AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

DSP:UNIT:1SIGNALS&SYSTEMS
Basic elements of DSP – concepts of frequency in Analog and Digital Signals – sampling theorem –
Discrete – time signals, systems – Analysis of discrete time LTI systems – Z transform – Convolution
(linear and circular) – Correlation.
1.0 Signals,Systems and Signal Processing
Signal:Anything which carries information.
Ex: 1 ECG(ElectroCardioGram) Gives Information about the Health of Person‘s Heart.
Ex: 2EEG(ElectroEncephaloGram) Gives Information about the Brain Activity of a Person.
Actual Definition:A Signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time,space,or any other
independent variable or variables.
Classification of signals:
1.Multichannel & Multidimensional Signals2.Continuous-Time Versus Discrete-Time Signals
3. Continuous-Valued versus Discrete-Valued Signals4. Deterministic versus Random Signals
1.Multichannel & Multidimensional Signals
• 1-Dimensional Signal:If the signal is a function of a single independent variable, the signal is
called a one-dimensional signal. Ex: S(t) = 7t
• Multi-Dimensional Signal:If the signal is a function of M independent variables, the signal is
called M-dimensional signal.
• 2-D signal(depends on 2 independent variables)S(x,y)=6x+5y, I(x,y) which tells the Intensity or
Brightness at each point of a photo.
• 3-D signal(depends on 3 independent variables)I(x,y,t) which tells the Intensity or brightness at
each point of the motion picture .
• Multi-Channel Signal:(Vector)Signals that are generated by multiple sources or multiple sensors
are called Multi-Channel Signals.Such signals can be represented by Vector form.
EEG(8 channel) is obtained from 8 different places of Human Body.
2.Continuous-Time Versus Discrete-Time Signals
• Continuous Time Signals(CT)(analog signals) are defined for every value of time,represented by
x(t).

• Discrete Time Signals(DT) are defined only at certain specific values of time,represented by x(n).

3.Continuous-Valued versus Discrete-Valued Signals:

The values of a CT or DT Signal can be continuous or discrete.
• If a signal takes on all possible values on a finite or an infinite range, it is continuous-valued
signal.
• If the signal takes on values from a finite set of possible values, it is discrete-valued signal.
• A Discrete-time signal having a set of discrete values is called a digital signal.
4.Deterministic versus Random Signals:
• Any signal that can be uniquely described by an explicit mathematical expression,a table of data,or
a well-defined rule is called deterministic signal.Ex: step, ramp, sine wave,cos wave etc.

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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

 The signals that cannot be described to any reasonable degree of accuracy by explicit mathematical
formulas are called random signals.Ex:Noise

System:
1. Interconnection of Components.
2.Operates on an input signal and produces an output signal.
Ex:Amplifier is a system where it operates on weak input signal and produces strong output signal.
Definition: System is defined as a physical device that performs an operation on a signal.
Broad Classification of Systems:
1.CT System operates only on CT input & CT output Signals.
2.DT Systems operates on DT input & DT output Signals.
DT system representation:

Signal processing:Signal processing is concerned with the representation,transformation & manipulation

of signals and the information they contain.
Classification of Signal Processing:
1.Analog Signal Processing(ASP) deals with analog input and analog output signals.

The Analog Signal Processor may be an Amplifier or a Filter.

2.Digital Signal Processing (DSP)provides an alternative method for processing the analog signal.

The Digital signal processor may be a large programmable digital Computer or Special Purpose Digital
hardware.

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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

1.1BASIC ELEMENTS OF DSP

1.The Analog input signal may be an ECG or EEG or any CT signal which is defined at all instants of
time.
2.An Anti-Aliasing Filter may be included which acts as a LPF to remove high frequency noise and also
band limits the signal.
3.A/D converter comprises of
 Sampler : Used to convert the input signal x(t) into Discrete Time Continuous Valued Signal
x(nT),where T is said to be Sampling interval.
 Quantizer : Used to convert the DT-Continuous valued Signal x(nT) into DT-Discrete Valued
Signal represented by x(n).Thus A/D converter provides N-bit binary number.
4. DSP
 Is a large programmable Digital Computer or a small microprocessor programmed to perform the
desired operations on the input signal.
 May be a (i)Hardware(ii) Software(iii)Firmware(Implementing S/W in a Special purpose H/W).
 DSP performs amplification,attenuation,filtering operations on a digital data.
 It consists of ALU,Shifter,address generators etc for its fast functioning.
6.D/A Converter:
 Some of the processed signals are required back in their analog form.
 For ex,sound,image,video signals are required back in analog form.
 Hence DSP processor output is given to D/A Converter.
 It converts Digital output of DSP into its analog equivalent.
 Here the output is CT but not smooth which contains unwanted high frequency components.

7. An Reconstruction filter may be included where it eliminates high frequency components and
provides smooth CT signal.
Advantages of DSP over ASP:
 Flexibility: in reconfiguring the DSP operations simply by changing the program.But in the case
of ASP,redesign of the hardware followed by testing & verification is necessary.
 Accuracy:Provides much better control of accuracy requirements.But in the case of
ASP,tolerances in analog circuit components make it extremely difficult.
 Easy Storage:On magnetic media such as tape or disk without loss of signal.Hence easily
transportable.
 Sophisticated Algorithms:Which uses software and can be routinely implemented.But in ASP,it
is very difficult to perform Mathematical operations in analog form.
 Cheaper Cost:The lower cost may be due to the fact that the digital hardware is cheaper,or
perhaps it is a result of the flexibility for modifications provided by the digital implementation.
Limitations:
 System Complexity:Because of A/D & D/A Converters and its associated filters
 Power Consumption:In Analog, the circuit elements like R,L,C do not need much power.But a
DSP Chip which contains 4 Lakh transistors dissipates more power.
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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

 Bandwidth limited by sampling rate:Signals having extremely wide bandwidths require fast-
sampling-rate A/D converters and fast digital signal processors.Such high speeds of A/D
conversion are difficult to achieve.
1.4 DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS,SYSTEMS:
D-T Signals: Defined at specific instant of time & not defined at instants between 2 successive samples.
1.4.1Representation of DT Signals:There are 4 ways of representing DT Signals: They are
1Graphical representation 2.Functional representation 3. Tabular representation 4.Sequence representation
1.Graphical Representation
Consider a signal with values This
DT signal can be represented graphically as

2.Functional Representation
In this, the amplitude of the signal is written against the values of n.

3.Tabular Representation
In this, the sampling instant n & the magnitude of the signal at the sampling instant are represented in
tabular form.

4.Sequence Representation
A finite duration sequence can be represented as

An infinite duration sequence can be represented as

The arrow mark denotes the n=0 term. When no arrow is indicated, the first term corresponds to n=0.
1.4.2 Standard D-T Signals:

1.Digital impulse signal (or) Unit sample sequence

2.Unit step signal:

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3.Ramp signal:

4.DT real exponential signal:

If the parameter ‗a‘ is real,then x(n) is a real signal.

5.DT complex exponential signal:

If the parameter ‗a‘ is complex valued,then x(n) is a complex signal.
= cos +j
For = 1, the real & imaginary parts of complex exponential sequence are sinusoidal.
For 1, the amplitude of the sinusoidal sequence exponentially grows.
For 1, the amplitude of the sinusoidal sequence exponentially decays.

6.Discrete time sinusoidal signal:

The discrete-time sinusoidal sequene is given by )
where A is the amplitude, ω is angular frequency, is phase angle in radians & n is an integer.
The period of the DT sinusoidal sequence is: N = (m)

1.4.3Classification of DT Signals:
1.Periodic & aperiodic 2.Symmetric & antisymmetric(even & odd)3.Energy & Power signals
1.Periodic & Aperiodic signals:
A signal which has a definite pattern & which repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called a
―periodic signal‖.
For periodicity, x(n) should satisfy for integer values of N.
Where N is no.of samples of a period, ( m)
And ‗m‘ should be 1.integer 2.positive 3. Small for making ―N‖ to be an integer.
The smallest value of N for which is true is called ―Fundamental Period‖.
If there is no value of N that satisfies , the signal is called nonperiodic or aperiodic.

periodic Aperiodic
2.Symmetric & antisymmetric signals(even & odd)
The DT signals may exhibit asymmetry or antisymmetry with respect to n=0.

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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

Even(Symmetric) signal: condition: for all n.

Odd (Antisymmetric) signal: condition: for all n.

A DT signal x(n) which is neither even nor odd can be expressed as a sum of even & odd signal.
ie., (n) + (n) where (n) = Even part of x(n) & (n) = Odd part of x(n)
and (n) = [ ], (n) = [ ]
3.Energy & Power signals : The Energy E of a signal x(n) is defined as,

If energy E of a DT signal is finite & non-zero, then it is called as Energy signal.

The average power of a DT signal x(n) is defined as,

If power P of a DT signal is finite & non-zero, then it is called as Power signal.

1.4.4Basic operation on signals:

1.Time shifting 2.Time reversal 3. Time Scaling 4.Amplitude Scaling 5.Signal Addition 6.Signal
Multiplication
1.Time Shifting: y(n) = x(n-k)
Thus y(n) is obtained by time shifting x(n) by ―k‖ units.If ‗k‘ is positive, it is called delay & the shift is to
the right.if ‗k‘ is negative ,called advance where the shift is to the left.
EX: Given Signal x(n)

To draw:x(n-3)
Here k is positive.hence delay by 3 units.that is shifting towards right by 3 units.

To draw: x(n+2)
Here k is negative.hence advance by 2 units.that is shifting towards leftby 2 units.

2.Time Reversal:
The time reversal of a DT signal x (n) is obtained by folding the sequence about n=0;
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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

Given x(n):

x(-n): folding about the origin n=0

x(-n+3): Delay x(-n) by 3 units

x(-n-3):Advance x(-n) by 3 units

3.Amplitude Scaling:
The Amplitude scaling of a DT signal is represented by, where ‗a‘ is a constant.
Ex:Given x(n)

To draw: 2x(n)

4.Time Scaling:Time scaling is represented as, ;

When a>1,it‘s called time compression & if a<1 it‘s called time expansion.
EX:Given x(n)

To draw x(2n): here a=2>1,so compress x(n) by a factor of 1/a,that is 1/2.That is multiply all ―n‖ by ½,
and take only integer values of ―n‖

To draw x(n/2):here a=1/2 <1, so expand x(n) by a factor of 1/a,that is 1/(1/2),that is 2.So multiply all ―n‖
by 2 and take all integer values.

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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

5.Signal Addition& signal Subtraction:

Given: (n) ={1,2,3,1,5} & (n) = {2,3,4,1,-2}.To find: (n) + (n)

6.Signal Multiplication:

1.4.5 DT-Systems:
A DT System is a device or algorithm that operates on a DT signal,called the input or excitation,according
to some well defined rule,to produce another DT signal called the output or response of the system.

That is
Classification of DT systems:
1.Linear& Non-linear systems 2. Time Variant & Invariant systems 3.Causal & non-causal systems 4.
Stable &unstable systems 5.Static & Dynamic systems.
1.Linear & Non-linear systems:A Linear system is one which satisfies the superposition principle.It states
that the response of the system to a weighted sum of signals be equal to the corresponding weighted sum
of the responses of the system to each of the individual input signals.
A system is linear if and only if where , are constants.
If a system doesn‘t satisfy this principle, then it‘s called Non-Linear systems.
Diagrammatic explanation:

2.Time variant & Time Invariant systems:

A system is said tobe time invariant if its input-output characteristic do not change with time.
A relaxed system is time invariant or shift invariant if and only if

for every x(n) and every time shift k.In general,

.
If this output y(n,k) = y(n-k), for all possible values of k,the system is time invariant.
If y(n,k) ≠ y(n-k), even for one value of k, the system is time variant.
3.Causal & Anticausal systems:
A system is said to be causal if the output of the system at any time n [i.e.,y(n)] depends only on present &
past inputs[i.e., x(n),x(n-1),x(n-2),…],but does not depend on future inputs[i.e., x(n+1),x(n+2),...].

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That is,
If a system has an output that depends not only on present and past inputs but also on future inputs,it is
called noncausal.
Ex: For causal y(n) = x(n-2) + x(n-1) +x(n)
For non-causal: y(n)= x(n) + x(n+2)
4.Stable &unstable systems:A system is said to be bounded input-bounded output (BIBO) stable if and
only if every bounded input produces a bounded output.Bounded means finite.That is,If x(n)<infinite (that
is finite),Then y(n)<infinite (that is finite).
If,for some bounded input sequence x(n),the output is unbounded(infinite),the system is called as unstable.
5.Static & Dynamic systems:
A system is said to be static or memoryless if its output at any instant n depends at most on the input
sample at the same time(present sample)but not on past or future samples of the input.
If it depends on past or future, then it‘s dynamic system.
Ex:for static(systems without memory), y(n) =x(n)
for dynamic(systems with memory), y(n) = x(n) + x(n-2)
1.5 ANALYSIS OF DT-LTI SYSTEM:
DT-LTI: A discrete time system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and it is time invariant if
its input-output relationship does not change with time.When a DT system satisfies the properties of
linearity & time invariance, then it is called an LTI system.
Impulse Response:
When the input to a DT system is a unit impulse δ(n), then the output is called an impulse response of the
system denoted by h(n).

h(n)=H{ δ(n)}
Representation of DT signal as summation of Impulses(Convolution sum)

Here x(0)=-1,which can be expressed as x(0)δ(0)=-1;

x(1)=0.6 as x(1)δ(n-1)=0.6;x(-1)=1.0 as x(-1)δ(n+1)=1.0;
thus in general,x(n) & y(n) can be expressed as

Then

called convolution sum (or) superposition sum,represented by

Properties of DT-LTI System:

1.Commutative property 2.Distributive property 3.Associative property 4. Causality 5.Stability
6.Step Response 7.Invertibility 8.LTI systems with & without memory
1.Commutative property:

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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

2.Distributive property:

3.Associative property

4.Causality: Condition:h(k)=0, k<0;

5.Stability:

6. Step Response:

;
7.Invertibility of LTI systems:

This is possible only if,

Identity property of DT-LTI System:
Statement:The Convolution of any sequence with unit sample sequence results in the same sequence.

Proof:L.H.S:x(n)* (n)=

(n-k) =1 at n=k,the equation becomes= x(n) (0) {where (0)=1} and

{since (k-k) = (0)}=x(n)=R.H.SThus proved.
Problems:Note: Fundamental period =N = (2π/ω) m;For a DT signal to be periodic, N should be an
integer.
1.Find the fundamental period of n& check for periodicity.
W.K.T Fundamental period N= (2π/ω) m.Here ω = 2π/3; Thus N= (2π/(2π/3)).m= 3. m (Let m=1)
Hence N = 3 samples. Since N is an integer, is periodic with 3 samples.

2.Find the fundamental period of & check for periodicity.

Here ω = 3/5; Thus N = .m= .m ; For any value of ‗m‘, N cannot be an integer.Thus x(n) isAperiodic.

3. n+ n

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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

Let = π/3; = 3π/4; = 2π = 2π =6.m (let m=1)Thus = 6 samples; = 2π = 2π

= .m (Let m= 3);Thus =8 samples.For x(n) to be periodic, should be a rational number.Thus

= = ;Since ¾ is a rational number, given signal x(n) is periodic.

Hence common time period= N = 4 (or) 3 = 4x6 = 24 samples.
4.Check for Energy or Power signals.

Here the Energy is finite & Power is Zero.Hence it is a Energy Signal.

5.Check for E or P

Here the energy is infinite & power is finite.Hence Power signal.

6.Check for E or P

=0
Here both E is infinite & P is zero..Hence it is neither Energy nor Power signal.
7.Find the even & odd components of

8.

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9.Check for linearity.y(n)=5 x(n)

For input , output will be , for input ,output will be ;
For a +b ,output will be a +b ;
W.K.T, H[a +b ] = aH[ ] + bH[ ] Or = a +
R.H.S: a + = a[5 b (1)
L.H.S: = H[a +b ]= 5[a +b ]=a[5 b[5 ]
Thus (1) =(2). Hence the given system is linear.
10.Check for linearity.y(n)=7 x(n) + 5
For input , output will be ,for ,output will be ;
For a +b ,output will be a +b ;
W.K.T, H[a +b ] = aH[ ] + bH[ ] Or = a +
R.H.S: a + =
a[7 b (1)
L.H.S: = H[a +b ]= 7[a +b ]+5 = 7a 7b +5
Thus (1) (2). Hence the given system is non-linear.
11.Check for Time invariancy: y(n)= x(2n)
For input , output will be ,
for input ,output will be ;
Let = , Substituting (3) in (2), we get
Delay input: ,
Delay output: substitute in (A), ,
= ,Hence the given system is Time In Variant(TIV)
12.Check for Time invariancy: y(n)=g(n)x(n) (A)
For input , output will be ,
for input ,output will be
Let = , Substituting (3) in (2), we get
Delay input: ,
Delay output: substitute in (A), ,
,Hence the given system is Time Variant(TV)
13.Check for causality: y(n)=x(n)+x(n-1)
For n=0, y(0) = x(0) +x(-1)—here output depends on present & past input
For n=1, y(1) = x(1) +x(0) —here output depends on present & past input
For n=-1, y(-1) = x(-1) +x(-2)—here output depends on present & past input
Hence the given system is Causal.
14.Check for causality: y(n)=x(n+4) + x(n)
Here output depends on future & present.hence non-causal.
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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

15.Check for static or dynamic: y(n)= 10x(n)+5

For n=0,y(0)=10x(0)+5;For n=1, y(1)= 10x(1)+5;For n=-1, y(-1)=10x(-1)+5
Here at all values of n,ouput depends on present input. Hence the given system is static.
16.Check for static:y(n)= x(-n+2)
n=0 , y(0)= x(2);n=1 , y(1) = x(1);n=-1, y(-1)=x(3)
Here the output depends on present & future.Hence the given system is dynamic.
17.Check for stability: y(n)=x(n)
A system is said to be stable if , then ;(BIBO)
Let x(n) = B,a finite constant; Substituting (1) in (A), y(n)=(B);Here when B=0, y(n) =0 ,< ;when
B=1, y(n) =1 ,< ;when B=-1, y(n) =-1 ,< ;Hence the given system is stable.
18.Check for stability: y(n)=nx(n) )
A system is said to be stable if , then ;(BIBO)
Let x(n) = B,a finite constant; ;Substituting (1) in (A), y(n)=n(B);Here when B=0, y(n) =n.(0);when
B=1, y(n) =n.(1);when B=-1, y(n) =n,(-1);Hence stability of the system depends on the value of “n”. n
may be finite or infinite. If n = , then y(n)= .Hence the given system is unstable.
19.Check for invertibility: y(n)=x(n-4)
If x(n) is input, then y(n)=x(n-4);Then the inverse system could be, y1(n)= y(n+4)=x(n-4+4)=x(n);
Thus the same input x(n) can be recovered.Hence the given system is invertible system.
Problems related to DT-LTI Systems:
20.Express the given signal sequence as a time-shifted impulse.

21.Test for stability: u(n)

=1+ + +….+ = =2 < ;Hence the given system is stable.

22.Find whether the system with impulse response u(n) is stable or not.
The condition for stability is:

= ;Hence the given system is unstable.

23.Find the step responseof the system u(n)

=
24.Check for Causality:
h(k)=0, k<0;or h(n)=0,n<0;Here ,where u(n-2)=1, n>2 & =0, n<0;
hence it is defined only for n>2; When this u(n-2) is multiplied with any signal it will yield the answer
for only n>2; Hence the given system is causal.
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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

25.Check for causality:

h(k)=0, k<0;or h(n)=0,n<0;here, ,where =1, at n=-2;that is not equal to zero
for n<0;Hence non-causal.
26.Find the response of the system u(n)excited by unit step sequence.
Soln: Here x(n)=u(n);

= u(n-k) {u(n-k) =1 ,n k or k }
= = + + =….+1
27.Two LTI systems are connected in cascade.Find the unit sample response of this cascade connection.
u(n) ; u(n)
Soln: Since it is in cascade connection (n) * (n);Unit sample response means
;W.K.T the convolution of any sequence with unit sample sequence results in same
sequence.Thus ;Hence our aim is to find : (n) * (n)

= (k) (n-k) =
here u(k) forms the lower limit &u(n-k) forms the upper limit;u(k)=1, n & u(n-k)=1,n or k n;
Hence lower limit is 0 and upper limit is n;
= = = =

= = = ;y(n)= -1 )
1.7(a) LINEAR CONVOLUTION:
28.

Convert the given values x(n) & h(n) to temporary variable ‗k‘ as x(k) & h(k).

Folding: Here the sequence h(k) is folded at k=0 to get h(-k).

total no.of samples is N= + -1=4+4-1=7;Starting sequence of y(n)=starting sequence of x(n) + starting

sequence of of h(n)=0+0=y(0);e last sequence of y(n):= last seq.of x(n) + last seq.of h(n).=3+3=y(6).So
we have to find from y(0) to y(6)
To find y(0):

If n=0, then we have to find x (k) h (-k)

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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

Hence,y(0)=1;
If n=1,then we have to find x(k)h(1-k),

Hence y(1)=(1x1)+(2x1)=1+2=3.

If n=2,then we have to find x(k)h(2-k),

Hence y(2)=(1x1)+(2x1)+(3x1)=1+2+3=6.
If n=3,then we have to find x(k)h(3-k),

Y (3)= (1x1)+(2x1)+(3x1)+(4x1)=1+2+3+4=10
If n=4,then we have to find x(k)h(4-k),

y(4)=((1x0)+(2x1)+(3x1)+(4x1)+(0x1)=0+2+3+4+0=9
If n=5,then we have to find x(k)h(5-k),

y(5)=(3x1)+(4x1)=3+4=7
If n=6,then we have to find x(k)h(6-k),

y(6)=(4x1)=4

Method:2 29.

Cross-TableMethod:

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Method:3 Matrix method 30.

X=( + -1)x =(4+4-1)x4=7x4 matrix;H= x1=4x1 matrix

Thus,
1.7 (b) CIRCULAR CONVOLUTION
In the case of Linear Convolution the length of the data sample after convolution is + -1;But here in
Circular Convolution, the length of the data sample after convolution is Maximum ( , );
Method:1 Circle Method:
Let us consider 2 data sequences & of length N. If the length of these 2 data sequences are not
equal,add zeros at the end of the data whose length is less than the other data sequence,so that both the
sequences are of same length which is called as zero padding.
The circular convolution is given by,

31.

That is Maximum ( , )=4;To find y(0):

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Thus, Thus,
Method:2 Matrix Method:In this method, the sequences are represented as follows:

32.

1.8 Correlation:The correlation is another mathematical operation to measure the degree of similarity of
any two signals.It is used in RADAR,digitalcommunication,remotesensing etc.,

Thus Correlation helps us to extract this important information from y(n).

Cross-Correlation:Cross-correlation refers to the correlation of two different signals.
The cross-correlation of x(n) & y(n) is given by, (m)= -(1)
or equivalently (2) where ,m=lag parameter.
Reversing the roll of x(n) & y(n) in equations (1) & (2),we get
= - (3)
Or equivalently
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 AAMEC/VII SEM/CSE/CS 2403 DSP(Degree Scoring Paper)

= - (4) Thus = (-m)

To find the length of the correlation sequence, + -1.In correlation except folding all other process
remain the same.Mathematically, the correlation & convolution can be related as,
Method:1 Graphical method:
33.Determine the cross-correlation of x(n)={1,1,2,2} &y(n)={1,0.5,1}
The x(n) starts at n=0 & has 4 samples. =0, =4;The y(n) starts at n=0 & has 3 samples. =0, =3;
So total no. of samples= -1=4+3-1=6 samples.
The initial value of m= = -( + -1)=0-(0+3-1)=-2
The final value of m= = +( + -2)=-2-(4+3-2)=3;Hence to find (m) from m=-2 to 3;
The graphical representation of x(n) & y(n) is

(m)= = (n);

where

which gives,

which gives,

--

--

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-

-

34.Method:2 Matrix Method:

W.K.T,

Here to find cross-correlation from m=-2 to 3;

; ; ; ; ; ;

Autocorrelation :Autocorrelation refers to the correlation of two same signals.

When y(n)=x(n),the cross-correlation function becomes the autocorrelation function.y(n) is replaced by
x(n);
( )= or equivalently,
( )=
35.Example:Tabular Method:
Determine the autocorrelation of x(n)={1,2,3,4}.
W.K.T ( )= The x(n) starts at n=0 & has 4 samples. = 0 & N = 4;
Now the total no of samples=2N-1=(2x4)-1=7 samples.The initial value of m=
The final value of m= +(2N-2)=-3+((2x4)-2)=3;

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Circular correlation of periodic sequences:If the 2 sequences are periodic with the same period N,then
circular correlation is defined as, (
36.Method:1 Graphical Method:Perform circular correlation of x(n)={1,1,2,1} &
y(n)={2,3,1,1}

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37.Method: 2 Matrix Method:

1.6 Z-TRANSFORM:The z-Transform of a DT signal x(n) is defined as, .This is

called Direct Z-Transform ,because it transforms the time-domain signal x(n) into its complex-plane
X(z).For convenience,the Z-T of x(n) is denoted by, X(z) = Z [x(n)],that is
One Sided Z-transform of x(n):
Two sided Z-Transform of x(n):
RegionOfConvergence:(ROC) The range of values of Z, for which the Z-Transform sequence converges,
is called ROC of Z-Transform.
Inverse Z-Transform:This is to recover the original time domain DT sequence x(n)

fromX(z).ie., [X(z)] & where the integral is a contour integral over a

closed path C.
Representation of ROC:

This circle in the Z-Plane is referred to as unit circle & plays a very important role in the discussion of Z-
Transform.
Properties of ROC:
The ROC of X(Z) consists of a ring in the Z-Plane centered at the origin.
The ROC cannot contain any poles.
The ROC of finite duration right sided (or causal signal) is in the entire plane except z=0.
The ROC of finite duration left sided (anticausal signal)is in the entire plane except z=infinity.
The ROC of finite duration two sided (noncausal signal is in the entire plane except z=0 & z=infinity.
The ROC of infinite duration right sided (causal) is exterior of the circle of radius r,in Z-Plane.
The ROC of infinite duration left sided (anticausal) is interior of the circle of radius r,in Z-Plane.
The ROC of infinite duration two sided (non-causal) is the region between two circles of radius r1 & r2.

Properties of Z-Transform:

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Thus proved.

7.

8.Final value theorem:

38.Find the Z-Transform of x(n)= u(n)

W.K.T = = ;X(Z)= ;
Location of poles: Z=a;Location of zeros: Z=0;ROC: > a;

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39.Find the Z-T of

40.

Location of poles: Z=0.8;Location of zeros: Z=0;ROC: < 0.8

41.

Location of poles: Z=0.3 & 0.8;Location of zeros: Z=0;ROC: > 0.3 & < 0.8

42.Find the initial & final value of

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1.2 Concepts of frequency in Analog and Digital Signals

1.Frequency is closely related to specific type of periodic motion (harmonic oscillation)
2.Harmonic oscillation is described by sinusoidal functions.
3.The concept of frequency is related to the concept of time by the dimension of inverse time.
(i)CT Sinusoidal Signals
(ii)DT Sinusoidal Signals
(iii)Harmonically related complex exponential
1.3 Sampling Theorem
Sampling:It is the conversion of a CT signal into DT signal obtained by taking ―Samples‖ of the CT
signal at DT instants.
Statement:
Given Band Limited (Frequency Limited Signal) with highest frequency Fmax:The signal can be exactly
reconstructed provided the following is satisfied:Sampling Frequency:
Aliasing
Aliasing occurs when input frequencies (again greater than half the sampling rate) are folded and
superimposed onto other existing frequencies.
In order to prevent alias
whereFmaxis the highest input frequency
Nyquist Rate:Minimum sampling rate to prevent alias.
43.Consider the analog signal x(t)=3cos100πt
(a)Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing(b)Suppose that the signal is sampled
at the rate of 200 Hz, what is the DT signal obtained after sampling?(c) Suppose that the signal is sampled
at the rate of 75 Hz, what is the DT signal obtained after sampling?
Soln: (a)The frequency of the analog signal is F= 50 Hz. Hence the minimum sampling rate required to
avoid aliasing is Fs=100Hz,.
(b) If the signal is sampled at Fs = 200 Hz, the DT signal is

(c) If the signal is sampled at Fs=75 Hz, the DT signal is

44.Consider the analog signal,

What is the Nyquist rate for this signal?

Soln: The frequencies present in the signal above are F1=25 Hz, F2=150 Hz, F3=50 Hz.
Thus Fmax = 150 Hz, Fs > 2Fmax = 300 Hz;The Nyquist rate is = 2Fmax = 300 Hz
Inverse Z-Transform:45.By Long-Division Method:

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46.Partial –Fraction Method:

; ;

; ;
; ;

Example:47.

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