Introduction to Product Design Asimow’s Model 1.1 DEFINITION OF PRODUCT DESIGN Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality and, as in other forms of human activity, aims at fulfilling human needs. A designer does not usually produce the goods or services which immediately satisfy consumer’s needs. Rather, he produces the prototype which is used as a sample for reproducing the particular goods or services as many times as required. A design may be of a pattern on upholstery or of a dress in the world of fashion. If the producer believes that a sufficient number of customers will be satisfied by the product, then mass production of the item or service may be taken up by the production department. In the course of production, an error made by the producer in manufacturing an item may lead to its rejection; but an error in design, which will be repeated in all products, may lead to an economic misadventure of enormous proportions. The designer’s responsibility is therefore serious 1.2 DESIGN BY EVOLUTION In the past, designs used to evolve over long spans of time. The leisurely pace of technological change reduced the risk of making major errors. The circumstances rarely demanded analytical capabilities of the designer. This was design by evolution. Development of the bicycle from its crank operated version to its present day chain and sprocket version over a period of about a century is a typical example of design by evolution. The disadvantages of evolutionary design are: Unsuitability for mass production. An evolved design is rather crude and is more oriented towards design by masses for Production by masses (Gandhian philosophy) rather than mass production. It is acceptable at village level but unacceptable at urban level. Difficulty in modification. A design by evolution is shaped by demands of time. On the other hand, design by invention and creative process uses sophisticated tools and techniques such as CAD (Computer-Aided Design) workstation, The CAD workstation helps generate a large number of design alternatives within minutes. Inability to tap new technologies. A new technology can result in a totally new design based ona different working principle as compared with evolutionary design which relies heavily on small modifications in an existing design. It is well known that the new technology has made artisans and craftsmen of certain categories redundant. 1 1.3 DESIGN BY INNOVATION, Following a scientific discovery, a new body of technical knowledge develops rapidly; the proper use of this discovery may result in an almost complete deviation from past practice. Every skill, which the designer or the design team can muster in analysis and synthesis, is instrumental in a totallynovel design, Examples of design by innovation are’ 1. Invention of laser beam which has brought about a revolution in medical and engineering fields. Laser based tools have made surgical knife in medicine and gas cutting in engineering obsolete. 2. Invention of solid state electronic devices resulting in miniaturization of electronic products, which has made vacuum tubes obsolete. 1.4 ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCT DESIGN (i) Need. A design must be in response to individual or social needs, which can be satisfied by the technological status of the times when the design is to be prepared. (ii) Physical realizability. A design should be convertible into material goods or services, icc., it must be physically realizable, The technique for determining the physical realizability is termed, design tree approach (Fig. 1.1(a)). In this approach, the success of a design concept depends on the success of its subproblems, say Q, and Q,, Let Dy, Dp, ... represent alternative solutions of Q, and Dz, Dz represent alternative solutions of Q,, and so forth. The probability equations are: P (D) = P(Qy) P(Q2) (1.1) P(Qy) = P(Dy1 oF Dyz) = P(Dy1) + P(Dy2) ~ P(Dyy)P(Dyp) (1.2) P(Q2) = P(Dp, or Dy9) = P(D2) + P(Dx2) — P(D21)P(P 22) (1.3) The probability values of Dj, D2, D2, and Dy, should be estimated from practical considerations. ‘An example of development of device for combating automobile head-oncrash is also illustrated in Fig. 1.1(b). (a) Design tree for a design concept D Fig. 1.1 Contd. (b) Design tree for protection device in automobile head on crash Fig. 1.1 Determination of physical realizability through use of design tree. (iii) Economic worthwhileness. The goods or services, described by a design, must have a utility to the consumer which equals or exceeds the sum of the total costs of making it available to him. For example, a bulb with luminous intensity 3 and life 4 on a ten-point scale has a lower utility than a bulb with luminous intensity 2.5 and life 5. (iv) Financial feasibility. The operations of designing, producing and distributing the goods must be financially supportable, i.e., a design project should be capable for being funded by suitable agencies or people. The method for assessment of financial feasibility could be ‘Net present value” which states that the present worth of cash flows in the project when added up during the useful life of the product should be greater than the initial investment for the project. (v) Optimality. The choice of a design concept must be optimal amongst the available alternatives; the selection of the chosen design concept must be optimal among all possible design proposals. Optimal design, in theory, strives to achieve the best or singular point derived by calculus methods. In the context of optimization under constraints for mechanical strength, minimum weight and minimum cost are usually taken up as criteria for optimization.(vi) Design criterion, Optimality must be established relative to a design criterion which represents the designer’s compromise among possibly conflicting value judgements which include those of the consumer, the producer, the distributor, and his own. In Chapter 9, the concept of optimum design under constraints has been discussed. (vii) Morphology. Design is progression from the abstract to the concrete. This gives a chronologically horizontal structure to a design project. The three phases of design proposed by Asimow [1] are: Feasibility study phase, preliminary design phase, and detailed design phase, as indicated in Fig. 1.2. Fig. 1.2 Morphology of design process. (viii) Design process. Design is an iterative problem-solving process. This gives a vertical structure to each design phase. The iterative nature of design is owing to feedback from existing design and improvement with further information in the form of technological, financial and creativity inputs. This is indicated in Fig. 1.3. (ix) Subproblems. During the process of solution of a design problem, a sublayer of subproblems appears; the solution of the original problem is dependent on the solution of the subproblems. The “Design Tree” of Fig 1.1 reveals the concept of subproblems. (x) Reduction of uncertainty. Design is derived after processing of information that results ina transition from uncertainty, about the success or failure of a design towards certainty. Each step in design morphology from step (i) to step (x) enhances the level of confidence of the designer. Fig. 1.3 Iterative nature of design process. (xi) Economic worth of evidence. Information gathering and processing have a cost that must be balanced by the worth of the evidence, which affects the success or failure of the design. Authentic information should be gathered to make the design project a success. Today, information is regarded as a resource which is as valuable as money, manpower and material. (xii) Bases for deci A design project is terminated when it is obvious that its failure calls for its abandonment. It is continued when confidence in an available design solution is high enough to indicate the commitment of resources necessary for the next phase. (xiii) Minimum commitment. In the solution of a design problem at any stage of the process, commitments which will fix future design decisions must not be made beyond what is necessary to execute the immediate solution. This will allow maximum freedom in finding solutions to subproblems at the lower levels of design. A model of design problem, subproblems ete. is developed through a design tree (sce Fig. 1.1). (xiv) Communication, A design is a description of an object and prescription for its production; it will exist to the extent it is expressed in the available modes of communication. The best way to communicate a design is through drawings, which is the universal language of designers. Three- dimensional renderings or cut-away views help explain the design to the sponsor or user of thedesign. The present day impact of computer aided modelling and drafting has resulted in very effective communication between the designer and the sponsor. 1.5 PRODUCTION-CONSUMPTION CYCLE The production-consumption cycle, one of the main features of the socio-ecological systems, consists of four processes: 1. Production 2. Distribution 3. Consumption 4, Recovery or disposal. The processes are illustrated in Fig. 1.4. A good design should aim at avoiding the production of undesirable, Fig. 1.4 Production-consumption cycle. 1.6 FLOW AND VALUE ADDITION IN THE PRODUCTION-CONSUMPTION CYCLE So far we have focussed our attention on the flow or travel of physical objects in the production~ consumption cycle. But two other sets of more abstract objects flow through the cycle also—value addition and information—which are now discussed. (i) Value addition. Consider a particular product. We begin the cycle with some resources. These may be raw materials, energy, amortizable production facilities, and human effort. Some amount of these economic factors is required to produce one unit of product. Associated with this amount is a value, generally measurable in rupees and usually called the cost of production. The emerging product also has a value measured in rupees and determined by the forces in the market place. The difference between output and input values, called gross profit, provides an economic driving force which motivates the enterprise. Another measure of value is the ratio between the value of output and the cost of input. Similarly, there is an augmentation of value through the process of distribution, accompanied by an augmentation in value as measured in rupees, arising from a more favourable time and location for marketing, The consumer pays the price, but he does so because the product has a greater worth to him than the purchase price. At this point, we lose our objective measure of value. We can only hypothesize a subjective measure of value which economists have called “utility”. The lack of an objective measure poses serious conceptual difficulties, and is a recurring problem in product design: First, because of the designers’ concern with setting values on the consumption process and, second, because all design decisions are based on logically organizable information coupled with intuition and judgement in decision making. When we deal with the element of judgement, as with the estimates of utility, we treat subjective measures of value. However, we have to seek out the best tools with which to cope with such measures. (ii) Information. The second set of objects is concerned with information which plays a major role in engineering design because design is essentially a process of gathering and organizing information. The latent information, available at the effort and cost of gathering it at each point in the cycle, is of great importance because it is utilized for the redesign of products, or for the design of new products. Of equal importance is the information about components, materials, processes, environments, and specifications, The task of maintaining the store of information in a useful fashion is a formidabletask. The volume of new technical data generated each year is tremendous. The gathering, organizing, updating, storing and retrieving of such data is very large and is very important. It has been proposed that a few design-data-processing centres be established in the country at strategic locations. Thes: proposed centres would be accessible to design offices throughout the country through communication networks. The information will become available on presentation of the properly coded queries to the computers. TIFAC (Technology Information Forecasting Assessment Council) of the Government of India at New Delhi has plans to have such information storage and linking. 1.7 THE MORPHOLOGY OF DESIGN (THE SEVEN PHASES) The morphology of design refers to the study of the chronological structure of design projects. It is defined by the phases (see Fig. 1.2) and their constituent steps, The various steps involved in the design phases will be discussed in detail in the following sections. Of the seven phases, the first three phases belong to design, and the remaining four phases belong to production, distribution, consumption and retirement. 1.7.1 Phase I—Fe: y Study A design project begins with a feasibility study; the purpose is to achieve a set of useful solutions to the design problem. Sometimes, a design group is assigned a project for which a design concept has already been fixed. This implies one of the three possibilities: 1. A feasibility study has been previously done. 2. The design department has so much experience with the particular design problem that further study is superfluous. 3. The top management, by omitting the feasibility study, is proceeding on unsupported intuition. The first step in the study is to demonstrate whether the original need, which was presumed to be valid, does indeed have current existence or strong evidence of latent existence. The second step is to explore the design problem generated by the need and to identify its elements such as parameters, constraints, and major design criteria. Third, an effort has to be made to seek a number of feasible solutions to the problem. Fourth, the potentially useful solutions are sorted out from the feasible set in three steps on the basis of physical realizability, economic worthwhileness, and financial feasibility. Finally, the completed study indicates whether a current or a potential need exists, what the design problem is, and whether useful solutions can be found. It investigates the feasibility of the proposed project. Computer aided modelling is very useful in generating alternative designs from which the best can be selected. 1.7.2 Phase [Preliminary Design The preliminary design phase starts with the set of usefull solutions which were developed in the feasibility study. The purpose of preliminary design is to establish which of the preferred alternatives is the best design concept. Each of the alternative solutions is subjected to quantitative analysis until evidence suggests either that the particular solution is inferior to some of the others, or that it is superior to all the others, The surviving solution is tentatively accepted for closer examination. Synthesis studies are initiated for establishing to a first approximation the fineness of the range withinwhich the major design parameters of the system must be controlled. Further studies investigate the tolerances in the characteristics of major components and critical materials which will be required to ensure mutual compatibility and proper fit into the system. Other studies examine the extent to which perturbations of environmental or internal forces will affect the stability of the system. Sophisticated methods such as the finite element method are used now-a-days to carry out design analysis of components, with a view to finding critical areas of stress concentration. Photoelastic studies are also of great help in accurate stress analys Next, project type studies are undertaken to know as to how the solution will be feasible in future. The socio-economic conditions, such as consumers’ tastes, competitors’ offerings or availability of critical raw materials may change; the state of technology may advance and, eventually, corrosion, fatigue, and deterioration of performance may set in. Time will almost certainly erode the quality of the product. The question is: how fast? The rate of obsolescence or wear must be accounted for. The critical aspects of the design must be put to test in order to validate the design concept and to provide essential information for its subsequent phases. 1.7.3 Phase I1I—Detailed Design The detailed design phase begins with the concept evolved in the preliminary design. Its purpose is to furnish the engineering description of a tested and producible design. Up to this point the design project is characterized by great flexibility. Major changes in concept could be accommodated without great financial losses. In the first two phases such flexibility is essential, because they are exploratory in nature, seeking to reveal an adequate range of possible solutions. In the third phase, however, either exploration on a large scale must come to an end or a final decision for a particular design concept must be made. With the design concept in mind and the preliminary synthesis information at hand, a provisional synthesis is accomplished. It is developed as a master layout. With this as a basis, the detailed design or specification of components is carried forward. From time to time, exigencies in the detailed work at the component level may dictate changes in the master layout; therefore, it has a provisional status. As the paper design progresses, experimental design is initiated. Experimental models are constructed to check out untried ideas which are not suitable to final simulation or analysis. Components, partial prototypes and, finally, complete prototypes are tested as the need for information arises. This information, gathered from the testing programs, provides a basis for redesign and refinement until an engineering description of a proven design is accomplished. 1.7.4 Phase IV—Planning the Production Process The above-mentioned three phases were particularly in the area of engineering design; much of the responsibility for phase 4 will be shared with other areas of management, A new battery of skills, those of tool design and production engineering, come into play. The original project group, however, may continue in its role of leadership. Often, the decision to produce involves an enormous economic commitment. The level of confidence in the success of the product must be very high to support a positive decision, The decision itself must be made at the top level of management. The evidences on which the engineer responsible for the design project bases his confidence must be communicated ina condensed, but fully revealing form to the top management. The designer’s confidence will have to beshared by the top management who will re-evaluate this confidence, using additional information on financial capability, business conditions, etc., before arriving at a final decision. The production planning phase involves many steps which will vary in form and detail according to the particular industry. The following shortened list is typical of the mass production industries: 1. Detailed process planning is required for every part, subassembly and the final assembly. The information is usually displayed on process sheets, one for each part of subassembly. The process sheet contains a sequential list of operations which must be performed to produce the part. It specifies the raw material, clarifies special instructions, and indicates the tools and machines required. This step is particularly important, because design features that lead to difficulties in production are revealed. Such difficulties should have been minimized earlier by timely consultations between product designers and tool designers. Similarly, questions about materials should have been resolved by consultation with metallurgists. 2. Design of tools and fixtures: This design work proceeds generally from the information developed in the operations analysis on the process sheets. 3. Planning, specifying or designing new production and plant facilities. 4, Planning the quality control system. 5. Planning for production personnel: Job-specifications are developed, standard times are determined, and labour costs estimated. 6. Planning for production control: Work schedules and inventory controls are evolved. Standard costs for labour, materials, and services are established and integrated with the accounting system. 7. Planning the information-flow system: The information necessary for transmission of instructions and provision of feedback for control is determined. Appropriate forms and records are designed and integrated with computers when available. Flow patterns and routines are established. 8. Financial planning: Usually, large sums of money are required to initiate production of a new product. The source of the financing must be carefully established, and the means and rate of recovering the capital determined. 1.7.5 Phase V—Planning for Distribution Production is the first process in the production-consumption cycle. The second is distribution. Although the product designer may not be directly involved in planning for distribution, he will often find that the problems of distribution have an important impact on the original design of the product. The purpose of this phase is to plan an effective and flexible system of distribution of the designed goods, The short list we now give is indicative of the planning for distribution. (i) Designing the packaging of the product. The outer shape of the product may be influenced by the need to effect economy in transportation costs. Individual and special packaging may be needed to secure protection from shock and weather. Special strapping and palletizing may be needed to facilitate handling, (ii) Planning the warehousing systems. The economically favourable locations for warehouse are determined and the warehousing facilities are designed. (iii) Planning the promotional activity. Technical sales brochures based on design information andtest data may have to be developed. (iv) Designing the product for conditions arising in distribution. Such factors as shelf-life, attractive display and final conditioning, before delivery to the consumer may affect the design of the product. There may be need for enough flexibility in the design to allow for special modifications to suit customers’ needs or for further adding available optional features as required by the customer, or for modular additions to the system to enlarge its capacity. 1.7.6 Phase VI—Planning for Consumption Consumption is the third process in the production-consumption cycle. Its influence on design is profound because it pervades all phases. As a process, it occurs naturally after distribution. As a phase, in the time-pattern of the design project, most of the processes of consumption must be anticipated in the early stages of design in order to have a timely impact. Therefore, it is for the most part a diffused phase concerned with consumers needs and utilities, and mingled with and attached to the earlier phases. It is set up separately only to emphasize some of the special contributions which it makes in addition to its more general and pervading influences. This separate status as phase does not imply that consideration, even of the steps enumerated here as belonging to the consumption phase, is to be deferred until this late stage; in fact, after, the contrary is true. The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the design, adequate service features and to provide a rational basis for product improvement and redesign. Design for consumption must consider the following factors: Design for maintenance Design for reliability Design for safety Design for convenience in use (taking into account human factors) Design for aesthetic features Design for operational economy Design for adequate duration of services Obtain service data that can provide a basis for product improvement, for next-generation designs, and for the design of different, but related products. PAIAAPYNE 1.7.7 Phase VII—Planning for Retirement The fourth process in the production-consumption cycle is the disposal of the retired product. For large and semi-permanent installations, the mere removal may pose difficult engineering problems, as for example, the demolition of a tall building closely sorrounded by buildings on either side Sometimes, the impact on a new design is more immediate as when an old structure or system must be replaced by a new one with minimum disruption of normal operations. What determines as to when an economic commodity in use (e.g. a consumer’s product, a commercial or industrial device, or a private or public system) has reached an age at which it should be retired? This is one of the principal questions raised by a study of engineering economy. If the article in use is worn to the point at which it can no longer render adequate service, then the need for replacement is clear. However, the same fast pace of technology which compels the designer also accelerates the aging process of goods in use. It is a hallmark of our times that goods in use are retired morefrequently because of technical obsolescence than for physical deterioration. Changes in fashions, often deliberately cultivated by industry, also produce their share of casualties, In the design of soft goods, such as clothing, exploiting fashion changes is an accepted practice, since the value of such goods lies in their aesthetic appeal. To the product designer, the question whether to design for physical deterioration or for technical obsolescence is of fundamental importance. Ideally, the system should be designed so that it wears out physically as it becomes technically obsolete; then no extra cost would be incurred for providing for a longer than useful life. But usually, the elements of design that contribute to a longer life are also essential to adequate reliability and maintenance; thus a full compromise between obsolescence and wearout is generally not possible. These aspects of design need further study. What values are available when a product reaches a terminal point of service and how do these values influence design? The latter question is the concern of the retirement phase in design. The purpose of this phase is to take into account the problems associated with retiring and disposing of a product. Designing for retirement, according to Asimow, must consider the following aspects: 1. Designing to reduce the rate of obsolescence by taking into account the anticipated effects of technical developments. 2. Designing physical life to match anticipated service life. 3. Designing for several levels of use so that when service life at higher level of use is terminated, the product will be adaptable for further use with a less demanding level. 4. Designing the product so that reusable materials and long-lived components can be recovered. Modularity in design can be contemplated, instead of integrated designs. 5. Examining and testing of service-terminated products in the laboratory to obtain useful design information. In summary, although the first three design phases, forming a primary set, are the principal concern of the design group, the remaining four, which constitute a secondary set, arising from the production- consumption cycle; have such a great impact on the design that they must be considered in detail. 1.8 PRIMARY DESIGN PHASES AND FLOWCHARTING—THE 25 STEPS Morris Asimow, the design philosopher, has proposed three phases of design: 1, Feasibility study 2. Preliminary design 3. Detailed design phase. These will be discussed in detail now. Asimow [1] represented his model as a flow chart (Fig. 1.5) with a circle indicating information input; a rectangle indicating step in design process; a decision box as a rhombus; and a rounded box as an output. Output from an earlier step, together with additional information, results in activating a subsequent design process and its accompanying output which acts as an output to a decision box. This cycle continues from top to bottom in a zigzag repetitive manner. Feasibility study has six steps, preliminary design has 10 steps, and detailed design has nine steps, making a total of 25 steps. These are indicated in Fig. 1.5.1.8.1 Phase I—Feasi lity Study Step 1: The need—Establishing its economic existence. The starting point of a design project is a hypothetical need which may have been observed currently on the socio-economic scene. It may be worded in the form of a primitive need statement; or it may have been elaborated into a sophisticated and authenticated statement based on market and consumer studies. The need may not yet exist, but there may be evidence that it is latent, and that it may arise when economic means for its satisfaction become available. The need may be suggested by a technical breakthrough which motivates its exploitation through product for social good. In whatever way the need has been perceived, its economic existence, latent or current, must be established with sufficient confidence to justify the commitment of the funds necessary to explore the feasibility of developed means satisfying it. By economic existence of a need, we mean that individuals, institutions or society will recognize the need and will pay the price of the product which can satisfy the need. The product may be available in the market for a purchase price and there could be a number of firms supplying the product. The importance of establishing the need can hardly be overestimated. Too often, an organization will go in for a project and develop a base while ending up in financial failure because the assumed need was imaginary and disappeared in the light of reality. Primitive need statement contains a vague description of what is required. It docs not point out the way a design should be made. It only states the sponsor’s need in a general statement. For example, a primitive’s need statement for an electronic fire alarm could be “A gadget to accurately and precisely sense the rise of temperature in the building above 80°C and have a sound system to alarm or warn inhabitants of such an occurrence.” Note that in the primitive need statement, nowhere is a mention of “Electronic” or “Fire” made. Primitive statements enable the generation of more ideas than specific statements. Intuitive knowledge about people, their habits and lifestyles and their behaviour in the socioeconomic system, may be combined with specific information obtained by market research to provide the information necessary for making a need analysis. After performing the need analysis, a decision must be made about the validity of the economic worthwhileness of the need, If it is favourable, the results of this step are summarized ina set of specifications of desired outputs which the product or system must be capable of producing in order to satisfy the need. As stated earlier, the need statement should not immediately converge to suggest a single design but should be primitive or general and encourage multiple solutions and idea generation. Step 2: The design problem—Identification and formulation. The information available comes from the results of the preceding step, particularly the specifications of desired outputs, and from relevant technical knowledge about environments, resources and the general engineering principle. With this information, an activity analysis is performed whereby the design problem is given a technical formulation. The question which must be asked before this step may be considered complete, is: Is the resulting engineering statement of the problem sufficiently relevant and adequate to commit the ensuing steps to the design? New information is constantly developed by the design work itself which previously was either overlooked or unknown, This new information changes the confidence levels on which prior decisions were made. If the deterioration in confidence is enough to destroy the basis for a particular decision, the decision-maker will demand that the affected steps Fig. 1.5be reworked until the necessary level of confidence is restored. It can be seen from Fig. 1.5, that this results in feedback as shown by the dashed line starting at the vertex of the decision box and the dashed line joining the vertical dashed line indicating a feedback channel. Step 3: The synthesis of possible solutions. Synthesis implies combining or bringing different ideas to produce an integrated whole. It is this step which characterizes, more than anything else, the project as a design undertaking. This requires innovative and creative effort. Creativity is therefore an essential ingredient for product design. In the context of design, we offer the following as a definition of creativity: “A talent for discovering a combination of principles, materials or components, which are especially suitable as solutions to the problem in hand”. For example, design systems that may reduce the fatality of a car crash could be among others: (a) seat belt, (b) collapsible steering rod, and (c) air cushion. Step 4: Physical realizability. The problem is whether it is possible to accomplish such a practical physical embodiment, as is suggested by the concept. The designer can visualize the elements and results of a new concept. (The concept of design tree has already been explained.) Step 5: Economic worthwhileness. No object is a proper subject of product design, if it is unable to pass the test of economic worthwhileness. Literally, this means that the object of the design must be “... of sufficient value to repay off effort.” Value has meaning which is singularly personal; it depends on the evaluator, his viewpoint, and the prevailing circumstances. The only objective measure is in the market place. When this instrument of measure can be applied, the results can be quantitatively expressed in terms of money. Indirect tools, highly sophisticated and difficult to apply, must be used for their measure. Utility is a good measure of economic worthwhileness ofa product. Repeating the earlier example, on a comparative basis, a bulb with 4 units life (ona 10-point scale) and luminous intensity 3 units has a higher utility than a bulb with 5 units life and luminous intensity 2.5 units. It is of interest to note the different values set a producer and a consumer attach to a product, The producer must acquire the requisite resources of raw materials, energy, capital, and manpower. These he can obtain in the open market; therefore, their value of acquisition can be determined objectively. The final product, after its completion, by transforming the input resources, is returned to the market place. Again, the value can be determined, and the input-output values compared, If the flux of values through the production process has occasioned an augmentation of value sufficient to induce its continuance, the process is deemed to be economically worthwhile, The extension to the distributor follows in the same manner. The consumer attaches value to a product because it meets some of his needs. Step 6: Financial feasibility. Sometimes it happens that a project, meritorious from every point of view, and of great economic worth, cannot be realized because it is difficult to mobilize resources for its implementation. The last three steps are like sieves. Through the first sieve only those solutions are passed which are physically realizable; through the second, only those possessing economic worthwhileness for producer, distributor and consumer; and through the third, only those that are financially feasible. The set of useful solutions comprise the ones passing successfully through each of the three sieves.1.8.2 Phase II—The Preliminary Design The preliminary design is intended to establish an overall concept for the project, which will serve as a guide for the detailed design. An evolution of the design concept is carried forward far enough so that a decision can be made about committing for the next phase. The preliminary design phase is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.5. Optimization is the main objective in this phase. Step 1: Selection of the design concept. In the set of useful solutions developed in the feasibility study, the most promising one must be identified. The design concept is selected on the basis of utility. Factors such as reliability, safety, cost, and user friendliness are given consideration and the design concept with the highest point rating qualifies as the best concept. Step 2: Formulation of mathematical model. Design proceeds from the abstract to the concrete, We do this by describing the idea in words, in graphic illustrations, and in mathematical equations. Mathematical models enable useful software to be developed so that the design can be optimized ona computer. Step 3: Sensitivity analysis. We visualize a system as being described in the form of equations or a mathematical model involving the design parameters and the input and output variables, We would like to know how sensitive the performance of the system is to the adjustment of several design parameters. Those which critically affect the performance must be carefilly adjusted, whereas others which are less critical can be adapted to suit convenience. In recent years, Taguchi the Japanese pioneer of quality control, has been advocating the concept of robust design. According to his philosophy, the design parameters which, on changing, result ina large change in undesirable output from the system, should be deleted. Identification of such parameters is possible through factorial design of experiments. Step 4: Compatibility analysis. A system or a complicated device can be thought of as an object which is itself a combination of objects on the next lower order of complexity. In the case of a complex system such objects would be referred to as sub-systems. Compatibility may involve straightforward considerations such as geometrical tolerance or chemical tolerance. More difficult problems of compatibility arise when interacting co-members must have matching operating characteristics, as when one member is in series with another so that the outputs of one are the inputs of the other. One example of this aspect of compatibility is electric motor and pump combination. Step 5: Stability analysis. Systems and devices that engineers design are often exposed to a dynamic environment. For example, a building is apparently a stable and static structure, but an earthquake may apply an impulsive displacement to the foundation, resulting in a catastrophe. ‘A designer would like the systems he designs to have an inherent stability so that uncommon perturbations in the environment or accidental large inputs or loads will not cause catastrophic failures or malfunctions. Step 6: Formal optimization. Till now we have not tried to fix all the major design parameters atdefinite and singular values, However, for the design to advance, the parameters must receive specific design values, Among all the feasible combinations of parameter values (i.e. combinations which satisfy all the design constraints and therefore could be expected to work), there is one superior to all others, viz. the optimum combination. The process for finding this destination is called optimization. In mechanical design, R.C. Johnson-developed in 1979 a method of optimum design (MOD) subject to constraints, It is called Johnson’s MOD and is discussed in some detail in Chapter 9 on Optimization. Step 7: Projections into the future. We may now pose two main questions: the first is on the socio- economic environment that will exist when the product comes into actual use, and the second refers to the race against technical obsolescence. The development period for a product should not be so large that by the time it comes in the market, the competitor would have launched a superior product. The other aspect of the future projections is the expected useful ‘shelf life’ of the product. Step 8: Prediction of system behaviour. A system must function in an acceptable manner throughout a reasonable service life. The desired outputs must be produced over a span of time as well as at the start when the system is new. Step 9: Testing the design concept. The proof of a design is in the use of the product. Evolutionary design waits for the evidence and allows time to pass for its utility to be revealed. A novel design cannot wait because it relies much more on innovation, Innovation must speed ahead; otherwise, it will be overtaken by the next wave of new technology. The new design concept can be tested with a scale model or through computer simulation. Step 10: Simplification of design. As a design moves through various steps, the original concept becomes more complicated. The simple and the obvious are hard to achieve. One of the most important questions for the designer to ask is whether the projected solution is the simplest. The detailed design to be discussed now onwards carries the overall design concept, developed in its preliminary stage, to the final hardware. To do so, the overall concept must be brought to a state of design that is clearly physically realizable. This state is achieved by finally constructing a prototype froma full set of design instructions, testing it and making the necessary revisions in both prototype and design instructions until the system or device is satisfactory for production, distribution and consumption. 1.8.3 Phase I1]—Detailed Design Step 1: Preparation for design. In order to go ahead we need budgetary approvals and a strong design team. The commitment to proceed is not final because relatively close estimates of time and money are needed, prior to the design. For practical reasons, it is only the top management who, having the responsibility for the final economic success of the project, can make the decision to suspend the project, or to approve the necessary budgets. The art and science of estimation is very important. One must make use of costing data such as provided by Trucks [2] and Wilson [3]. Step 2: Overall design of subsystems. In the preliminary design, we are concerned with the overall uubsystems are examined only to evaluate the quality of the overall system concept.Subsequently, each subsystem must be looked at as an individual entity. Compatibility of one subsystem with the other also needs to be verified. Finally, a provisional master layout is prepared for each subsystem which translates the results of the subsystem designs into drawings. These master layouts become the basis for developing the design of the components. Step 3: Overall design of components. The work which is required for the overall design of components is practically a repetition of what has been indicated for the subsystems, Just as the system comprises several subsystems, so the subsystems usually comprise a certain number of components, which are developed in the same way as the subsystem. But as we move down to successively lower levels in the design project, the objects we deal with become progressively less abstract and the problem of ultimate hardware becomes urgent. Some of the components can even be purchased as complete assemblies of hardware. A set of ball bearings is a typical example of bought- out items. As in the case of the subsystem, the results of the component designs are covered in provisional master layouts which form the basis for the detailed design of parts. Step 4: Detailed design of parts. Parts are the elementary pieces from which components are assembled. It is here in the work of designing parts that we come to grips with the concrete realities of hardware. In the design of subsystems or components, a large number of relatively minor questions about achieving physical realization are allowed to go unanswered because we feel very sure that answers will come from sources of immediately accessible knowledge and from available experience in the technology when the actual parts are being designed. When a part is being designed, no questions pertaining to its design may remain unanswered; no ambiguities about its shape, its material, or its surface treatment should interfere with the instructions for its manufacture. We have come to the place, on the long path from the abstract to the concrete, from the concept of the system or device to the physical embodiment where the final transition is made, where the idea merges into physical reality. Today, great progress is being made in part design, particularly through sophisticated methods such as photoclasticity and the finite clement methods. The latter are covered in Chapter 13. Step 5: Preparation of assembly drawings. After the constituent parts have been designed, the form of a component can be fixed. The provisional layout of the component can now be replaced by tentative final assembly drawings. In producing the assembly drawings, cases of incompatibility and oversight in the compatibility analyses will generally be revealed. The affected parts are suitably modified. After the component assemblies are prepared, the corresponding assembly drawings for the subsystems can be drafted. Again, incompatibilities and misfits of various kinds may be revealed, and these are corrected by the usual iterative process. Finally, the final assembly for the system is similarly undertaken, Computer-aided Design and Drafting is the latest practice in computerized drafting. Step 6: Experimental construction. With the completed drawings at hand, the prototype shop can undertake to build the first full-scale prototypes. Sometimes, the first prototype is also theendproduct. ‘When the prototypes have to serve an experimental purpose, greater freedom in revision is permissible, but change for the sake of change is undesirable. Step 7: Product test program. The programs can be enormously expensive, and if improperly planned, yield insufficient evidence for or against the design. They provide scant information on which suitable revisions can be based. Factorial experiments provide a very effective method of testing with low cost. In this method, the independent variables are changed between their high limit and low limit. The effect of such change on the response variable (or the main design objective) is determined, Interested readers can refer to Cochran and Cox [4], and Davies [5], and others, for detailed literature on response surface methodology. Step 8: Analysis and prediction. With the notes and records of the experimental construction and the data and other general observations of the test program, preparation for revision or redesign can begin, if necessary Step 9: Redesign. The analysis and predications of performance are the prelude to redesign. If the experimental construction and the test program have not found the design inadequate, the work of redesign may be just that of minor revision. If major flaws and shortcomings have been exposed, then the work of redesign may reach major proportions, and entirely new concepts may have to be sought for major components and even for subsystems. 1.9 ROLE OF ALLOWANCE, PROCESS CAPABILITY, AND TOLERANCE IN DETAILED DESIGN AND ASSEMBLY 1.9.1 Allowance (4 Allowance is the difference of dimension between a female member and a male member of the assembly. A practical example of a male member would be a shaft, and its corresponding female member would be a hole, The concept of allowance is illustrated in Fig, 1.6(a). If the allowance is positive, the type of fit is termed a clearance fit; if the allowance is negative, the type of fit is termed an interference fit; if the allowance has a very small positive value or a very small negative value, it is called a transition fit. The various types of fits are described in Section 1.9.4. Fig. 1.6(a) Concept of allowance in a shaft-hole combination. 1.9.2 Process Capability ( P) ‘A production process which is set up to produce a certain dimension ( D) of a part will not be able to produce all parts to the set-up dimension. There will always be a few oversized parts with dimension Drax and a few undersized parts with dimension Day. The difference between Dyyax and Deyn iS termed process capability. A precise production process such as grinding will have a narrower band width (Dux — Din) a8 Compared with a less precise production process such as, say, rough turning on lathe. Referring to Fig. 1.6(b), a frequency distribution curve of machine cut parts follows a bell- shaped normal distribution curve.1.9.3 Tolerance (7) The product designer is aware that a process set up at a size D will occasionally produce pieces, which are either oversized or undersized. For this reason, a designer always specifies a part dimension (D + 7/2), where T is the tolerance prescribed by the designer. In order to avoid the production of defective parts, the tolerance T should be matched to the process capability P such that P is less than T. The usual ratio of 7/P is 2. This ratio is termed relative precision index. Figure 1.6(b) indicates the relationship between P and T. Fig. 1.6(b) Tolerance and process capability. 1.9.4 Types of Fits Taking the example of the assembly of a shaft and hole, the allowance A is the difference of dimensions D,, and D, (see Fig. 1.6(a)). A designer usually starts with an ideal allowance between a shaft and a hole. (i) Clearance fit. For a bearing, allowance is positive, i.e. (Dj — D,) = positive. This is called clearance, and this type of fit is called a clearance fit. The designer visualizes the clearance fit for successfull operation of a bearing in which the shaft and hole are separated by a film of lubricant. (ii) Interference fit. In the case ofa press fit, a designer recommends a negative clearance so that (Dj, - D,) = negative. This type of fit is called interference fit. A practical example of this is a bush fitted in a housing bore. (iii) Snug fit and transition fit. A third type of fit is called the snug fit which has (Dj, — D,) = zero (small positive value or a small negative value in practice), Such a fit is useful for location of a component having a bore with a pin. It is termed transition fit. Figure 1.7(a) illustrates the designer’ concept of a clearance fit. This will be discussed in detail now from Fig, 1.7(b), it may be observed that due to the inability of a process to produce an exact dimension, it becomes essential for the designer to specify certain permissible variation, T which is more than the process capability P. This permissible variation has to be indicated on any realistic detailed drawing, Figure 1.7(b) shows the shaft hole combination of Fig. 1.7(a) modified to take care of tolerance for the production of the shaft and the hole. Figure 1.7(c) illustrates a conventional diagram of fits. Fig. 1.7 Fundamentals of a limit system. 1.9.5 Selection of Fit ‘A designer’s concept of fit, manufacturing specifications for a fit, and conventional diagrams of fit are shown in Figs. 1.7(a)-(c), respectively. A fit can be obtained by a combination of two apparently independent variables: 1. Tolerance grades, 18 in Number: IT-1 to IT-18. 2. Fundamental deviation FD denoted by lower case letters such as c, d, e etc. for shafts and capital letter H for holes. However, due to designer’s intent to standardize and effect variety reduction and the types of fit, onlya few preferred combinations are adopted in practice. One typical example followed by BS4500 is illustrated in Fig. 1.8. Fig. 1.8 Preferred combinations of fits. 1.9.6 Specific Principles 1. Tolerance need not be assigned to atmospheric surfaces, For such surfaces, finish should be good enough to prevent corrosion and ill effects of pollutants, However, for journal bearing type design a positive clearance is desirable. 2. For a location fit such as pulley ona shaft (where subsequently a key shall be driven in), a location fit or a transition fit is essential. 3. A situation where one component has to be rigidly fitted to another, an interference fit or a press fit is recommended. An example of such a fit is fitting a gear ona shaft for transmission of power. 4, From process engineering point of view, tolerance grades IT-I to IT-6 are obtained by lapping, honing, microfinishing and precision grinding. 5. Tolerance grades IT-7 and IT-8 represent finished turning and semifinished turning, whereas grade IT-9 is rough turning, All tolerances above grade IT-9 belongs to various primary processes such as rolling, casting, forging ete. 1.10 SUMMARY OF DETAILED DESIGN PHASE We have seen that the detailed designs, involving large commitments for design work, requires careful preparation of capital budgets and time schedules. This is the first step. Top management, in the light of these estimates, must decide whether to continue with the design project. If the decision is favourable, then a project organization must be developed. The second and third steps involving the overall designs of subsystems and components are similar in many ways to the preliminary design. In the fourth step, the detailed design of parts is undertaken, and followed in the fifth step by the preparation of assemblies for the components and subsystems. In the sixth and seventh steps, the prototype is built and tested. The difficulties encountered in both of the operations, constructing and testing, become the subjects of analysis in the eighth step. Also, performance is predicted under conditions of customers operation, and any shortcomings, evident or anticipated, are included in the difficulties. The final step is the making of revisions. A major problem to be tackled is that the design as a whole should be least affected. Small revisions can start a chain of consequences which could destroy the originality of the earlier design. Finally, the interative character of design work should be noted, After the revisions have been made in the redesign step, building of new prototypes and subsequent testing may follow, again leading to further revisions. A successful project is, however, highly convergent so that only a few iterations are required to reach a final solution. The high rate of convergence stems from the high confidence levels which are required in critical decisions.