Chapter 10

Active Packaging

M.M. Gutierrez-Pacheco, S.L. Gutierrez-Pacheco, L.A. Ortega-Ramirez,

and J.F. Ayala-Zavala

Postharvest Problems in Fresh Produce

Fresh fruits and vegetables have a short postharvest life and are prone to postharvest
losses due to mechanical injury, physiological causes, and decay. There has been an
enormous increase in the demand for fresh fruit and vegetable products that has
required the industry to develop new and improved methods for maintaining food
quality and extending shelf life (Aday et al. 2011). The physical damage is a very
important aspect of postharvest deterioration and is the primary cause of many
losses. Various types of injury can be sustained before, during, or after harvest; for
example, bruise may only be show externally (e.g., apples) but there could be inter-
nal damage, or it may be evident only after peeling (e.g., potatoes). For instance,
studies by Wilson et al. (1999) showed that a single bad bruise on an apple increased
the rate of moisture loss by up to 400 %. The presence of bruising and other types
of mechanical damage causes significant economic loss of fresh produce due to
rejection of the appearance quality by consumers (Prusky 2011).
Besides these normal postharvest changes, the conservation of fresh produce to
low temperatures may disrupt the complex sequence of biochemical reactions tak-
ing place in plant tissue, and cause irreversible damage known as chilling injury
(Snowdon 2010). Low-temperature storage is widely used as a postharvest treat-
ment applied to delay senescence in vegetables, ornamentals and fruits, so uphold-
ing their postharvest quality (Aghdam et al. 2015). The application to tropical and
subtropical fruits and vegetables is the susceptibility of these to chilling injury at

M.M. Gutierrez-Pacheco • S.L. Gutierrez-Pacheco • L.A. Ortega-Ramirez

J.F. Ayala-Zavala (*)
Centro de Investigacion en Alimentacion y Desarrollo, A.C. (CIAD, AC),
Carretera a la Victoria Km 0.6, La Victoria, Hermosillo, Sonora 83000, Mexico
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 157

M.W. Siddiqui et al. (eds.), Postharvest Management Approaches for
Maintaining Quality of Fresh Produce, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23582-0_10
158 M.M. Gutierrez-Pacheco et al.

temperatures below 12 °C. Chilling injury is a physiological disorder that greatly

reduces fruit quality, frequently rendering the product unsellable (Aghdam et al.
2015). In general, tissue which has suffered physiological disruption, is predisposed
to microbial decay, one of the main problems in fresh produce.
A main postharvest problem of fresh produce is the presence of microorganisms
as fungi and bacteria. This infection may occur during the growing season, at harvest
time, during handling, storage, transport, and marketing, or even after purchase by
consumer (Ayala-Zavala et al. 2008b). It is well established that pathogenic micro-
organisms associated with whole or fresh-cut produce can cause disease outbreaks,
thereby demonstrating the need to reduce risks associated with these products
(Parish et al. 2003). Some microorganisms are associated with outbreaks in some
fresh produce (tomato, spinach, lettuce, cabbage, cantaloupe, strawberries, and oth-
ers) involving a variety of pathogens (Beuchat 1996). The primary concern for fresh
produce are Salmonella spp., enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Listeria monocyto-
genes, Shigella spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Cyclospora spp. hepatitis A virus and
norovirus. However, viruses are emerging as the dominant causative agent associ-
ated with fruit and vegetable outbreaks. For example, in Europe during 2009, viruses
were identified as the causative agent in 65.1 % of 43 fruit and vegetable outbreaks
with verified causes (Foong-Cunningham et al. 2012; Snowdon 2010).
The poor postharvest handling, such as a broken cold chain and unsuitable pack-
aging materials, results in high postharvest losses due to enhanced physiological
activities and other metabolic processes that are associated with deterioration of
fresh produce. Thus, to meet the market demand for improving microbiological
quality and extending shelf life of fresh produce, microbial growth and storage con-
ditions should be controlled during storage (Choi et al. 2015). To extend storage
life, postharvest protocols are necessary such as cold storage coupled with heat
treatments, temperature preconditioning, intermittent warming, modified and con-
trolled atmosphere storage, ultraviolet light, jasmonates, and other treatments to
maintain postharvest quality of fresh produce (Aghdam et al. 2013).

Modified Atmosphere Packaging

Due to the complexities involved with fresh produce many considerations are
involved in choosing an acceptable packaging technology (Farber et al. 2003). One
of the areas of research that has shown promise, and had success, is that of modified
atmosphere packaging (MAP). This is a widely used modern packaging technology
used to extend the shelf life of minimally processed fresh produce, as the name sug-
gests, MAP of fresh produce involves packaging produce in polymer films that
maintain a commodity specific modified atmosphere such as reduced oxygen and
elevated carbon dioxide levels (Kader 2003; Kader and Saltveit 2003). This tech-
nique involves either actively or passively controlling or modifying the atmosphere
surrounding the product within a package made of various types and/or combina-
tions of films.
10 Active Packaging 159

Temperature and levels of O2 and CO2 in packages are the most important
factors that shorten shelf life and trigger deterioration of packaged fresh fruit.
Therefore, equilibrium-modified atmosphere packaging and active packaging
(AP) have been employed for addressing these problems. Active packaging can be
defined as “a mode of packaging in which the package, the product, and the envi-
ronment interact to prolong shelf life or enhance safety or sensory properties,
while maintaining the quality of the product” (Suppakul et al. 2003). AP involves
placing absorbers inside the package (Guynot et al. 2003), and includes concepts
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide scavenging systems (Suppakul et al. 2003).
Oxygen can cause changes in color, flavor, and odor (Suppakul et al. 2003) and
encourages growth of aerobic bacteria and molds (Guynot et al. 2003). Hence,
oxygen scavengers are used to minimize quality changes and prevent deterioration
due to oxidation and growth of microorganisms (Charles et al. 2005). Iron, sodium
hydrosulfite, and ascorbic acid are the most used oxygen scavengers in food pack-
aging (Yeh et al. 2008) (Table 10.1).

Moisture-Absorbing Systems

As is well known, fresh produce continues to respire after harvest producing mois-
ture. This humidity leads to accumulation of moisture vapor inside the package,
which may saturate the headspace and condense on internal surface of the package
and on surface of the produce. This leads to the growth of microorganisms and deg-
radation of texture and flavor, which are the principal causes of fresh produce losses
(Akinmusire 2011). Moisture-absorbing systems have been used for a very long
time to absorb moisture of foods and inhibit growth of microorganisms. Some of
these include desiccants such as silica gel, calcium oxide, calcium chloride, and
activated clays and minerals which can be incorporated into sachets, pads, sheets, or
blankets (Day 2008). These moisture-absorbing systems that are based on desicca-
tion can maintain a specific relative humidity inside the package by absorbing or
releasing the moisture.
Several researchers have studied the use of desiccants such as Mahajan et al.
(2008) which elaborated a moisture absorber with a mixture of bentonite (0.55 g/g),
sorbitol (0.25 g/g), and CaCl2 (0.2 g/g). These authors reported a moisture-holding
capacity of 0.9 g of water by g of mixed desiccant. Additionally, this absorber (5 g),
when applied inside the package of fresh mushrooms (250 g), improved the overall
appearance. Shirazi and Cameron (1992) observed that 10 g of sorbitol, xylitol, NaCl,
KCl, and CaCl2 sealed with one mature green tomato fruit (70–90 g) at 20 °C in simu-
lated packages for 48 days resulted in stable relative humidities of approximately 75,
80, 75, 85, and 35 %, respectively. Villaescusa and Gil (2003) used sorbitol and silica
gel in order to control in-package relative humidity for mushrooms. They found that
sorbitol promoted tissue leakage and deteriorated texture, whereas silica gel increased
weight loss in mushrooms. These disappointing results could be due to excessive
amounts of desiccants used, which was 10–15 g/150 g of mushrooms.
Table 10.1 Effect of MAP in fresh produce
Type of atmosphere
packaging Fresh produce Effect Reference
Polypropylene trays with Cantaloupe and Lower O2 availability suppressed some of the esters relevant to the aroma of fresh-cut Amaro et al. (2012)
O2 transmission rate of honeydew melon melon and package O2 levels are more important in determining aroma than other quality
5200 cm3/m/d/atm attributes and high O2 levels may be required to reveal desirable aroma compounds
Packages with high and Pear High O2 MAP was effective in keeping free radical scavenging capacity as measured by Li et al. (2012)
low O2 (30 and 80 %) the DPPH assay. After 12 days of storage, phenolics and anthocyanin contents were 2.5
and 12 times, respectively, higher than those in the passive package and 3 and 2 times
higher than those in low O2 package. The sensory evaluation indicated that surface color
of cut fruits were stable for at least 12 days. The results suggested that high O2-modified
atmosphere packaging could be used to inhibit browning and prolong the shelf life of
pears in spite of more than 50 % loss in vitamin C content
High CO2 atmospheric Mushrooms High CO2 treatment before or during storage further reduced browning and increased Jamjumroon
in polyvinyl chloride (Volvariella volvacea) the shelf life of straw mushroom with an optimum storage temperature of 15 °C et al. (2012)
MAP1: 2 % O2+7 % Shiitake Mushrooms Active MAP extend the shelf life of shiitake mushrooms to 17 days and the Ye et al. (2012)
CO2; MAP2: 2 % O2+10 (Lentinula edodes) concentration of carbon dioxide influence the postharvest quality of shiitake
% CO2; MAP3: 2 % mushrooms. MAP2 treatment inhibited the increase in respiration rate and
O2+13 % CO2 malondialdehyde contents, delayed the decrease in firmness, soluble sugar and vitamin
C, and obviously reduced the activity of polyphenol oxidase and the degree of
browning, therefore maintaining better quality
3 kPa O2 + 3 kPa CO2 Broccoli (Brassica Broccoli packaged with LDPE 30 μm film and storage at 0 °C was most desirable MiAe et al. (2009)
inside of packaging film oleracea L.) extending shelf-life reducing weight loss, color change, off-odor, and microbial infections
of LDPE (low-density
polyethylene)
CO2 (2–5 %) in PE Green bell peppers Peppers packaged with the PE films did not exhibit significant changes of ascorbic acid Manolopoulou
packaging (Capsicum annuum L.) during the storage shelf life. Peppers packaged with the two PE films at 5 °C storage, et al. (2010)
presented significant less chilling injuries compared to the unpackaged peppers
additionally, the original green color was preserved
MAP (5.3 % CO2 + 5.5 Cherry tomatoes The combination of MAP (5.3 % CO2 + 5.5 % O2) and UV-C (2 kJ/m2) irradiation Choi et al. (2015)
% O2) and UV-C (2 kJ/ reduced S. Typhimurium inoculated in cherry tomatoes. Additionally, MAP reduced
m2) irradiation changes in firmness and weight, as well as lycopene content
10 Active Packaging 161

Ethylene-Absorbing Systems

Ethylene (C2H4) acts as a plant hormone that has different physiological effects on
fresh produce. It accelerates respiration, leading to maturity and senescence, and
also softening and ripening of many kinds of fruit (Saltveit 1999). Furthermore,
ethylene accumulation can cause yellowing of green vegetables and may be respon-
sible for a number of specific postharvest disorders in fresh fruits and vegetables
(Vermeiren et al. 1999). To prolong shelf life of fresh produce, accumulation of
ethylene should be avoided (Brody et al. 2008). The most commonly used ethylene
absorber is potassium permanganate (KMnO4) which is mostly supplied in sachets
while other adsorbent or absorbent chemicals may be distributed as sachets or
incorporated in the packaging materials (Brody et al. 2008). Due to the presence of
double bond, ethylene (H2C=CH2) is very reactive and is rapidly oxidized to acetate
and ethanol by KMnO4 (Lopez-Rubio et al. 2004).
Ethylene may also be removed by physical adsorption on active surfaces such as
activated carbon or zeolite. Another type of ethylene absorber is based on the
absorption of ethylene on activated carbon and subsequent breakdown by metal
catalyst. Use of charcoal with palladium chloride prevented the accumulation of
ethylene and was effective in reducing the rate of softening in kiwifruits and bananas
and chlorophyll loss in spinach leaves (Abe and Watada 1991). Ethylene can also be
removed from the package headspace by using polyethylene films into which
ceramic powder has been incorporated. The incorporation of ceramic powder
increases the permeability of the film and thus helps to reduce the ethylene concen-
tration in the package (Vermeiren et al. 1999).

Flavor Release/Absorbing Systems

The flavor profile is one of the most important sensory attributes of fresh produce
and plays a major role in determining consumer acceptability. This is influenced by
genetic, preharvest, harvesting, and postharvest factors (Kader 2008). The longer
the time between harvest and eating, the greater the losses of characteristic flavor
(taste and aroma) and the development of off-flavors in most fruits and vegetables
(Forney 2001; Kader 2008). The increased consumer demand for more quality has
led the food packaging industry to search for an innovative packaging technology
where the package contributes to maintaining quality and safety of the product in
addition to simply acting as a protective barrier (Vakakalanka et al. 2012).
Efforts are made to identify methods to embed, entrap, and encapsulate aromas
and other compounds within the packaging polymers or plastics or to add them at
the headspace of the containers to minimize flavor scalping (Garti 2008). Flavor
release might also provide means to mask off-odors coming from the food or the
packaging. Further applications of flavor-enriched packaging materials include the
possibility to improve the organoleptic quality of the product by emitting desirable
162 M.M. Gutierrez-Pacheco et al.

flavors into the food that are released upon opening (Siro 2012). These functionality
can be observed in the work of Ayala‐Zavala and González‐Aguilar (2010) where
evaluated the controlled release of garlic oil from β-cyclodextrin capsules into
sachets on sensory odor acceptability of fresh-cut tomato (0, 0.25, 0.5, and 1 g of
garlic oil capsules/100 g tomato). These authors reported that after 14 storage days
the values of odor acceptability were above the limit of acceptability.
On the other hand, in some cases, fresh produce can generate undesirable aromas
and other compounds due to diverse physiological factors. Also, packaging materi-
als may also generate undesirable odors, especially plastic materials like polyolefin
components. For this reason, aroma absorbers are deigned to eliminate undesirable
aromas present in the package headspace. Some of these absorbers include natural
clays, zeolites, and active carbon (Siro 2012).

Natural Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Agents Incorporated

in Food Packaging

The search of new safe substances for food preservation is being performed around
the world (Magnuson et al. 2013). Synthetic additives have been used for many
years to maintain the quality of many food products; however the potentially toxic
effects attributed to them are leading to the search for more natural alternatives
(Ortega-Ramirez et al. 2014). Nowadays, there has been an extensive search for
potential natural food additive candidates that retain a broad spectrum of antioxi-
dant and antimicrobial activities while possessing the ability to improve the quality
and shelf life of perishable foods (Fratianni et al. 2010).
Natural plant extracts are of increasing interest today due to the great variety of
bioactive compounds with antimicrobial and antioxidant activity present in them
(Ayala-Zavala et al. 2008c; González-Aguilar et al. 2010). Some of these include
polyphenols, terpenoids, alkaloids, lectins, polypeptides, essential oils (EOs),
among others. Several essential oils (EOs) such as oils of garlic, cinnamon, thyme,
oregano, clove, basil, coriander, citrus peel, laurel, ginger, rosemary, and pepper-
mint, among others, have been demonstrated antimicrobial activity against both
bacteria and molds (Burt 2004).
Extensive research has been conducted to the search and study of the antimicro-
bial and antioxidant activity of natural origin compounds. Tepe et al. (2005) evalu-
ated the antimicrobial activity of Salvia tomentosa Miller EO against 14
microorganisms, showing the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) against
Streptococcus pneumonie (2.25 mg/mL), Clostridium perfringens (0.54 mg/mL),
and Mycobacterium smegmatis (2.25 mg/mL). On the other hand, Singh et al.
(2007) reported that cinnamon EO (0.002–0.006 mg/mL) were 100 % antifungal
against pathogenic fungi Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus terreus,
Fusarium moniliforme, Fusarium graminearum, Penicillium citrinum, and
Penicillium viridicatum. Also, the growth of Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium sp., and
Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis was completely inhibited by
10 Active Packaging 163

oregano, thyme, dictamnus, and marjoram EOs at relatively low concentrations

(0.085–0.300 mg/mL) (Daferera et al. 2003).
On the other hand, flavonoids have been identified as an excellent food additive
capable of ensure food safety by preventing microbial attack. It has been shown that
flavonoids can protect fresh produce against spoilage fungi, such as Fusarium oxy-
sporum (banana and grape), Aspergillus japonicus (pokhara and apricot), Aspergillus
oryzae (orange), A. niger (apple), and A. flavus (mango) (Sharma and Kumar 2009;
Al-Hindi et al. 2011). Also, has been reported that flavonoids extracted from berga-
mot (Citrus bergamia Risso) peel shown an inhibitory effect against E. coli,
Pseudomonas putida, and Salmonella enterica in the range of 0.200–0.800 mg/mL
(Mandalari et al. 2007). This antimicrobial activity has been linked to the ability of
the constituents of these extracts to be embedded or interact with the membrane or
cell wall of these microorganisms, which causes a destabilization of it and alteration
of enzyme systems vital to the survival of the same (Kim et al. 1995; Ayala-Zavala
et al. 2011) (Fig. 10.1).
Besides of the antimicrobial activity, these compounds also possess antioxidant
properties. Flavonoids from fruits and plants have been shown antioxidant properties
in vitro and in vivo studies. Has been reported that methanol extracts of pomegranate
peel showed 83 and 81 % antioxidant activity at 0.05 mg/mL using β-carotene-
linoleate and DPPH⋅ assays, respectively (Singh et al. 2002). Medicinal plants like
Cymbopogon citratus have also demonstrated antioxidant activity, which were effec-
tive in reducing the DPPH⋅ radical in a 40 and 68 % at 0.033 and 0.05 mg/mL. Also,
Chenopodium EO showed a 95.66 % of inhibition of ABTS⋅+ radical at 3 mg/mL.

Fig. 10.1 Antibacterial effect of bioactive compounds from natural sources

164 M.M. Gutierrez-Pacheco et al.

On the other hand, Vega-Vega et al. (2013) reported that ethanolic extract of
mango seed applied to fresh-cut mango presented the highest content of the total
phenolics (7.4 times), flavonoids (3.1 times), and antioxidant capacity DPPH⋅,
TEAC, and ORAC (2.9, 2.3, and 2.8 times, respectively) compared to untreated
controls. In addition, Silva-Espinoza et al. (2013) applied an aqueous emulsion of
cinnamon leaf EO on strawberries stored at 10 °C for 9 days and observed an incre-
ment of phenols (78 %) and flavonoids (35 %). Furthermore, increased the antioxi-
dant capacity of the fruits measured with DPPH⋅ (52 %), TEAC (32 %), and ORAC
(25 %) assays, compared to control fruits.
Despite the after mentioned properties, the applicability of these compounds
directly on the food surface may be sometimes limited because these substances are
rapidly neutralized or diffused from the surface into the food product or the environ-
ment, thus limiting their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties (Min and Krochta
2005; Ayala-Zavala et al. 2008a). For this reason, their incorporation in a food pack-
aging can protect them and permit a controlled release. The use of packaging with
natural bioactive compounds has increased today (Zemljič et al. 2013; Woranuch
and Yoksan 2013; Peng et al. 2013). This has allowed the maintenance of foodstuffs
for longer time because they maintain effective concentrations of bioactive com-
pounds when is necessary. These compounds could be added in the package allow-
ing their release in the headspace or imbibed into the package material (Ayala-Zavala
et al. 2008b).
The effect of antimicrobials in the headspace of the package can be observed in the
work of Melgarejo-Flores et al. (2013) which exposed table grapes berries to vapors
of cinnamon leaf EO at 0, 0.196, 0.392, and 0.588 mg/mL, and stored in polypropyl-
ene trays at 25 °C for 30 min. These authors reported that the exposure of grapes to
the oil vapor significantly reduced fungal decay compared to control berries. In addi-
tion, the treatments increased phenolic and flavonoid content, related with antioxidant
activity. Also, Serrano et al. (2005) observed that the vaporization of eugenol, thymol,
menthol, and eucalyptol into polypropylene bags reduced molds and yeasts and total
aerobic mesophilic colonies of sweet cherry by 4 and 2 log CFU compared with con-
trol, respectively. On the other hand, Ayala-Zavala and González-Aguilar (2010)
encapsulated garlic oil in β-cyclodextrin to generate a release system of antimicrobial
volatiles and tested on microbial growth and sensory quality of fresh-cut tomato.
These authors observed that the highest concentration of garlic oil capsules
applied showed the lowest microbial growth and the highest sensory quality.

Edible Films and Coatings as Active Packagings

Edible films and coatings are thin layers of edible materials that play an important
role on conservation, distribution, and marketing of fresh produce. Edible coatings
may contribute to extending the shelf life of fresh produce by reducing moisture and
solute migration, gas exchange, and respiration and oxidative reaction rates, and by
reducing or even suppressing physiological disorders (Falguera et al. 2011;
10 Active Packaging 165

Rojas-Graü et al. 2009). Edible films and coatings can be considered like an “edible
packaging” due the characteristics and benefits conferred to the product (Janjarasskul
and Krochta 2010). Edible packaging is rapidly advancing by utilizing edible com-
pounds, such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and/or resins, and other edible
components, derived from diverse renewable sources. Recent innovations have led
to the development of edible coatings that can act as carriers of active ingredients.
There are a number of compounds that can be incorporated into the coating of fresh
produce to delay their senescence, maintain their organoleptic properties, texture,
and microbiological safety (antioxidants, antimicrobials, pigments, flavors, spices,
salts, nutrient, light absorbers, among others) (Table 10.2).
Depending on individual application, specific controlled-release rates of active
solutes are required to fully perform their assigned functions. For example, limiting
the migration rate of a preservative can reduce surface microbial growth. In certain
cases, modification of an edible film matrix such as cross-linking could be used to
reduce bioactive compound mobility (Janjarasskul and Krochta 2010). A controlled
rate of release of active solute could be designed based on the chemical affinities
between active ingredient, film forming materials, and food product and the
conditions (e.g., temperature, pH, aw, time) to which the edible packaging contain-
ing the active ingredient would be subjected (Quirós-Sauceda et al. 2014b).
Recently, antimicrobial and antioxidant packaging films have been increasingly
investigated (Ayala-Zavala et al. 2008b; Ramos et al. 2014). These properties can be

Table 10.2 Active films and coatings applied to fresh and fresh-cut produce
Active Edible film or Fresh
compound coating matrix produce Benefits Reference
Citral and Alginate Arbutus Preserved sensory and Guerreiro et al.
eugenol berries nutritional attributes and (2015)
reduced microbial spoilage
Lemongrass Alginate Fresh-cut Decreased yeast and molds Azarakhsh et al.
EO pineapple counts (2014)
Cinnamic Xanthan gum Fresh-cut Reduce surface browning Sharma and
acid pear and maintain antioxidant Rao (2015)
capacity
Lemongrass Apple Fresh-cut Reduce microbial growth Rojas-Graü
and oregano puree-alginate apples et al. (2007)
EOs
Carvacrol Strawberry Strawberries Maintain firmness and Peretto et al.
and methyl puree brightness and increased (2014)
cinnamate total soluble phenolics
vapors
Lemongrass Carnauba- Apple Maintain hardness and Jo et al. (2014)
EO shellac wax decreased total aerobic
bacteria
Chitosan Agar-agar Garlic Respiration and moisture Geraldine et al.
cloves loss reduction (2008)
Tea tree EO Chitosan Orange Reduction of microbial Cháfer et al.
growth (2012)
166 M.M. Gutierrez-Pacheco et al.

attributed to the incorporation of compounds with these activities or activity of the

material itself. These coatings offer advantages over direct application of antimicro-
bial and antioxidant agents because can be designed to slow down bioactive com-
pounds diffusion (Quirós-Sauceda et al. 2014b). Smaller amounts of these
compounds would thus be needed in an edible coating.
Pranoto et al. (2005) reported that alginate‐based edible film incorporated with
0.1 % of garlic oil reduced the growth of Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus
in 5.61 and 4.30 log cycles. Also, Seydim and Sarikus (2006) reported the antimi-
crobial activity of whey protein‐based edible films incorporated with oregano, rose-
mary, and garlic oils. These authors observed that especially oregano oil (2 %)
showed the highest antimicrobial activity showing inhibition zones of 18.99 mm2.
On the other hand, Ayala-Zavala et al. (2013) evaluated the effect of pectin films
added with cinnamon leaf oil (36.1 mg/mL) and observed an inhibition zones diam-
eter of 16, 12.3, and 14 mm for E. coli, S. aureus, and L. monocytogenes, respec-
tively. Additionally, these films were applied to fresh-cut peaches and were observed
that the same concentration of the oil showed the lowest values of microbial growth
(1.86 log UFC/g) and that peaches were positively affected by the coating treat-
ment, increasing its antioxidant status and odor acceptability.
Similarly, Melgarejo-Flores et al. (2013) applied the same coatings to table
grapes stored at 10 °C for 15 days and observed a completely inhibition of fungal
decay and the highest antioxidant activity compared to control berries. Balaguer
et al. (2013) studied the effect of adding cinnamaldehyde (major compound of cin-
namon oil) at 1.5, 3, and 5 % in gliadin films against Penicillium expansum and
A. niger in vitro. The tested films were highly effective against fungal growth of
P. expansum and A. niger were completely inhibited after storage in vitro for 10 days
in the presence of films incorporated with 3 % cinnamaldehyde.
Other physical factor contributing to postharvest losses of fresh produce is the
loss of moisture which causes wilting and/or shrinkage. Rojas-Graü et al. (2006)
reported that apple puree films incorporated with oregano, cinnamon, and lemon-
grass oil decreased water vapor permeability and inhibit the growth of E. coli. On
the other hand, Siripatrawan and Harte (2010) reported that green tea extract
improved water vapor barrier, polyphenol content, and antioxidant activity to chito-
san films. Ayranci and Tunc (2004) reported that antioxidants such as citric or ascor-
bic acids, incorporated into a methylcellulose coating, extensively reduced ascorbic
acid losses in whole apricot and peppers. Also, Han et al. (2004) incorporated cal-
cium and vitamin E to chitosan coatings to improve storability and nutritional prop-
erties of fresh strawberries and red raspberries.
Another form of active packaging film is the multilayer systems, which is more
efficient, even than single films. These can delay or inhibit the diffusion of bioactive
compounds to environment (Fig. 10.2) helping to maintain the effective concentra-
tions of bioactive compounds where it is needed and permit a controlled release
(Quirós-Sauceda et al. 2014a). A possible mechanism of the multilayered system
could include three layers: a matrix layer (e.g., biopolymer based) that contains
the bioactive substance; an inner control layer to govern the rate of diffusion of
the bioactive substance by allowing its controlled release; and a barrier layer that
10 Active Packaging 167

Fig. 10.2 Releasing of bioactive compounds from multilayer film packaging

prevents the migration of the active agent from the covered food as well as controls
the permeability to gases.
This particular functionality has been reported by Sipahi et al. (2013) which
observed an increment of shelf life of fresh-cut watermelon after to be covered with
a alginate-based multilayer (0.5, 1, 2 g/100 g) added with trans-cinnamaldehyde
microencapsulated (2 g/100 g) in β-cyclodextrins antimicrobial agent. These authors
observed that the multilayer coating (2 g/100 g) effectively reduced counts of psy-
chrotrophs by approximately 1.30 logs. Also, Brasil et al. (2012) tested the same
antimicrobial agent (2 g/100 g) into chitosan-pectin multilayer coating (2 g/100 g
each film forming solution) in enhancing quality of fresh-cut papaya stored at 4 °C for
15 days. The authors observed that multilayer coating maintained firmness, color, and
β-carotene content, and showed lower juice leakage. Similarly, Mantilla et al. (2013)
studied the effectiveness of a sodium alginate (0.5, 1, and 2 g/100 g) and pectin (2
g/100 g) multilayered edible coating with the same antimicrobial complex (beta-
cyclodextrin and trans-cinnamaldehyde at 2 g/100 g) in enhancing quality and shelf
life of fresh-cut pineapple stored for 15 days at 4 °C. These authors observed that the
coatings inhibit the microbial growth and preserve color, texture, and pH of the fruit.

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