OUTLINE:

Generator Fundamentals
Generator Faults
General Abnormal Conditions
Typical Generator Protection Functions
References
PRINCIPLES OF
GENERATOR
PROTECTION
BASICS
The material presented is for Educational purposes only. Neither the author, nor anyone on his behalf,
makes any warranty or representation as to the accuracy or completeness of the information contained
herein, nor assumes responsibility or liability for the use or consequences for the use of any of this

by: russell ian c. paragoso, pee information. The practical application of any of the information contain herein must be in accordance
with legislative requirements and must be given due regard to the individual circumstances.
Seminar Objectives
▸ Provides an introduction of typical protection functions of a generator protection
▸ Provides comprehensive overview on principles on damage curves of stator damage on
generators and system interactions
1.
INTRODUCTION
ANSI/IEEE Standards
IEEE Std 242 – Buff Book
IEEE C37.101: IEEE Guide for AC Generator Ground Protection
IEEE C37.102: IEEE Guide for Generator Protection
IEEE C37.106: IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequency Protection
for Generating Plants
IEEE Tutorial on The Protection of Synchronous Generator (by
PSRC)
Generator Configuration
Rotor Styles

Cylindrical rotor seen in Recips, GTs and STs

Salient pole rotor seen in Hydros
Salient Rotor and Stator
Cylindrical Rotor and Stator
Generator Connections

Direct Connected Unit Connected

Sample Nameplate
Generator Grounding
Generator Grounding
Generator Grounding
 Generator Excitation Control and
Generator Capability

Excitation Control Basics

A generator excitation system provides the energy for the magnetic field
that keeps the generator in synchronism with the power system.

Two types: those using ac generators as power source and those using
transformers.
 Generator Excitation Control and
Generator Capability

Excitation Control Basics

 Generator Excitation Control and
Generator Capability

Excitation Control Basics

Aside from maintaining synchronism of the generator,
the excitation control also:
Affects the amount of reactive power that the
generator may absorb or produce.
Increasing the excitation current results in increase
reactive power output.
Decreasing the excitation current results in
decrease reactive power output, extreme case loss
of synchronism will occur.
 Generator Excitation Control and Generator
Capability
Generator Watt/VAR Capability
Generator Excitation Control and
Generator Capability

P-Q
Curve
2.
Faults and Abnormal
Conditions
Faults and Abnormal Conditions
Generator Behaviour during Short Circuits
Generator Behaviour during Short Circuits
3.
Generator Protection
Functions
Protection Requirements

To detect faults on the generator

To protect generator from the effects of
abnormal power system operating
conditions
To isolate generator from system faults not
cleared remotely
Sample Generator Protection
Sample Generator Protection
Sample Generator Protection
Stator Phase Protection
 Stator Phase Protection

This is achieved by:

Differential Relaying (87)

Turn Fault Protection (for split-phase generators)

Overcurrent (thermal)

RTDs
Differential Protection
High-Speed protection that can detect three-phase, phase
to phase and double-phase to ground faults.
Single-line to ground faults are not normally detectable
unless its neutral is solidly or low-impedance grounded.
Will not detect a turn-to-turn fault within the same phase
Both sides of the generator should be of the same ratio,
rating, connected burden, and preferably have the same
manufacturer.
It could be high-impedance type, low-impedance type and
self-balancing differential schemes.
Differential Protection
Differential Protection
Overcurrent Protection
For small generators this may be the only protection
applied.
With solid earthing, it will provide some protection
against earth faults
For a single generator, CTs must be connected to neutral
end of stator winding. Generator
3
~
50/51
 Overcurrent Protection
Some helpful points in setting overcurrent relays:
From C37.102-2005:
Use IOC and TOC unit having an EI characteristic.
IOC is set to 115% FLC and is used to torque-control TOC unit
TOC unit is set to 75%-100% FLC and a time settings
operating 7sec @ 218% FLC or coordinate with downstream
relay.

From ABC’s of Overcurrent Protection:

Set protection above FLC and above decrement curve in the
lowest decade.
Set protection below overload curve.
Set protection to intersect with the decrement curve in the
second lowest decade.
Overcurrent Protection
Stator Ground Protection
 Stator Ground Protection

This is achieved by (depends on the grounding method):

Differential Relaying (87N)

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection using voltage relays

Overcurrent
Stator Ground Fault Protection
Stator grounding determines the generator performance
during fault conditions.
If solidly grounded, it will deliver very high current to a
SLG fault at its terminals with no neutral voltage shift,
therefore equipment damage is severe.
If ungrounded, it will deliver a negligible amount current
during a SLG fault at its terminals with fill neutral voltage
shift which could cause failure of generation equipment
insulation.
Stator Ground Fault Protection
Because of this, stator windings on major generators
are grounded in a manner that will reduce fault current
and overvoltages and yet provide a means of detecting
the ground fault condition quickly enough to prevent
burning of core iron.
Low-Impedance Stator Grounding
Low-Impedance Stator Grounding
Low-Impedance Grounding
The grounding resistor or reactor is selected to limit the
generator contribution to an SLG fault to range of
currents between 200A and 150% of rated load current.
Supplementary protection is provided by using 87N
Low-Impedance Grounding
High-Impedance Grounding
High-resistance generator neutral grounding uses a
distribution transformer with a primary rating greater
than or equal to the line-to-neutral voltage rating of the
generator and a secondary rating of 120 or 240V.
Power dissipated in the resistor is approximately equal
to the reactive volt-amperes in the zero-sequence
capacitive reactive of the generators, windings of any
transformers connected to generator terminals.
High-Impedance Grounding
An SLG fault is generally limited to 3 to 25 primary
amperes.
Others only uses resistor aside from transformers but
the fault current is limited to 5A.
High-Impedance Grounding
Overvoltage/Overcurrent Schemes
59G works on fundamental
frequency (3V0)
Typically set at 5V
Measures maximum at terminal
fault and decreases at faults moves
toward the neutral
Must be coordinated with other
protection that works on ground
faults
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
59G can provide protection for only about 80% to 95% of
the stator windings.
This is due to generator construction imperfections and
subsequent small amounts of zero-sequence current that
will flow in the generator ground.
This small amount of zero-sequence current makes it
impossible for conventional ground fault detection relays to
remain selective when set too low.
Additional ground fault protection is required.
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Protection can be done using:
Third-harmonic voltage-based techniques
Neutral or residual subharmonic voltage injection
Third-harmonic voltages components are present at the
terminals of nearly every machine to varying degrees; they
arise due to the nonsinusoidal nature of rotor flux and vary
based in machine design and manufacturer.
These voltages are used in detecting faults on the generator
to provide protection.
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
3rd-harmonic voltage is dependent
on operating conditions of the
generator.
There is a point where the 3rd-
harmonic is zero.
For a ground fault at the neutral, 3rd
harmonic decreases as fault
approaches to neutral
For a ground fault at the terminal,
3rd harmonic decreases as fault
approaches to the terminals.
The 3rd harmonic levels should be
measured with the generator
connected and disconnected from
the transformer before enabling 3rd
harmonic protection.
 100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Undervoltage
 100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Undervoltage
Since for a fault near the neutral, the level of third-harmonic
voltage at the neutral decreases.
Therefore undervoltage relay at the neutral could be used.
It is tuned at 180Hertz to measure third harmonic.
Set to overlap with 59G settings.
Sometimes, it is supervised with OC relay, real or reactive
power and breaker contact.
 100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Overvoltage
 100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Overvoltage
Since for a fault near the neutral, the level of third-harmonic
voltage at the terminal increases.
Therefore overvoltage relay (59T) at the terminal could be
used.
It is tuned at 180Hertz to measure third harmonic.
Set to overlap with 59G settings.
 100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Comparator Technique

 100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Subharmonic Injection Schemes

Field Fault
Protection
Field Fault Protection
Field circuit is an isolated DC system.
Insulation failure at a single point:
No fault current, therefore no danger
Increase chance of second fault occurring
Insulation failure at a second point:
Shorts out part of field winding
Heating
Flux distortion causing violent vibration of rotor
Desirable to detect presence of first earth fault and give an alarm.
Field Fault Protection
Field Fault Protection
System
Backup
Protection
 System Backup Protection

Backup protection is divided into:

Phase-fault protection
(21) Distance relays
(51V) Voltage controlled/restraint overcurrent relays
Earth fault protection
(51G) Ground OC Relays

Sometimes (46) is also used as backup which provides unbalanced fault protection
backup.
System Backup Protection
 System Backup Protection
51V
Use of simple OC relay is not recommended.
Voltage Restrained
Operating characteristics is continuously varied.
depending on measured volts.
Voltage Controlled
Relay switches between fault characteristic and load
characteristic depending on measured volts.
 System Backup Protection
Distance Phase Backup Protection
Most common type of phase system backup protection.
Two zones are applied with mho characteristic.
If the generator is connected where there is no phase shift ( wye-
wye transformer or directly connected), the relay will accurately
measure the impedance
If the generator is connected to delta-wye transformer, where
there is phase shift, auxiliary PT is required to compensate the
phase shift.
If no aux. PT, use compensator distance relay.
 System Backup Protection
Distance Phase Backup Protection Setting Guidelines
Set the impedance relay to the smallest of the three following
criteria:
120 percent of longest line (with infeed). If the unit is
connected to a breaker-and-a-half bus, this percent is
calculated using the length of the adjacent line.
50 to 66.7 percent of load impedance (200 to 150
percent of the generator capability curve) at the machine-
rated power factor.
80 to 90 percent of load impedance (125 to 111 percent
of the generator capability curve) at the relay maximum
torque angle (MTA).
System Backup Protection
 System Backup Protection
Backup Ground Protection
Backup ground protection is set to pickup for ground faults
at the end of all lines out of the station
Set to coordinate with the slowest ground fault protection
on the system.
Abnormal
Frequency
Protection (81)
Abnormal Frequency Protection

Stable system is when Power Input = Power of all loads +

Losses in the system
When there is a change between this relationship,
abnormal system frequency arises.
Underfrequency condition occurs as a result of sudden
reduction in input power
Overfrequency condition occurs as a results sudden loss of
load or key interties exporting power.
 Abnormal Frequency Protection
Conformance to IEC 60034:2007
Some turbine generators are designed to accommodate
frequency voltage characteristics from IEC 60034-3:2007,
Rotating Electrical Machines-Part 3.
This standard requires generators to deliver continuously
rated output at the rated power factor over the range of
±5% in voltage and ±2% in frequency. (61.2 Hz and
58.8Hz)
 Abnormal Frequency Protection
Conformance to IEC 60034:2007
 Abnormal Frequency Protection
Conformance to IEC 60034:2007
The standard recommends that operation outside the
shaded are “be limited in extent, duration and frequency
of occurrence.”
The manufacturer could therefore impose time
restrictions for example below 95% or above 103% of
rated frequency.
Goal of frequency protection scheme is to return the
frequency to the continuous IEC operating frequency
range (98% to 102%).
Abnormal Frequency Protection
Overexcitation
and Overvoltage
Protection (24 /
59)
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
Overexcitation occurs whenever the ratio of the voltage to
frequency (V/Hz) applied to the terminal exceeds design
limits. IEEE standards have established the ff. limits:
Generators, 1.05pu at the output terminals (generator
base)
Transformers, 1.05pu at the terminals at rated load or
1.1pu at no load
These limits apply unless manufacturers state otherwise.
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
When V/Hz ratios are exceeded, saturation of the
magnetic core of the generator or connected
transformers can occur, and stray flux will be induced into
non laminated components.
Note that overexcitation protection on a generator or its
connected transformer is different from field
overexcitation.
Excessive overvoltage of a generator will occur when the
level of dielectric field stress exceeds the insulation
capability.
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
Not all overvoltage condition will be detected by V/Hz
relay.
It is general practice to provide overvoltage relaying to
alarm, or in some cases, trip the generators from these
high dielectric stress levels.
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
Overexcitation and Overvoltage
Loss-of-
Excitation
Protection (40)
Loss-of-Field Protection
Causes of loss-of-field:
Accidental trip of field breaker
Field open circuit
Field short circuit
Voltage regulator system failure
Loss of supply to excitation system
For most generators, the unit will overspeed and operate as
an induction generator. It will supply real power but takes
reactive power from the system.
Loss-of-Field Protection
On loss-of-field, apparent impedance of fully loaded
machine travels from loaded value in the 1 st quadrant to the
4th quadrant close to –X axis at value just above the direct –
axis transient reactance (about 2-7 seconds).
Final impedance point depends on initial load, varies
between Xd’/2 at full load to direct-axis synchronous
reactance Xd at no load.
Locus of impedance trajectory depends on system
impedance
Loss-of-Field Protection
Loss-of-Field Protection
For small and less important machines, a single-zone
offset mho is used to detect this condition. For larger
machines, two-zone offset mho is used.

Smaller Circle (#1)

Diameter of 1.0 pu impedance on machine base
“Small” “almost instantaneous” time delay
Offset equal to –X’d/2
Larger Circle (#2)
Diameter of Xd
Time delay of 30-60 cycles
Offset equal of –X’d/2
Loss-of-Field Protection

Two-zone Offset Mho characteristic

Two-zone LOF protection using negative-offset elements.

 Loss-of-Field Protection

Two-zone Offset Mho characteristic

Two-zone LOF protection using negative offset mho element and a

positive-offset mho element with directional element supervision.
Loss-of-Field Protection

Example response of LOF protection

Negative-
Sequence
Current(46)
Negative-Sequence Protection

In the real world, IA does not necessarily equal to IB and IC

Unbalances are caused by:
System asymmetries
Unbalanced loads
Unbalanced system faults
Open phases
Produce negative-sequence currents-induce a double
frequency current
Negative-Sequence Protection

I2 crosses the air gap, appears in rotor as double-frequency

current
Flows in rotor surface, non magnetic wedges
Severe overheating, melting of wedges into air gap
Standards permits 5-10% of I2
Short-time limits expressed as 𝐼22 𝑡 = 𝐾, where K is a design
constant
Negative-Sequence Protection

Actual maximum I2
loading curve
Negative-Sequence Protection
Negative-Sequence Protection

Short-time
values apply for
120 seconds or
less. Beyond
120 seconds,
the continuous
capability
should be used.
Negative-Sequence Protection
Negative-Sequence Protection
Anti-motoring or
Reverse Power
(32R)
 Generator Motoring

Occurs when the energy supply to the prime mover is cut off
while the generator is still on the line. A primary indication of
motoring is the flow of real power into the generator.

Estimated power required to motor the idling prime mover is:

Out-of-Step
Protection (78)
Out-of-Step Protection
When a fault occurs on the power system, the generator
can begin to accelerate due to differences in the
mechanical power into the generator and the electrical
power at the generator terminals.
If the fault is not cleared quickly, this acceleration will result
in the generator rotor voltage advancing beyond 90
degrees with respect to the generator terminal voltage.
At this point, power flow into the generator and the rotor
angle will continue to advance until is aligned with the next
pole. This is known as slipping a pole or loss of
synchronism.
Out-of-Step Protection
Out-of-Step Protection
Adverse Effects
High peak currents and off-frequency operation (slipping)
Winding stresses
Pulsating Torques
Mechanical resonances
Standard generator protection will not detect loss-of-sychronism
Standard transmission line protection will not detect loss-of-
synchronism
If electrical center is between the GSU into the generator, out-of-
step protection should be applied at the machine terminals
 Out-of-Step Protection
Determination of Electrical Center

Electrical center is the point in the system where the impedance

between the sources is equal.
Electrical center = (Xd’ + Xt + Xs) / 2
Out-of-Step Protection
Out-of-Step Protection
Out-of-Step Protection
Inadvertent Energization
 Inadvertent Energization

When an offline generator is energized (w/o field) on turning

gear or coasting to a stop, the generator behaves as an
induction motor and can be damaged within a few seconds

Causes:
Operating Errors
Open Breaker Flashovers
Control Circuit Malfunctions
 Inadvertent Energization

When an offline generator is energized (w/o field) on turning

gear or coasting to a stop, the generator behaves as an
induction motor and can be damaged within a few seconds

Causes:
Operating Errors
Open Breaker Flashovers
Control Circuit Malfunctions
 Inadvertent Energization

The following protection elements may detect or can be set to

detect inadvertent energizing:

Loss of Field Protection

Reverse Power
Negative-sequence overcurrent
Breaker Failure
System backup
 Inadvertent Energization

Inadvertent energization protection needs to be in service when

the generator is out of service.

Dedicated protection:
Directional Overcurrent
Frequency Supervised Overcurrent
Distance Relay
Voltage Supervised Overcurrent
Auxilliary Contact-Enabled Overcurrent
Overcurrent Supervised by Multiple Elements
Loss-of-
Potential (60)
 Loss-of-Potential

Loss of the voltage transformer (VT) signal can occur because

of a number of cases, most commonly fuse failure.
It could be VT or wiring failure, an open circuit in the draw-out
assembly, an open contact due to corrosion or blown fuse
Such loss can cause protective relay misoperation or failure or
generator voltage regulator runaway, which can lead to
generator overexcitation
It is important to detect loss-of-potential condition, sometimes
called, fuse loss (60FL)
Loss-of-Potential
Synchronism
Check and Auto
Synchronizing
(25)
Synchronism Check and Auto
Synchronizing
Synchronism Check
Checks the generator system frequency, voltage
magnitude, and phase angle be in alignment
Typical parameters call for no more than 6RPM error,
2% voltage magnitude difference, and no more than 10
deg phase angle error before closing the breaker
Synchronism Check and Auto
Synchronizing
Auto Synchronizing (25A)
Checks the generator system frequency, voltage
magnitude, and phase angle be in alignment
It involves sending voltage and speed raise and lower
commands to the voltage regulator and prime governor.
When the system is in synchronism, the autosync relay is
sometimes designed to send a close command in
advance of the zero phase angle error to compensate for
breaker close
Synchronism Check and Auto
Synchronizing
Tripping Modes
Tripping Modes
Simultaneous Tripping
Provides the fastest means of isolating the generator
Used for all internal generator faults and severe
abnormalities in the generator protection zone.
Generator Tripping
Does not shutdown the prime mover and is used where
it may be possible to correct the abnormality quickly,
permitting a rapid reconnection of the machine to the
system.
Tripping Modes
Unit Separation
Initiates only the opening of generator breakers
Recommended when maintaining the unit auxiliary
loads connected to the generator is desirable.
Sequential Tripping
Used for prime mover problems where high-speed
tripping is not a requirement.
1. turbine valves, 2. generator breakers 3. field breaker
and load transfer of loads.
Tripping Modes

These tripping scheme must be review and applied

according to the present generator application
Selection would depend on the ff:
Type of prime mover
Impact of the sudden loss of output power on the
electrical system and prime mover
Safety to personnel
Operating experience
Management of unit auxiliary loads during emergency
shutdown.
Tripping Modes
Sample Tripping Modes
Sample Logic
Sample Logic
Sample Logic
Sample Logic
References:
Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications by Blackburn
IEEE Tutorial on Synchronous Generators
Basler BE1-11g manual
IEEE Seminar on Protective Relaying by Russ Patterson
C37.101-2006
C37.102-2006