Physics

Section D- Electricity and Magnetism

Static electricity

Electricity consisting of charged particles that are at rest is called static electricity and the branch of physics which studies static
electricity is known as electrostatics.

Electron Theory of Charging and Conduction

According to the atomic theory, all substances are made up of tiny particles called atoms. The central part of the atom, called
the nucleus, contains subatomic particles with a positive charge called protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. They
have no charge but their presence help to keep the protons together in the nucleus. Substances do not appear to have a charge
because each of their atoms has equal numbers of protons and electrons and these together make each atom electrically
neutral.

Electron Theory and Charging

When electrons are removed from a neutral atom, the atom is left with more positive than negative charges, the material
made up of these atoms thus has acquired a net positive charge. If electrons are added to atoms of a material, there are more
negative than positive charges and the material has acquired a net negative charge.

It is easier to move electrons from an orbit than positive charges from a nucleus. Thus charging usually involves the movement
of electrons, whether the substance acquires a net positive or net negative charge.

Electron Theory and Conduction

In the atoms of conductors, the outermost electrons are few and are held loosely to the rest of the atom. These free electrons
can move freely from one atom to another. For this reason, when a positively charged rod is brought to one end of an object
made of conducting material, free electrons are attracted and rush towards the object near the positively charged end of the
rod.

In the atoms of insulators, the electrons are many and are held tightly in in their orbits. These electrons cannot move freely
from atom to atom and so insulators do not normally conduct electricity. When a positively charged rod is brought near to one
end of an insulator, such as a piece of paper, the electrons remain with the parent atoms. However, the orbits of the electrons
might be displaced towards the positively charged rod.

However, if the charge next to the insulator is very great, then electrons may be thorn from their parent atoms, and conduction
may take place within an insulator. When this happens, we say that the insulation has broken down. Sparks are generally
produced when insulation breaks down.

Methods of Charging

When we say that a material has become charged, we mean that it has excess protons or electrons.

1. Charging by Contact
- Also known as charge sharing
- Works well with conductors because they have free electrons which are easily transferred
- This method leaves the charged object with the same kind of charge as that on the charging object

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Section D- Electricity and Magnetism
2. Charging by Friction
- When a polythene rod is rubbed with cotton/wool, it becomes negatively charged.
- When a Perspex rod is rubbed with silk, it becomes positively charged.
- Also known as rubbing.
- Works well with insulators.
- Friction between two objects results in them becoming oppositely charged.
- Such charged objects tend to remain charged since there are no free electrons.

3. Charging by Induction
- Induction means brought about by an influence
- When a single object is charged by induction, the result is an excess charge opposite to that on the
charging object.

Discharging

Often, when objects are charged with static electricity, the charge can build up to a dangerous level where the medium
separating it from an uncharged or differently charged object runs the risk of breaking down and as such can pose serious risk
to life or property. This is so because the breakdown of the medium can cause sparking and heat and therefore fires.

Examples of dangerous situations include:

- Fuel truck driving over long distances

- Aircraft flying through the air
- Trolley in hospital

In order to avoid charges building up to a dangerous level on objects, discharging by earthing is necessary. The earth
can be regarded as an enormous conductor. When a charged metal object is connected to it, the earth receives
practically all of the charge thus discharging the object.

Charges

The law of charges states that like charges always repel each other and unlike charges always attract each other

Note: Only two types of charge exist.

Only the test of repulsion can be used to confirm that an object is charged or to determine the nature of the charge.

Distribution of charge on the surface of a conductor

A proof plane (insulated metal disc) can be used to investigate the distribution of charges on a conductor’s surface. The disc
receives a charge by contact that is proportional to the density of charge at the place where it touches the conductor. The
charge on the disc is transferred to an electroscope through contact with the cap. The amount of charge that was taken up by
the disc can be estimated from the size of the divergence shown by the metal leaf.

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Section D- Electricity and Magnetism
Charge density is defined as the quantity of charge per unit area of a conductor’s surface.

The density of charges on a conductor’s surface is greatest at the most curved or pointed part of the conductor. As a
consequence of this, a pointed conductor object will tend to attract ions (charges particles) more readily.

At all times, the total or net charge inside a hollow conductor is zero. All charge given to a conductor goes to its
outside surface.

Electric Fields

An electric field is a region around a charged object in which an electric force acts.

If an object that is charged is placed in an electric field, it will be affected by this electric force. The extent to which it is affected
depends on the strength of the electric field.

We define the direction of the electric field at a particular place as being the direction of the force it produces on a positively
charged object.

Outline one hazard and one useful application of static electricity.

Current Electricity

Current electricity is the flow of charged particles.

Negative charge carriers, called electrons, move readily along conductors. Therefore, an electric current in a metal
consists of a flow of electrons. In other conducting media, an electric current may consist of the movement of both
positive and negative charge carriers.

Electron Flow and Convention Current

Conventional current assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal, through the circuit and into the
negative terminal of the source.

Electron flow states that electrons flow from the negative terminal, through the circuit and into the positive terminal
of the source.

Thus, electrons travelling in one direction are shown in circuit diagrams as conventional current travelling in the
opposite direction. In fact. It is found that electrons travelling in one direction produce the same effects as positive
charge travelling in the opposite direction.

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Section D- Electricity and Magnetism
The unit for electric current I, is the Ampere. A current of 1 ampere is a flow of charge at a rate of 1 Coulomb per
second.

The Unit for Electric Charge

The Quantity of electric charge is measured in Coulombs. A coulomb is the charge which flows in 1 second past any
point in a circuit in which there is a steady current of 1 ampere.

Q=It

Alternating and Direct Current

Alternating Current (AC) describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically. The electrons flow back
and forth a number of times each second. The current which comes to our homes from power stations is AC.

In direct current (DC), the charges flow in one direction only. The current which flows through battery is DC.

Electrical Quantities

Forward and Backward Transformation of Electricity

Potential Difference (Voltage) and Electromotive Force

The electromotive force or e.m.f of a source is equal to the energy converted from any form of energy to electrical
form by the source per unit charge flowing through it.

The voltage or p.d between the ends of a conductor is equal to the energy converted from electrical to other forms
per unit charge flowing through it.

Importance of Conserving Electrical Energy and the means of doing so

- Electricity can be obtained from solar or wind power, but most electricity used in homes comes from the
burning of fossil fuels such as oil or coal. These fuels are needed to power the turbines that produce electricity.
These resources are not unlimited or renewable; the faster they are used and the more electricity that is consumed,
the quicker they will be depleted. Further, since power wastage leads to a greater demand for electricity, it increases
pollution as more fossil fuel is burnt.

Circuit and Components

A circuit diagram is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit where symbols are used to represent the
components of the circuit.

The three main components of a simple circuit are:

1. A source of electrical potential difference or voltage- which raises charge to a high level of energy.
2. A conductive path- which would allow for the movement of charges
3. An electrical resistance (load)- an object that uses electrical energy to do work

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Physics
Section D- Electricity and Magnetism

 The battery or source is represented

by an escalator which raises charges
to a higher level of energy.
 As the charges move through
the resistor (represented by the
paddle wheel) they do work on the
resistor and as a result, they lose
energy.
 By the time each charge makes it
back to the battery, it has lost all the
energy given to it by the battery.
 As the charges move through a wire,
they lose no energy (assuming the wires are short and are a good conductor).
 The potential drop ( - potential difference) across the resistor is the same as the potential rise
( + potential difference) across the battery. This demonstrates that a charge can only do as much
work as was done on it by the battery.
 The charges are positive so this is a representation of Conventional Current (the apparent flow of
positive charges)
 The charges are only flowing in one direction so this would be considered direct current ( D.C. ).

Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Circuit

- There is only one path for the current to flow from the source through all of the components and
back to the source.
- The components are connected one after another on the same loop of the circuit and the current
passes through one component at a time
- The current through each of the components is the same
- The voltage across the circuit is the sum of voltages across each component
- If there is a break in a series circuit, all the components will fail to work because there is no
alternative path for the current to flow.
- If one of the components in a series circuit fails, the others will stop working as well

Parallel Circuit

- There are multiple paths for the current to flow from the source through all of the components
and back to the source.
- The components are connect on different paths of the circuit and the current splits up among the
different pathways
- The current through the circuit is the sum of the currents through each component
- The voltage across each component is the same

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Section D- Electricity and Magnetism
- If there is a break in a parallel circuit, only the components in that path will be affected
- If one of the components in a parallel circuit fails, the others may be unaffected

Cells
A cell (or group of cells called batteries) is a device that is capable of changing some form of energy, such
as chemical energy into electricity. There are two main types of cell:

1. Primary cells- use a chemical reaction which converts stored chemical energy into electrical
energy in a process that cannot be reversed. These cells are thrown away after their one useful
life.
2. Secondary cells can be reused because their chemical reaction can be reversed many times.

Basis for Comparison Primary Cells (Zinc Carbon) Secondary Cells (Lead Acid)
Terminal Voltage 1.5 V 2.2 V
Maximum Current ~5A 400 A
Internal Resistance About 0.5 Ω Less than 0.01 Ω
Portability Come in a variety of sizes. Light Very heavy and therefore used
enough for use in powering TV in stationary applications or in
remote controls, portable radios motor vehicles. Have large
and flashlights energy storage capacity and are
able to deliver large currents for
a long time
Rechargeability Cannot be recharged Can be recharged

All cells have two terminals known as electrodes. Conventional current leaves the electrode, +, flows
through the external circuit, and returns to the other terminal labeled, -. The circuit is completed inside
the cell by the movement of charge carriers between the electrodes. In chemical cells charged ions move
through an electrolyte which is in the form of a liquid or paste.

While conventional current flows from the + terminal to the – terminal in the external circuit, inside a
cell, the positive ions move towards the positive electrode and the negative ions move towards the
negative electrodes.

The Zinc- Carbon Cell

The Zinc-carbon cell is also known as the Leclanche` dry cell. They are called dry cells because they were
the first to have no liquids which could spill. This cell has a carbon rod and a zinc case as its two
electrodes. The electrolyte is moist ammonium chloride (salt) in a jelly-like paste. The atoms of the zinc in
contact with the moist ammonium chloride lose electrons and become zinc ions:

Zn2+ + 2e-  Zn

When a wire connects the electrodes, electrons liberated from the zinc atoms flow to the carbon rod and
along the wire. Hydrogen ions from the moisture in the ammonium chloride paste migrate across the

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Section D- Electricity and Magnetism
pourous material to the carbon rod and accept the electrons to form hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen atoms
then combine to form hydrogen molecules:

H+ + e-  H

H + H  H2 (g)

The layer of hydrogen gas formed around the carbon partly insulates the carbon electrode, restricting the
flow of electrons to the carbon rod. Further, the layer of hydrogen gas also functions as an electrode,
which produces an e.m.f opposed to that of the cell. This is called polarization. The insulation and
polarization effects could result in the cell ceasing to function. Powdered manganese (IV) oxide, an
oxidizing agent placed around the carbon rod, reacts with the hydrogen as soon as it is formed and
removes it. The manganese (IV) oxide is called a depolarizer. The cell will then deliver current until all the
depolarizer is used up.

Recharging a Secondary Cell

Draw a circuit diagram to show how a secondary cell can be recharged

I-V Relationships

The characteristic of a circuit component or device tells us about the way it conducts electrical current
and shows how it may be used in an electric circuit. If we measure the current I, through a conductor for
various values of the p.d, or voltage, V across it and calculate the value of its resistance, R, we usually find
that each pair of values for V and I give a slightly different value for the resistance R. The most common
reason for this change in the resistance of a conductor is the change in temperature produced by the
heating effect of the electric current in it. Because of the variation of resistance with temperature,
conductors are unlikely to obey ohm’s law unless their temperatures are kept constant.

a) Metallic Conductor at constant Temperature

The straight line characteristic is symmetrical in both directions and passes through the origin of
the graph. This conductor closely obeys Ohm’s law and is called an Ohmic conductor.

b) Filament Lamps
At low currents, the characteristic may be fairly straight but as the current rises, producing more
heat, the temperature rise increases its temperature. So at a particular voltage where the
filament temperature has risen, the current value is lower than it would for an Ohmic conductor.

c) Semi-conductor diodes
Conduction is by electrons and holes. A very small current flows in the reverse direction, and
apart from the slow start to the current rise, it is nearly Ohmic in the forward direction.

d) Ionic Solution/ Electrolyte

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Physics
Section D- Electricity and Magnetism
Conduction is by means of ions. Different characteristics are obtained for different electrolytes,
but the electrodes determine whether the graph goes through the origin. Conduction through
the electrolyte itself is Ohmic and the graph is straight, but when certain electrodes are used,
conduction does not begin until the applied voltage reaches a certain value. The electrodes
produce an opposing voltage which has to be overcome by the applied voltage. Copper sulphate
solution with copper electrodes is Ohmic, but dilute sulphuric acid with carbon electrodes
requires 1.7 V in either direction before conduction begins.
Resistance
The resistance of a conductor is the opposition to the flow of electrons.
This occurs because atoms are always vibrating. When electrons flow, they collide with these vibrating atoms, lose
energy and slow down. The rate of flow of electrons (current) around the entire circuit then decreases. Since the
vibration of atoms is more rapid at higher temperatures, collisions with electrons are then more frequent. Hence,
there is more opposition to electron flow, or greater resistance, at higher temperatures.

Ohm’s Law
States that the current through a metallic conductor, maintained at constant temperature, is directly proportional to
the potential difference between its ends.
VαI
V=IR
R=V/I
Ammeters and Voltmeters
An ammeter is a device used to measure current. It is necessary for ammeters to have a very low resistance because
they measure the current flowing through the circuit. If an ammeter has high resistance, it would resist the flow of
electrons (current) through the circuit which means we would not be able to measure the current with accuracy.
This is because in this condition, the measured current is always less than its true value. Ammeters are connected in
series so that maximum current can pass through for accurate measurement. If they connected in parallel, the
current would flow through them instead (a short circuit) and none would flow through the load (a bulb for
example). The load now becomes excluded from the circuit. Current always flow through the shortest and easiest
path (one with least resistance).

A voltmeter is a device used to measure voltage or p.d. It is necessary for voltmeters to have high resistances
because it measures the potential difference (voltage drop) between two points. If the voltmeter had comparable
resistance to the load, then the current would split to flow through both of them. This would give a different value of
the voltage if the load was connected alone. With a higher resistance than the load, more current would flow
through the load and the voltage would be more accurately measured. (It should not change the amount of current
going through the element between those two points. So, it should have very high resistance so that it doesn't
"draw" current through it.) Voltmeters need to compare two different points and their voltages. By virtue of
comparing the two points, you have to connect to those two at the same time, which requires a parallel connection.
If you connect a voltmeter in series there are no two different points as you connect it on the same wire with the
same potential difference.

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Section D- Electricity and Magnetism

(If current is flowing through the voltmeter, then it is not all flowing through the load, and the
potential difference across the load would change when the voltmeter is added and removed.
This is unfavorable. Therefore, the voltmeter must have a very high resistance so that current
doesn't flow through it.)

Electronics

Semi-Conducting Materials

Semi- conductors are neither very good conductors nor very good insulators. Silicon and germanium are the two best known as
semi-conductors. They are used to make electronic devices such as diodes, transistors and integrated circuits (IC) because their
conductivity can be increased by adding tiny but controlled amount of other substances, a process known as doping.

Each atom of a semi-conductor has four valence electrons. By covalent sharing of these electrons, each atom obtains a stable
arrangement of eight outer electrons. At room temperature however, some electrons gain enough thermal energy to be
dislodged from the parent atom. Vacancies called ‘holes’ are left when electrons become free. Since the atom as a whole is
neutral when all its electrons are present, the holes behave as though they have a positive charge. Therefore two charge carriers
are involved when electricity flows through a semi- conductor.

Types of Semi-Conductor Material

n-type material- when a semiconducting material is doped with a pentavalent element, the great majority of charge carriers will
be electrons. E.g silicon is doped with phosphorous atoms which increase the number of electrons that are free to move through
the structure.

p-type material- when a semiconducting material is doped with a trivalent element, a large number of holes are formed in the
structure. E.g silicon is doped with boron atoms which create gaps called holes in the structure and conduction occurs by
electrons jumping from one hole to another.

p-n junction diode- A semi-conductor can be doped to become a p-type material on one side and an n-type material on the
other side, the boundary between them being called a junction. The connection to the p-type side is the anode and to the n-type
side is the cathode.

Half Wave Rectification

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Section D- Electricity and Magnetism
Rectification is the conversion of A.C to D.C

Logic Gates

Many seemingly complex digital electronic circuits are simply a combination of electronic switches. Each type of combination,
called a gate has a characteristic output (or logic state) for given inputs. A logic gate is a physical device implementing a Boolean
function. We use a diagram called a ‘truth table’ to describe how a particular logic gate behaves.

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