CHAPTER 1

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

1.1 Electrodynamics Before Maxwell

• So far, we have encountered the following laws, specifying the divergence and curl of
electric and magnetic fields:

• If you apply the divergence to number (iii), everything works out:

• The left side is zero because divergence of curl is zero; the right side is zero by virtue of
equation (ii).

• But when you do the same thing to number (iv), you get into trouble:

• The left side must be zero, but the right side, in general, is not.

• For steady currents, the divergence of J is zero, but when we go beyond magnetostatics,
Ampère’s law cannot be right.

• The problem is on the right side of continuity equation, which should be zero, but isn’t.
 1.2 How Maxwell Fixed Ampère’s Law

• Applying the continuity equation and Gauss’s law, the offending term can be rewritten:

• If we were to combine ϵo(∂E/∂t) with J, in Ampère’s law, it would be just right to kill off
the extra divergence:

• Such a modification changes nothing, as far as magnetostatics is concerned: when E is

constant, we still have ∇ × B = μ × B = μoJ.

• In fact, Maxwell’s term is hard to detect in ordinary electromagnetic experiments, that’s

why Faraday and the others never discovered it in the laboratory.

• Maxwell called his extra term the displacement current:

• Finally we put the finishing touches on Maxwell’s equations:

 1.3 Magnetic Charge

• There is a pleasing symmetry to Maxwell’s equations; it is particularly striking in free

space, where ρ and J vanish:

• If you replace E by B and B by −μμoϵo E, the first pair of equations turns into the second,
and vice versa.

• This symmetry between E and B is spoiled, though, by the charge term in Gauss’s law
and the current term in Ampère’s law.

• What if we had

• Then ρm would represent the density of magnetic “charge,” and ρe the density of

electric charge;

• Jm would be the current of magnetic charge, and Je the current of electric charge.

• Both charges would be conserved:

• The former follows by application of the divergence to (iii), the latter by taking the
divergence of (iv).
• Maxwell’s equations beg for magnetic charge to exist—it would fit in so nicely. And yet,
in spite of a diligent search, no one has ever found any.

• As far as we know, ρm is zero everywhere, and so is Jm ;

• B is not on equal footing with E: there exist stationary sources for E (electric charges)
but none for B.

• (This is reflected in the fact that magnetic multipole expansions have no monopole term,
and magnetic dipoles consist of current loops, not separated north and south “poles.”)

• Apparently God just didn’t make any magnetic charge.

1.4 Maxwell’s Equations in Matter

• Maxwell’s equations are complete and correct. However, when you are working with
materials that are subject to electric and magnetic polarization there is a more
convenient way to write them.

• For inside polarized matter there will be accumulations of “bound” charge and current,
over which you exert no direct control.

• It would be nice to reformulate Maxwell’s equations so as to make explicit reference

only to the “free” charges and currents.

• We have already learned, from the static case, that an electric polarization P produces a
bound charge density.

• Likewise, a magnetic polarization (or “magnetization”) M results in a bound current

• In the nonstatic case: Any change in the electric polarization involves a flow of
(bound) charge (call it Jp ), which must be included in the total current.

• suppose we examine a tiny chunk of polarized material (Fig. 7.47). The polarization
introduces a charge density σb = P at one end and −μσb at the other.

• If P now increases a bit, the charge on each end increases accordingly, giving a net
current

• The current density, therefore, is

• This polarization current has nothing to do with the bound current Jb.

• Jb is associated with magnetization of the material and involves the spin and orbital
motion of electrons;

• Jp , by contrast, is the result of the linear motion of charge when the electric polarization
changes. If P points to the right, and is increasing, then each plus charge moves a bit to
the right and each minus charge to the left; the cumulative effect is the polarization
current Jp.

• The total charge density can be separated into two parts:

• and the current density into three parts:

• Gauss’s law can now be written as

• or

• where, as in the static case,

• Meanwhile, Ampère’s law (with Maxwell’s term) becomes

• or

• where

• In terms of free charges and currents, then, Maxwell’s equations read

 1.5 Boundary Conditions

• In general, the fields E, B, D, and H will be discontinuous at a boundary between two

different media, or at a surface that carries a charge density σ or a current density K.

• The explicit form of these discontinuities can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations, in
their integral form using

• Divergences theorem: ∫ (∇ · v)d τ = ∮ v · da .

V s

• Stokes’ theorem: ∫ (∇ ×v) · da = ∮ v · dl

s p

• Suppose we draw a wafer-thin Gaussian pillbox, extending just barely over the edge in
each direction (Fig. 2.36).
• Gauss’s law says that

• we obtain:

• in the limit as the thickness of pillbox goes to zero, so the component of D that is
perpendicular to the interface is discontinuous in the amount.

• Identical reasoning, applied to equation (ii), yields

• Turning to (iii), a very thin Amperian loop straddling the surface

• gives

where But in the limit as the width of the loop goes to zero, the flux vanishes.

• Therefore,

• That is, the components of E parallel to the interface are continuous across the boundary.

• The same token, implies to (iv)

• where I f enc is the free current passing through the Amperian loop. No volume current
density will contribute (in the limit of infinitesimal width),

• but a surface current can. In fact, if n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the interface
(pointing from 2 toward 1), so that ( n̂ × l) is normal to the Amperian loop (Fig. 7.49),
then

• and hence

• So the parallel components of H are discontinuous by an amount proportional to the free

surface current density. These are the general boundary conditions for electrodynamics.

• In the case of linear media, they can be expressed in terms of E and B alone: