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Recent Advancement of Packaging Technology for Fish Products

Research · August 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3714.5449

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 Recent Advancement in Packaging Technology for Fish Products

Recent Advancement of Packaging Technology for

Fish Products
Dr. Subhendu Datta

Principal Scientist
ICAR-CIFE Kolkata Centre
subhdatta@[Link]

India is predominantly dependent on its agricultural economy, often leading to severe

shortages. One of the important causes of food shortage is high postharvest losses and
spoilage, estimated to be around 20%. Packaging of foods becomes all the more important in
countries such as India where the climatic conditions vary considerably. Ambient temperature
varies from subzero to over 50°C and relative humidity from 10-90%. Handling and transport
facilities are also seen as grossly inadequate in countries such as India. Unlike many other
manufactured consumer products including leather, machineries and chemicals, the packaging
needs of foods, and particularly fish, are very complex because of the intrinsic characteristics
and the need to retain or preserve them while in the package.

History

The first packages used the natural materials available at the time: Baskets of reeds,
wineskins (Bota bags), wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels,
woven bags, etc. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed: for
example, early glass and bronze vessels. The study of old packages is an important aspect of
archaeology.
The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a Persian
traveler visiting markets in Cairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in
paper for the customers after they were sold (Twede, 2005).
Iron and tin plated steel were used to make cans in the early 19th century. Paperboard
cartons and corrugated fiberboard boxes were first introduced in the late 19th century.
In 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a
degree in Packaging Engineering (Broody and Marsh, 1997).

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 Recent Advancement in Packaging Technology for Fish Products

Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on

bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and panels on cartons, increased processing
efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several
types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve
performance and functionality (Maloney, 2003). In-plant recycling has long been common for
production of packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper based
products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling has
increased due to curbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.
Many of the most prominent innovations in the packaging industry were developed
first for military uses. Some military supplies are packaged in the same commercial packaging
used for general industry: Other military packaging must transport materiel, supplies, foods,
etc. under the most severe distribution and storage conditions. Packaging problems
encountered in World War II led to Military Standard or "mil spec" regulations being applied
to packaging, designating it "military specification packaging". As a prominent concept in the
military, mil spec packaging officially came into being around 1941, due to operations in
Iceland experiencing critical losses due to what the military eventually attributed to bad
packaging solutions. In most cases, mil spec packaging solutions (such as barrier materials,
field rations, antistatic bags, and various shipping crates) are similar to commercial grade
packaging materials, but subject to more stringent performance and quality requirements
(Schneider et al., 2010). As of 2003, the packaging sector accounted for about two percent of
the gross national product in developed countries. About half of this market was related to
food packaging (Bix et al., 2003).
The purposes of packaging and package labels
Packaging and package labeling have several objectives (Burgess, 2007)
Physical protection – The objects enclosed in the package may require protection
from, among other things, mechanical shock, vibration, electrostatic discharge, compression,
temperature (Lee et al., 1998) etc.
Barrier protection – A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required.
Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or Oxygen
absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres (Severin et al., 2007) or controlled

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 Recent Advancement in Packaging Technology for Fish Products

atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh,
sterile (Johnston et al.,1997) and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function.
Containment or agglomeration – Small objects are typically grouped together in one
package for reasons of efficiency. For example, a single box of 1000 pencils requires less
physical handling than 1000 single pencils. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need
containment.
Information transmission – Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport,
recycle, or dispose of the package or product. With pharmaceuticals, food, medical, and
chemical products, some types of information are required by governments. Some packages
and labels also are used for track and trace purposes.
Marketing – The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage
potential buyers to purchase the product. Package graphic design and physical design have
been important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. Marketing
communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and (in many
cases) the point of sale display.
Security – Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of
shipment. Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also
can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to
help reduce the risks of package pilferage: Some package constructions are more resistant to
pilferage and some have pilfer indicating seals. Packages may include authentication seals and
use security printing to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit.
Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic
article surveillance tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require
specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of loss prevention.
Convenience – Packages can have features that add convenience in distribution,
handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, dispensing, reuse, recycling, and
ease of disposal.
Portion control – Single serving or single dosage packaging has a precise amount of
contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that
are a more suitable size for individual households. It is also aids the control of inventory:

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selling sealed one-liter-bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill
themselves.

Packaging Requirements of Individual Seafood Products

Battered and breaded seafood products
A number of value-added marine products both for export and internal markets are
prepared from shrimp, squids, cuttle fish, certain species of fish and minced meat from
low-priced fish (Figure 1). The changes taking place during frozen storage of the value
added products include desiccation, discoloration and development of rancidity.
Conventional packaging materials such as flexible plastic films alone are not suitable for
these products as they provide little mechanical protection to the products and as a result
the products get damaged or broken during handling and transportation. Hence,
thermoformed containers are commonly used: polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high impact
polystyrene (HIPS) and HDPE are unaffected by the low temperature of frozen storage
and provide protection to the contents against desiccation and oxidation during prolonged
storage.

Frozen products
Frozen shrimp is the most important marine export of India. Conventionally shrimp
was frozen as 2 kg blocks in duplex board cartons lined with low density polyethylene
(LDPE) and 10 such cartons are packed in a master carton made of 5 ply or 7 ply corrugated
fibre board boxes. There is now great demand from importing countries for shrimp in
individually quick frozen (IQF) form (Figure 2). IQF shrimp is packed into plastic film
pouches. The other major IQF products are cooked whole lobster, lobster tail, lobster meat,
cuttle fish fillets, boiled clam meat and fish fillets from white lean fish.

Dried fishery products

One fifth of India’s fish catch is salted and dried for internal consumption. Baskets
improvised with braided coconut or palmirah leaves are the containers mainly used for
packaging this product both for export and internal distribution. An overwrap with gunny
fabric is given as reinforcement in the case of products meant for export and those which have

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to be transported over long distances. These packages are however prone to easy entry of
insects, rodents and other pests. As the product is highly sensitive to changes in relative
humidity, the packaging has to be sufficiently water vapour proof.
The commonly used packaging materials for consumer packs of dry fish are LDPE
or polypropylene (PP). These materials are cheap, readily available and have good tearing and
bursting strength. Disadvantages are high water vapour and gas transmission rates, proneness
to puncture or damage from sharp spines and odour problems, and hence shelf life is limited.
A recent development is the use of polyethylene terephthalate (PET)/LDPE laminate pouches
(Srinivasa Gopal et al., 1998).

Canned fish
In India tinplate cans with a sulfur-resistant lacquer are the traditional containers for
fish and shellfish. However, the high cost of imported tinplate was one of the reasons for the
collapse of canned fish exports from India. Aluminum containers offer tremendous
opportunities to take care of the packaging needs of food-based products such as canned fish.
An indigenously developed aluminum can has been found quite good for heat processing fish
and fish-based products (Balachandran et el., 1998). Pull-tab polymer-coated tin-free steel
cans are presently manufactured in India and some canneries use them for both internal and
export markets.

Freeze dried products

Application of freeze drying in fish preservation is a relatively recent development. In
spite of the high production costs, the process is becoming very popular due to several
advantages associated with the products. They are generally packed under an inert gas to
exclude air and oxygen. Hence the main requirements in the packaging are low oxygen and
water vapour permeability to protect the product from rancidity and absorption of moisture,
and sufficient mechanical strength to protect from shock. Paper/ aluminium foil /LDPE
laminates or metalised PET/LDPE laminated pouches are used for freeze dried products.

Fish curry

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Fish curry is a processed item presented in a ‘ready-to-serve’ style. It can be preserved

both by freezing and heat processing. When heat processed in conventional tinplate or
aluminium cans the problems encountered are development of a metallic taste and
discoloration. Conventional flexible films are not suitable packaging for this product as they
provide little mechanical protection and are sensitive to heat. Thermoformed trays made of
HIPS or PVC are ideal for packing frozen fish curry (Srinivasa Gopal et al., 1995). Thermally
processed fish curry products are packed in PET/aluminium foil/cast PP retortable pouches.

Fish soup powder

Fish soup powder is a speciality product containing partially-hydrolysed fish, protein,
carbohydrates, fat and several seasonings including salt. An appropriate package developed
for such products is 12 µm plain PET laminated with LDPE-HDPE co-extruded film or 90-
100 µm LDPE/LLDPE/Nylon/LLDPE/Primacor (where Primacor = ethylene – acrylic acid
co-polymer) multilayer film which ensures safe storage of the product up to 180 days
(Srinivasa Gopal and Ravishankar 2001).

Dry fish pickle

Although fish such as anchovies (Kowala coval) are generally dried and marketed,
they offer a very good raw material for processing into dry pickle which is considered a
value-added product. A packaging material which offers safe storage of the product up to 14
months at ambient temperature has been identified as nylon/Surlyn or
LDPE/LLDPE/nylon/LLDPE/Primacor

Chitin/chitosan
Until recently posing a very serious problem in its disposal, shrimp waste has now
become a very valuable commodity because of its use in the manufacture of chitin and
chitosan derived from chitin. Chitin and chitosan are exported commodities and appropriate
packaging should protect the product against moisture gain as well as microbial and insect
attacks. The packaging extensively being used by the industry is a HDPE woven gusseted bag
laminated with 100 gauge LDPE liner (Figure 3).

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Figure 3: Chitin packed in HDPE laminated woven sack with LDPE liner

Packaging types
Packaging may be looked at as being of several different types. For example a
transport package or distribution package can be the shipping container used to ship, store,
and handle the product or inner packages. Some identify a consumer package as one which is
directed toward a consumer or household.
Packaging may be described in relation to the type of product being packaged: medical
device packaging, bulk chemical packaging, over-the-counter drug packaging, retail food
packaging, military materiel packaging, pharmaceutical packaging, etc.
It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: "primary",
"secondary", etc.
 Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This
usually is the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package which is in direct
contact with the contents.
 Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, perhaps used to group primary
packages together.
 Tertiary packaging is used for bulk handling, warehouse storage and transport
shipping. The most common form is a palletized unit load that packs tightly into
containers.
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These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use,
a shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary
packaging when combining smaller packages, and tertiary packaging on some distribution
packs.

Recent Advancements

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) is a technique used for prolonging the
shelf-life period of fresh or minimally processed foods. In this preservation technique the air
surrounding the food in the package is changed to another composition. This way the initial
fresh state of the product may be prolonged. It is the shelf-life of perishable products like
meat, fish, fruits and vegetables that will be prolonged with MAP since it slows the natural
deterioration of the product (Church et al., 1995). MAP is used with various types of
products, where the mixture of gases in the package depends on the type of product,
packaging materials and storage temperature. Meat and fish need very low gas permeability
films so for non-respiring products (meat, fish, cheese etc.) high barrier films are used. The
initial flushed gas-mixture will be maintained inside the MA package. But fruits and
vegetables are respiring products where the interaction of the packaging material with the
product is important (Day, 1996). If the permeability (for O2 and CO2) of the packaging film
is adapted to the products respiration, an equilibrium modified atmosphere will establish in
the package and the shelf-life of the product will increase (Parry, 1993).

Equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging (EMAP)

Among fresh-cut produce Equilibrium Modified Atmosphere Packaging (EMAP) is
the most commonly used packaging technology. When packaging vegetables and fruits the
gas atmosphere of package is not air (O2 21%; CO2 0.038%; N2 78%) but consists usually of a
lowered level of O2 and a heightened level of CO2. This kind of package slows down the
normal respiration of the product to prolong its shelf-life. Of course there are other factors,

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like the size of the product, severity of preparation, maturity of the product and type of tissue
that have an effect to the shelf-life of an EMA packaged produce.

Technology
There are two techniques used in the industry to pack vegetables namely gas-flushing
and compensated vacuum. In gas-flushing the package is flushed with a desired gas mixture,
as in compensated vacuum the air is removed totally and the desired gas mixture then
inserted. The label "packaged in a protective atmosphere" can refer to either of these; an
example of a gas mixture used for non-vegetable packaged food (such as crisps) is 99.9%
nitrogen gas, which is inert at the temperatures and pressures the packaging is subjected to.

Gases
The atmosphere in an MA package consists of N2, O2, CO2. It is the altered ratio of
these gases that makes a difference in the prolongation of shelf life. By reducing the O2-level
and increasing the CO2-level, ripening of fruits and vegetables can be delayed, respiration and
ethylene production rates can be reduced, softening can be retarded and various compositional
changes associated with ripening can be slowed down.
Oxygen is essential when packaging fresh fruits and vegetables as they continue to
respire after harvesting. The absence of O2 can lead to anaerobic respiration in the package
which accelerates senescence and spoilage. Too high levels of O2 do not retard respiration
significantly and it is around 12% of O2 where the respiration rate starts to decrease. So
oxygen is used in low levels (3-5%) for positive effect. When packaging meat and fish, the
high CO2-levels are effective bacterial and fungal growth inhibitors. In the case of vegetables
and fruits, CO2 is not a major factor since CO2-levels above 10% are needed to suppress
fungal growth significantly. Unfortunately higher levels than 10% of CO2 are working
phytotoxic for fresh produce. Nitrogen is used as filler gas since it neither encourages nor
discourages bacterial growth.
In recent years, there has been debate regarding the use of carbon monoxide (CO) in
the packaging of red meat. While no risk was found in the use of low levels of CO, the fact
that CO maintains the color of the meat and can, in that way, hide visual evidence of spoilage

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was raised. The European Food Information Council (EFIC, 2001) released a report in 2001
reviewing the data.

Packaging Films
When selecting packaging films (web substrates) for EMAP of fruits and vegetables
the main characteristics to consider are gas permeability, water vapour transmission rate,
mechanical properties, transparency, type of package and sealing reliability. Traditionally
used packaging films like LDPE (low density polyethylene), PVC (polyvinyl chloride), EVA
(ethylene-vinyl acetate) and OPP (oriented polypropylene) are not permeable enough for
highly respiring products like fresh-cut produces, mushrooms and broccoli. As fruits and
vegetables are respiring products, there is a need to transmit gases from and to the package.
Films designed with these properties are called permeable films. Other films, called barrier
films, are designed to prevent the exchange of gases and are mainly used with non-respiring
products like meat and fish.
EMAP films developed to control the humidity level as well as the gas composition in
the sealed package are beneficial for the prolonged storage of fresh fruits, vegetables and
herbs that are sensitive to moisture. These films are commonly referred to as modified
atmosphere/modified humidity packaging (MA/MH) films.

Quality assurance of MAP packages

Although Modified Atmosphere Packaging is a well-established process, it is a good
practice to maintain tight quality assurance through package testing. Incorrect oxygen levels,
empty gas cylinders and bad sealing bars can cause imprecise gas blends and poor package
seals that can result in product spoilage. Routine package testing with headspace gas
analysers, on-line gas analysers and leak detectors assure package quality, hence helps
ensuring the shelf life (Phillips, 1996; Zagori and Kader, 1988).

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Figure 4: Prawns packaging in thermoforming in flexible film, and in modified

atmosphere (MAP) in rigid film.

Figure 5: Fresh salmon filets packaging in flow pack wrapper (HFFS)

Figure 6: Whole crab vacuum packaging in thermoforming with flexible film.

Vacuum Packaging Processes of different types of fish

Modified atmosphere and vacuum packaged salmon fillets

Aquacultured salmon fillets were inoculated on the surfaces with 100 spores/g of a C.
botulinum type E spore mixture. The fillets were packaged in high-barrier film bags under
selected atmospheres (100% air, a modified atmosphere containing 75% CO2:25% N2, and
vacuum) and stored at 4ºC (39.2ºF), 8ºC (46.4ºF), and 16ºC (60.8ºF) (Reddy et al., 1997).
Dr. Subhendu Datta Page 11
 Recent Advancement in Packaging Technology for Fish Products

Table 1. Days to sensory spoilage and onset of toxicity in fresh salmon fillets inoculated with
C. botulinum type E (100 spores/g of fish), packaged under selected atmospheres, and stored
at various temperatures.

Storage Sensory Toxin

Temp. Spoilage Detection
(ºC) Atmospheres (d) (d)

16 100% air 4 4

MAa 5-6 4

Vacuum 3 3

8 100% air 13-17 17

MAa 20-24 24

Vacuumb >6, <10 10

4 100% air 24-27 >66c

MAa 55-62 >80c

Vacuum 34-38 >66c

a
MA = 75% CO2: 25% N2.
b
No sample was taken between d 6 and 10.
c
Last sampling was taken for toxin detection. No toxin was detected.

Modified atmosphere and vacuum packaged catfish fillets

Fresh catfish fillets (110-140 g) were surface inoculated on both sides with a C.
botulinum type E spore mixture at 100 spores/g fish. Fillets were packaged in high-barrier

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film bags under selected atmospheres (100% air, a modified atmosphere containing 75%
CO2:25% N2, and vacuum) and stored at 4ºC (39.2ºF), 8ºC (46.4ºF), and 160C (60.80F)
(Reddy et al., 1997b).

Table 2. Days to sensory spoilage and onset of toxicity in fresh catfish fillets inoculated
with C. botulinum type E (100 spores/g of fish), packaged under selected atmospheres,
and stored at various temperatures.

Storage Sensory Toxin

Temp. Spoilage Detection
(0C) Atmospheres (d) (d)

16 100% air 3 3

MAa 4 4

Vacuum 3 3

8 100% air 6 9

MAa 13 18

Vacuum 6b 6b

4 100% air 13 >54c

MAa 38-40 >75c

Vacuum 20-24 46
a
MA, 75% CO2: 25% N2.
b
1st d of sampling.
c
Last sampling was taken for toxin detection. No toxin was detected.

Modified atmosphere and vacuum packaged tilapia fillets

Fresh tilapia fillets (90-120 g) were surface inoculated on both sides with a C.
botulinum type E spore mixture at 100 spores/g fish. Fillets were packaged in high-barrier
film bags under selected atmospheres (100% air, a modified atmosphere containing 75%

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 Recent Advancement in Packaging Technology for Fish Products

CO2:25% N2, and vacuum) and stored at 4ºC (39.2ºF), 8ºC (46.4ºF), and 16ºC (60.8ºF)
(Reddy et al., 1997).

Table 3. Days to sensory spoilage and onset of toxicity in fresh tilapia fillets inoculated with
C. botulinum type E (100 spores/g of fish), packaged under selected atmospheres, and during
30 d and 90 d storage.
Storage Sensory Toxin
Temp. Spoilage Detection
(ºC) Atmospheres (d) (d)

Preliminary 30 d study

16 100% air 3-6 >3, <6

MAa 3-6 >3, <6

Vacuum NDb <6b

8 100% air 6 >9c

MAa 13-16 >16

Vacuum 9 >9, <16d

4 100% air 9 >13

MAa >30 >30c

Vacuum >30 >30c

Final 90 d study

16 100% air 3 4

MAa 4 4

Vacuum 3 3

8 100% air 6 20

MAa 17 40

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Vacuum 10 17

4 100% air 10 >47c

MAa 80 >90c

Vacuum 47 >90c
a
MA = 75% CO2: 25% N2.
b
ND, not determined. First day of sampling taken for toxin detection only.
c
Last sample was taken for toxin detection. No toxin was detected.
d
No sample was taken on d 13 for toxin detection.

Vacuum packaged cooked shrimp and Dungeness crabmeat

Vacuum packaged shrimp and crabmeat inoculated with about 300 C. botulinum type E
spores/g and stored at 10ºC (50ºF), would have spoiled 14 d before it became toxic. At
4.4ºC (40ºF), the product would have spoiled 27 d before it became toxic.

Vacuum packaged Dungeness crabmeat

C. botulinum type E spores (10,000 per sample) did not grow and produce toxin in
crabmeat vacuum-packaged in oxygen impermeable films when stored at 12ºC (55ºF) for
20 d. When crabmeat was inoculated with 10,000 spores per sample and stored at 25ºC
(77ºF), toxin was produced in one of the samples after 13 d of storage. However, toxin
was not produced when the samples were inoculated with 1,000 type E spores per sample.
Samples inoculated with 10,000 C. botulinum type A spores were not toxic after 3 d of
storage, but were toxic after 6 d of storage at 25ºC (77ºF) in either oxygen-permeable or
impermeable containers. All of the samples stored at 25ºC (77ºF) were grossly spoiled
prior to the production of C. botulinum toxin (NMFS, 1977).

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PROCEDURES IN PACKING OF LIVE ORNAMENTAL FISH FOR SHIPPING/

EXPORT

Packaging Practices:
The main objective of packing marine ornamental fish for export is for the product to
arrive in good quality and condition. This all relies in the efficiency of packing and the
appropriateness of materials and equipments used in packaging protocols. The exporter/fish
supplier should always put in mind that the importers/consumers are not concerned on the
condition of the fish in its origin, but they are concerned on its condition upon arrival.
It is vital for the high chance of survival of the marine ornamental fish during transport that
there is good communication between the exporter/fish supplier and the consumer on the
water parameters of the transport water. The water parameters (e.g. temperature, salinity and
pH) of the transport bag should be as much as possible the same with the receiving party in
order to avoid fish stress or shock that may cause mortality of the transported ornamental fish.
This manual serves only as a guide on the process of packing ornamental fish for export. As
the ornamental fish export operation goes along, building good relationship to your freight
forwarder and importer/consumer will continually improve your transport logistics and
product quality.
Below flow chart illustrates the process involved in packing of marine ornamental
fish. It is important to ensure that:

 There should be enough preparation before the transport. It is important to have all
materials and equipment available and ready before packing.
 The holding tanks should have adequate space to hold the marine ornamental fish as
well as available extra tanks for sorting, grading and sexing.
 Sorting should be done in a clean, spacious and well-lit area to for ease and speedy
 packing process.
 Packaging materials such stocks of bags, Styrofoam inserts, outer boxes, rubber
bands,and tape should be sufficient and in-place during the packing process.
 Supply of oxygen should be sufficient and with available regulator to inflate the bags.

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 Maximum transittime is allowed up to 48 hours according to IATA standards thus,

efficiency and systematic process is essential.

REFERENCES

Balachandran, K.K., Srinivasa, Gopal, T.K. and Vijayan, P.K. (1998). Aluminium containers
in fish canning. In Aluminium in Food Packaging. Bombay: Indian Institute of
Packaging; 571-574.
Bix, L., Lockhart, R. and de la Fuente (2003). "The Packaging Matrix: Linking Package
Design Criteria to the Marketing Mix". IDS Packaging.
[Link]
Brody, A. L and Marsh, K. S (1997). Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology. ISBN 0-471-
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Burgess, C. S. (2007). Practical mathematical model to predict the performance of insulating
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Church, I.J. and Parsons, A.L.: (1995) Modified Atmosphere Packaging Technology: A
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Day, B.P.F. (1996) A perspective of modified atmosphere packaging of fresh produce In
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European Food Information Council (EFIC: (2001) Opinion of the Scientific Committee on
Food on the use of carbon monoxide as component of packaging gases in modified
atmosphere packaging for fresh meat.
Johnston, R.G. (1997). "Effective Vulnerability Assessment of Tamper-Indicating Seals. J.
Testing and Evaluation 25 (4).
Lee, K., Kim, A. and Lyu, L. (1998). Effectiveness of modified atmosphere packaging in
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417.
Maloney, J. C. (2003). "The History and Significance of Military Packaging". Defence
Packaging Policy Group. Defence Logistics Agency.
[Link] Retrieved 7 June 2011.
Parry, R. T. (1993). Principles and applications of MAP of foods, Blackie Academic &
Professional, England, 1-132.
Phillips, C.A. (1996) Review: Modified Atmosphere Packaging and its effects on the
microbial quality and safety of produce, International Journal of Food Science and
Tech, 31, 463-479.
Reddy, N. R. Roman, M. G., Villanueva, M., Solomon, H. M., Kautter, D. A. and
Rhodehamel, E. J. (1997). Shelf Life and Clostridium botulinum Toxin Development
during Storage of Modified Atmosphere-packaged Fresh Catfish Fillets. Journal of
Food Science, 62(4): 878–884.
Schneider, Y., Kluge, C., Weiß, U. and Rohm, H. (2010). Packaging Materials and
Equipment. In Barry A. Law, A.Y. Tamime. Technology of Cheesemaking: Second
Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 413.
Severin, J. (2007). New Methodology for Whole-Package Microbial Challenge Testing for
Medical Device Trays. J. Testing and Evaluation 35 (4).

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