 2) in SARV which is also a head in our study shows 60.3 and 73.8% of that of cycling and
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

Modulation of frequency
Perceived exertion and duration of practices Cardio-respiratory
reserve
of exercise Haemodynamic
function
Local muscular Performance Respiratory function
Adaptation: improvement by Tidal volume
Lactate threshold YOGA
Respiratory rate

Psycho-physiological Body flexibility

functions
Isometric nature of exercises
in asanas-stretching

Figure 3: Possible factors responsible for physical performance improvement by yoga though it is low to moderate intensity of exercise in
terms of %V̇O2 max , energy cost, MET and Percent MHR as observed in this study. Integratd from the findings of this study and those of
[2, 7–10, 16, 34, 40, 43–45].

walking, respectively. Brahmachari et al. [49] also studied present study Suryanamaskar was not at all incorporated.
similarly on three hatha yoga postures, that is, Padmasana, The criteria of achieving particular level of %MHR may not
Kurmasana and Ustrasana. Properly performed asana, that be always reliable as the yogic postural exercises (asanas) also
is, the posture involving more of cerebellar activity exhibits have isometric nature, as Caroll et al. [37] could not find any
relaxed condition of the related muscles which otherwise correlation between the V̇O2 and heart rate in yogic exercises.
show increased electrical activity if the same condition is In spite of the lower level of exercise intensity, yoga
maintained with the help of isometric contraction (exercise practices have the potentiality to maintain the physical
involving more of motor cortex) [33]. Hence, energy cost performance status of an individual. Our previous study [8]
for performing an asana depends on two factors. First, it is in this regard showed that a group of soldiers practicing
the involvement of total muscle mass and secondly on the Hatha yoga instead of conventional physical exercise could
conditioning that is, how much optimum utilization of the improve V̇O2 max . Nayar et al. [50] showed that physical
muscles is being done in these practices. Intensity of exercise performance at sub-maximal level improves after yoga
in terms of MET during conventional physical exercise as in practices. The works of Raju et al. [46, 47] also indicated the
cycling (<10 mph) and walking (3.5 mph) was reported to be physical performance improvement in the similar way. Pollen
4.0 MET [26]. The highest value in our study was 2.19 MET et al. [16] showed that even in heart failure patients peak
in DHN and HAL-2 which are 54.7 and 62.6% of cycling and V̇O2 and total exercise time increased after yoga training.
walking respectively. Possibly, different combinations of yoga practices along with
Like %V̇O2 max the intensity of exercise when expressed other dynamic exercises have the potentialities to increase
in MET shows in this study that hatha yoga practice comes the physical performance in different degrees. Hatha yoga
under the category of moderate physical exercise and its BMs are having the potentiality to train the respiratory
range never goes beyond 2.19 MET. To perform higher system in such a way that it helps an individual to cope
intensity of exercise there is only one possibility, which is to with the respiratory demand with respect to higher intensity
increase the frequency and duration of specific yogic practice of exercise also. In yoga BMs respiratory rate increased as
that have higher level of MET. high as it happens in maximal aerobic exercise as it was
In the same subjects during the entire yoga session the observed in KB in our study. But these maneuvers with
maximal heart rate (MHR) was in the range of 97.9 ± 12.7 voluntary deep breathing (BHAR, KAKI and YONI) help
to 102.1 ± 18.9 beats/min and their mean MHR in bicycle to achieve a state wherein an individual’s respiratory rate
exercise was 187.2 ± 9.3 beats/min. So, in the present study becomes relatively lower with respect to their increasing
subjects could attain only 52.3–54.5% of their MHR (our VT by allowing greater time for diffusion of oxygen in the
unpublished observation). This is even lower than the similar respiratory system. The studies of Bernardi et al. [3, 44]
kind of values reported by Clay et al. [35]. They have shown and Stanescu et al. [2] have indicated the same. We [45]
that during 30 min hatha yoga session in women (age 19–40 have seen that yogic BMs possibly help to improve cardiac
years), heart rate elevated up to 56.9% of MHR. According stroke volume which also may be an important factor to
to the American College of Sports Medicine guideline the improve physical performance. In our previous studies it
minimum average heart rate value to be achieved in an has also been observed that the yogic practices improves the
exercise session for fitness gain should be 55% of MHR [38] muscular efficiency in terms of reduced electromyography
for sedentary and unfit individuals. In our study these values amplitude and endurance time in static isometric exercise [7]
are slightly lower than the %MHR as reported by Hagins et and also body flexibility [9] apart from its famous psycho-
al. [36] and Clay et al. [35]. The difference between those physiological benefits [1, 21–24].
studies and the present study is that there Suryanamaskar There is a possibility in hatha yoga to improve physical
was a major component of yoga session; while in the performance, in spite of the exercise stimulus being of
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

lower magnitude as compared with conventional dynamic Acknowledgments

exercises (Figure 3). The underlying mechanisms including
the cardiovascular and peripheral metabolic ones need to be Administrative support rendered by Dr W. Selvamurthy
explored systematically further. The study by Wallace et al. Sc. “H” and Dr P.K. Banerjee, Former Director DIPAS is
[5] has shown that yoga-proficient subjects could achieve the gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are due to Yogi Udaykant,
hypo-metabolic state in their subjects during meditation. In Yoga Instructor, Moraraji Desai National Institute of Yoga
the present study oxygen consumption also reduced during for providing the protocol for different yogic practices. The
meditation indicating better relaxed state. In this study, BMs authors also acknowledge the contribution of Dr Y. K.
with a longer breath hold time such as Kumbhaka were not Sharma Sc. “E” and Shikha Anand STA “B” for statistical
administered. This was done in spite of the subjects of this analysis of the data. Thanks to Mr Amar Lohar, who worked
study being “yoga instructors” as we wanted to compare as laboratory attendant in the project and lend a very sincere
the values with common subjects who may not be yoga helping hand in his capacity. Last but not the least, the
proficient and might not practice “Kumbhaka”. It requires lot investigators express their special thanks to the participants
of caution and longer time to learn to perform it perfectly. without whose co-operation the study would not have been
The results of the study may be used for the common possible.
people.
In different yoga programs with various combinations
of different components of yogic practices, with regulated References
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