Highway

Contents

1 What is Highway
1.1 Definition
1.2 Overview
1.3 History
1.4 Social Effects
1.5 Economical Effects
1.6 Environmental Effects
2 Statistics
2.1 Longest international highway
2.2 Longest national highway (point to point)
2.3 Longest national highway (circuit)
2.4 Largest national highway system
2.5 Busiest highway
2.6 Widest highway (maximum number of lanes)
2.7 Widest highway (maximum number of through lanes)
2.8 Highest international highway
3 Highway Design
3.1 Geometric design
3.2 Horizontal Geometrical Design
3.2.1 Factors Influencing the Selection of Horizontal Alignment
3.2.2 General criteria
3.2.3 Consistency
3.2.4 Length of Curves
3.2.5 Adjacent Curves
3.2.6 High Fills
3.2.7 Bridges
3.2.8 Stationing
3.2.9 Miscellaneous
3.3 Vertical Geometrical Design
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Gradient
3.3.3 Effect of gradient
3.3.4 Representation of gradient
3.3.5 Types of gradient
3.3.6 Creeper lane
3.3.7 Grade compensation
3 Highway Design
3.4 Summit curve
3.4.1 Type of Summit Curve
3.4.2 Design Consideration
3.4.3 Length of the summit curve
3.5 Flexible pavement design
3.6 Rigid pavement design
3.7 Drainage system design
4 Construction, maintenance, and management
4.1 Highway construction
4.2 Materials
4.2.1 Bituminous Materials
4.2.2 Soils
4.2.3 Aggregates
4.2.4 Portland cement Concrete
4.2.5 Admixtures
4.2.6 Pavement Marking Materials
4.2.6.1 Paint
4.2.6.2 Thermoplastics
4.2.6.3 Epoxy
4.2.6.4 Tapes
4.3 The Road Construction Process
4.3.1 Planning, programming and pre-construction activities
4.3.2 Site clearance
4.3.3 Setting out
4.3.4 Earthworks
4.3.5 Bridge construction
4.3.5.1 Structure type
4.3.5.2 Fixed or movable bridges
4.3.6 Drainage structures
4.3.6.1 EFFECTS OF IMPROPER DRAINAGE
4.3.6.2 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
4.3.7 Pavement construction
4.3.7.1 Flexible Pavements
4.3.7.2 Rigid Pavements
4.3.8 Placement of road surfacing
4.3.8.1 Construction of Flexible Pavement
4.3.8.2 Construction of Rigid Pavements
4.3.9 Placement of road furniture
4.3.10 Landscaping
4.4 Highway Maintenance
4.4.1 Drainage System Maintenance
4.4.2 Road Surface Maintenance
4.4.3 Emergency Storm Response
4.4.4 Road Abandonment and Reclamation
4.5 Highway Management
 Definition

 A highway is any public road or other public way on land. It is

used for major roads, but also includes other public roads and
public tracks:
 In North American and Australian English, major roads such as
controlled-access highways or arterial roads are often state
highways (Canada: provincial highways). Other roads may be
designated "county highways" in the US and Ontario. These
classifications refer to the level of government (state,
provincial, county) that maintains the roadway.
 In British English, "highway" is primarily a legal term. Everyday
use normally implies roads, while the legal use covers any
route or path with a public right of access, including footpaths
etc.
 Overview

 Major highways are often named and numbered by

the governments that typically develop and maintain
them. Australia's Highway-1 is the longest national
highway in the world at over 14,500 km or 9,000 mi
and runs almost the entire way around the
continent. China has the world's largest network of
highways followed closely by the United States of
America. Some highways, like the Pan-American
Highway or the European routes, span multiple
countries. Some major highway routes include ferry
services, such as U.S. Route 10, which crosses Lake
Michigan.
 Overview

 Traditionally highways were used by people

on foot or on horses. Later they also
accommodated carriages, bicycles and
eventually motor cars, facilitated by
advancements in road construction. In the
1920s and 1930s, many nations began
investing heavily in progressively more
modern highway systems to spur commerce
and bolster national defense.
 Overview

 Major modern highways that connect cities in

populous developed and developing countries
usually incorporate features intended to
enhance the road's capacity, efficiency, and
safety to various degrees. Such features include
a reduction in the number of locations for user
access, the use of dual carriageways with two
or more lanes on each carriageway, and grade-
separated junctions with other roads and
modes of transport. These features are typically
present on highways built as motorways
(freeways).
 History

 Modern highway systems developed in the

20th century as the automobile gained
popularity. The world's first limited access road
was constructed on Long Island New York in
the United States known as the Long Island
Motor Parkway or the Vanderbilt Motor
Parkway. It was completed in 1911.
Construction of the Bonn–Cologne autobahn
began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by the
mayor of Cologne, Conrad Adenauer.
 History

 In the USA, the Federal Aid Highway Act of

1921 (Phipps Act) enacted a fund to create
an extensive highway system. In 1922, the
first blueprint for a national highway system
(the Pershing Map) was published. The
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 allocated
$25 billion for the construction of the
41,000 miles (66 Mm) long Interstate
Highway System over a 20-year period.
 History

 In Great Britain, the Special Roads Act 1949

provided the legislative basis for roads for restricted
classes of vehicles and non-standard or no speed
limits applied (later mostly termed motorways but
now with speed limits not exceeding 70 mph); in
terms of general road law this legislation overturned
the usual principle that a road available to vehicular
traffic was also available to horse or pedestrian
traffic as is usually the only practical change when
non-motorways are reclassified as special roads. The
first section of motorway in the UK opened in 1958
(part of the M6 motorway) and then in 1959 the
first section of the M1 motorway.
 Social effects

 Reducing travel times relative to city or town streets,
modern highways with limited access and grade
separation create increased opportunities for people to
travel for business, trade or pleasure and also provide
trade routes for goods. Modern highways reduce
commute and other travel time but additional road
capacity can also release latent traffic demand. If not
accurately predicted at the planning stage, this extra
traffic may lead to the new road becoming congested
sooner than would otherwise be anticipated by
considering increases in vehicle ownership. More roads
allow drivers to use their cars when otherwise
alternatives may have been sought, or the journey may
not have been made, which can mean that a new road
brings only short-term mitigation of traffic congestion.
 Social effects

 Where highways are created through

existing communities, there can be
reduced community cohesion and more
difficult local access. Consequently,
property values have decreased in many
cutoff neighborhoods, leading to
decreased housing quality over time..
 Economic effects

 In transport, demand can be measured in numbers of

journeys made or in total distance travelled across all
journeys (e.g. passenger-kilometers for public transport
or vehicle-kilometers of travel (VKT) for private
transport). Supply is considered to be a measure of
capacity. The price of the good (travel) is measured
using the generalized cost of travel, which includes
both money and time expenditure.
 The effects of increases in supply (capacity) are of
particular interest in transport economics as the
potential environmental consequences are significant
(see externalities below).
 Economic effects

 In addition to providing benefits to their users, transport networks

impose both positive and negative externalities on non-users. The
consideration of these externalities—particularly the negative ones—
is a part of transport economics. Positive externalities of transport
networks may include the ability to provide emergency services,
increases in land value and agglomeration benefits. Negative
externalities are wide-ranging and may include local air pollution,
noise pollution, light pollution, safety hazards, community severance
and congestion. The contribution of transport systems to potentially
hazardous climate change is a significant negative externality which is
difficult to evaluate quantitatively, making it difficult (but not
impossible) to include in transport economics-based research and
analysis. Congestion is considered a negative externality by
economists.
 Economic effects

 A 2016 study finds that for the United

States "a 10% increase in a region's stock
of highways causes a 1.7% increase in
regional patenting over a five-year period."
 Environmental effects

 Highways are extended linear sources of pollution.

 Roadway noise increases with operating speed so
major highways generate more noise than arterial
streets.Therefore, considerable noise health effects
are expected from highway systems. Noise
mitigation strategies exist to reduce sound levels at
nearby sensitive receptors. The idea that highway
design could be influenced by acoustical
engineering considerations first arose about 1973.
 Environmental effects

 Air quality issues: Highways may contribute fewer

emissions than arterials carrying the same vehicle
volumes. This is because high, constant-speed operation
creates an emissions reduction compared to vehicular
flows with stops and starts. However, concentrations of
air pollutants near highways may be higher due to
increased traffic volumes. Therefore, the risk of
exposure to elevated levels of air pollutants from a
highway may be considerable, and further magnified
when highways have traffic congestion.
 Environmental effects

 New highways can also cause habitat

fragmentation, encourage urban sprawl and allow
human intrusion into previously untouched areas,
as well as (counter intuitively) increasing
congestion, by increasing the number of
intersections.
 They can also reduce the use of public transport,
indirectly leading to greater pollution.
 Environmental effects

 High-occupancy vehicle lanes are being added to some

newer/reconstructed highways in North America and other
countries around the world to encourage carpooling and
mass-transit. These lanes help reduce the number of cars on
the highway and thus reduce pollution and traffic congestion
by promoting the use of carpooling in order to be able to
use these lanes. However, they tend to require dedicated
lanes on a highway, which makes them difficult to construct
in dense urban areas where they are the most effective.
 Environmental effects

 To address habitat fragmentation, wildlife

crossings have become increasingly popular in
many countries.Wildlife crossings allow animals
to safely cross human-made barriers like
highways.
 Statistics

 The United States has the world's largest

network of highways, including both the
Interstate Highway System and the U.S.
Highway System. At least one of these
networks is present in every state and they
interconnect most major cities.
 Statistics

 China's highway network is the second most

extensive in the world, with a total length of
about 3.573 Gm. China's expressway network
is the longest Expressway system in the world,
and it is quickly expanding, stretching some 85
Mm at the end of 2011. In 2008 alone, 6.433
Mm expressways were added to the network.
 Statistics

 Longest international highway

 The Pan-American Highway, which connects many
countries in the Americas, is nearly 25,000
kilometers (15,534 mi) long as of 2005.The Pan-
American Highway is discontinuous because there is
a significant gap in it in southeastern Panama, where
the rainfall is immense and the terrain is entirely
unsuitable for highway construction.
 o Longest national highway (point to point)

 Trans-Canada Highway has two routes, with the northern Route spanning
7,821 km (4,860 mi) long as of 2006 alone, and over 10,700 km long including
the southern portion. The T.C.H. runs east-west across southern Canada, the
populated portion of the country, and it connects many of the major urban
centers along its route crossing almost all of the provinces, and reaching
almost all of the capital cities. The T.C.H. begins on the east coast in
Newfoundland, traverses that island, and crosses to the mainland by ferry. It
reaches most of the Maritime Provinces of eastern Canada, and a side route
using ferries traverses the province of Prince Edward Island. After crossing the
two most populous provinces of Quebec and Ontario, the T.C.H. continues
westward across Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia. After
reaching Vancouver, B.C., on the Pacific Coast, there is a ferry route west to
Vancouver Island and the provincial capital city of Victoria, B.C.
 Statistics

• Longest national highway (circuit)

 Australia's Highway -1 at over 20 Mm (12,000 miles). It runs

almost the entire way around the continent's coastline. With the
exception of the Federal Capital of Canberra, which is far inland,
Highway 1 links all of Australia's capital cities, although Brisbane
and Darwin are not directly connected, but rather are bypassed
short distances away. Also, there is a ferry connection to the
island state of Tasmania and then a stretch of Highway 1 that
links the major towns and cities of Tasmania, including
Launceston and Hobart (this state’s capital city).
 Statistics
 Largest national highway system

 The United States of America has approximately

6.43 Giga meters (3,995,417 mi) of highway
within its borders as of 2008.
 Statistics

 Busiest highway

Highway 401 in Ontario, Canada, has volumes

surpassing an average of 500,000 vehicles per day
in some sections of Toronto as of 2006.
 Statistics
 Widest highway (maximum number of lanes)
The Katy Freeway (part of Interstate 10) in Houston,
Texas, has a total of 26 lanes in some sections as of
2007. However, they are divided up into general use/
frontage roads/ HOV lanes, restricting the traverse
traffic flow.
 Statistics
 Widest highway (maximum number of through lanes)

Interstate 5 along a two-mile-long (3.2 km) section

between Interstate 805 and California State Route 56 in
San Diego, California, which was completed in April 2007,
is 22 lanes wide.
 Statistics

 Highest international highway

The Karakoram Highway, between Pakistan
and China, is at an altitude of 4,693 meters
(15,397 ft).
 Highway Design

The most appropriate location, alignment, and shape

of a highway are selected during the design stage.
Highway design involves the consideration of three
major factors (human, vehicular, and roadway) and
how these factors interact to provide a safe highway.
Human factors include reaction time for braking and
steering, visual acuity for traffic signs and signals, and
car-following behavior.
 Highway Design

Vehicle considerations include vehicle size and

dynamics that are essential for determining lane width
and maximum slopes, and for the selection of design
vehicles. Highway engineers design road geometry to
ensure stability of vehicles when negotiating curves
and grades and to provide adequate sight distances for
undertaking passing maneuvers along curves on two-
lane, two-way roads.
 Highway Design

 Geometric design

 Highway and transportation engineers must meet many safety,

service, and performance standards when designing highways for
certain site topography. Highway geometric design primarily
refers to the visible elements of the highways. Highway
engineers who design the geometry of highways must also
consider environmental and social effects of the design on the
surrounding infrastructure.
 Highway Design

 Geometric design

There are certain considerations that must be properly addressed in the design process to
successfully fit a highway to a site's topography and maintain its safety. Some of these design
considerations include:
 Design speed
 Design traffic volume
 Number of lanes
 Level of Service (LOS)
 Sight Distance
 Alignment, super-elevation, and grades
 Cross section
 Lane width
 Horizontal and vertical clearance
 The operational performance of a highway can be seen through drivers’ reactions to the
design considerations and their interaction.
 Highway Design

 Horizontal Geometrical Design

Horizontal and vertical alignments establish the

general character of a rural highway, perhaps
more than any other design consideration. The
configuration of line and grade affects safe
operating speeds, sight distances, and
opportunities for passing and highway capacity.
Decisions on alignment have a significant impact
on construction costs.
 Highway Design

 Horizontal Geometrical Design

The continuous line of a highway is formed longitudinally by its

"alignment" in the horizontal and vertical planes. In combination with the
cross-sectional element, the highway then in three dimensions becomes
functional and operative. The elements for purposes of geometric design
are first treated separately and finally combined and coordinated to form
the whole facility. The assembly of these units into a continuous whole
establishes the alignment of the road. The components of the horizontal
alignment include tangents (segments of straight lines), circular curves
and, in some cases, spiral transition curves. The manner in which these
components are assembled into a horizontal alignment will significantly
affect the safety, operational efficiency, and aesthetics of the highway.
 Highway Design

 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF HORIZONTAL

ALIGNMENT

Some of the factors that influence the location and configuration

of the horizontal alignment include:
 Physical controls - topography, watercourses, geophysical
conditions, land use, and man-made features.
 Environmental considerations - affect on adjacent land use,
community impacts, ecologically sensitive areas.
 Economics - construction costs, right-of-way costs, utility
impacts, operating and maintenance costs.
 Safety - sight distance, consistency of alignment, human factor
considerations.
 Highway classification and design policies - functional
classification, level of service, design speed, design standards.
 Highway Design

 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Although the designer must attempt to optimize

the horizontal alignment with respect to these
factors, the alignment cannot be finalized until it
has been compared and coordinated with the
vertical and cross-sectional features of the
highway.
 Highway Design

 GENERAL CRITERIA
Design speed is the principal factor controlling the design of
horizontal alignment. Several geometric standards related to design
speed are very specific. Other criteria cannot be defined as
specifically and require that judgments be made by designers in
consideration of local conditions. Guidelines for some of these
decisions are outlined below. Additional, general discussion on
Design Speed can be found in Chapter 2 of the current AASHTO
publication A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets.
 Highway Design

 GENERAL CRITERIA
In general, above-minimum design criteria for
specific design elements should be used, where
practical, particularly on high-speed facilities. In
contrast, the designer is cautioned that on lower
speed facilities, use of above-minimum design
criteria may encourage travel at speeds higher
than the design speed.
 Highway Design
 Consistency

Alignment should be consistent and as directional as

possible. A smooth flowing alignment is desirable on a
rural arterial. Changes in alignment, both horizontal and
vertical, should be sufficiently gradual to avoid
surprising the driver. Frequent changes in alignment
with many short curves should be avoided except in
cases of very low design speed and low traffic volume
in rough terrain.
 Highway Design
 Consistency

Sharp and / or short curves should not be

introduced at the ends of long tangents. Sudden
changes from areas of easy curvature to sharp
curvature should be avoided. Where sharp
curvature must be introduced, it should be
gradually approached by successively sharper
curves from the generally easy curvature.
 Highway Design

 Length of Curves

Avoid the use of the maximum permissible degree of curvature

except where absolutely necessary. Generally, curves should be as
flat as practicable for the conditions. On the other hand, avoid the
use of excessively long, flat curves where there is need to provide
considerable passing opportunities. Drivers are reluctant to pass on
a curve, even though the sight distance may be adequate. It may be
better to use a shorter curve, thus lengthening the adjacent tangent
section and increasing the passing opportunity. A horizontal curve is
not required for deflection angles of 15 minutes or less.
 Highway Design

 Length of Curves

For small deflection angles greater than 15 minutes, curves should be long
enough to avoid the appearance of a "kink". Curves should be at least 500
feet (150 m) long for a deflection angle of 5 degrees, and the minimum
length should be increased 100 feet (30 m) for each 1 degree decrease in
deflection angle. (Note – In the superelevation tables, the minimum curve
radii for each design speed without superelevation is listed. This is a
separate, different criteria from that noted above.)

The minimum length of horizontal curves on main highways should be

about (L = 15 x Vd) in (ft) or (L = 3 x Vd) in (m). (Vd = Design Speed in mph
or kph & L = Length of Curve in ft or m.) On high-speed controlled access
highways, a desirable minimum length of curve would be about (L = 30 x
Vd) in (ft) or (L = 6 x Vd) in (m).
 Highway Design

 Adjacent Curves
Care should be used in the design of compound curves.
Preferably, their use should be avoided where the
curves are sharp. Compound curves with large
differences in curvature introduce the same problems
that arise with a tangent approach to a circular curve.
Where compound curves must be used, the radius of
the flatter curve should not be more than 50 percent
greater than the radius of the sharper curve.
 Highway Design

 Adjacent Curves
Avoid abrupt reversals in alignment (S-curves) by providing enough tangent
distance between the curves to ensure adequate super elevation transition
length for both curves and sufficient distance for adequate signing.
Avoid short tangent segments between horizontal curves (with no super
elevation). Instead, lengthen one or both of the curves to tie the PC and
PT of the curves together to create a reverse curve.
Avoid "broken-back" curves (short tangent sections between two curves
in the same direction). Use of spiral transitions, compound curves or a
single longer curve is preferable because they provide some degree of
continuous super elevation. When broken-back curves are necessary, there
should be about 1500 feet (460 m) of tangent distance between the
curves.
 Highway Design

 High Fills
On long, high fills, tangents should be used
wherever feasible. If curvature is needed, it should
be kept as flat as possible. Without visual "cues"
such as cut slopes or shrubs and trees above the
roadway, it is difficult for drivers to perceive the
extent of curvature and adjust their operation to
the conditions.
 Highway Design
 Bridges
It is desirable that bridges be located on tangent positions
of the alignment. But sometimes it is necessary to locate a
bridge on a curve. When this happens, care should be used
to avoid beginning or ending a curve on the bridge. This can
be hazardous under slippery surface conditions -- and also
adds complications to bridge design and construction.
When curves are necessary on road sections near bridge
ends, the beginnings and endings of curves should be
located so that no portion of the super elevation transition
extends onto the bridge.
 Highway Design
 Stationing
New contiguous stationing is established for
construction/reconstruction projects. The direction of stationing is
set to follow the direction of increasing MRM (Increase from west
to east for even numbered highways and south to north for odd
numbered highways). Existing grading plans stationing is used for
resurfacing projects with equations as needed. If a project is a
combination project, work with the resurfacing designer to
determine if existing and/or new stationing should be used. If it is
not a construction/reconstruction project the standard is to retain
existing stationing.
 Highway Design

 Stationing
The factors which influence this decision are:
 Completeness of survey – a construction/reconstruction survey for the whole
project would allow new stationing.
 Direction of existing surveys – if existing alignments are not all stationed in the
same direction, new stationing is desirable.
 Multiple existing surfacing typical sections (different width and/or thickness)
existing stationing is more convenient for the resurfacing design.
 When using equations refer to the stationing as 10+00, a 10+00, b 10+00, c
10+00, etc.
This corresponds to the format utilized by the current SDDOT Road Design
software. Coordinate with the resurfacing designer on this procedure as well.
 Highway Design

 Stationing
 Miscellaneous
Following is a list of basic tips to use as guidance when setting a horizontal
alignment. It is recommended that these miscellaneous criteria be followed
unless there is an engineering design reason that overrides the criteria.
 When the highway alignment follows section line ROW and horizontal
alignment PI’s are set very near section corners, place the PI’s directly
on the section corners instead of inches or a few feet away from them.
 Minimize or avoid unnecessary horizontal PI’s in low speed urban
design. The alignment typically does not need to exactly follow the
existing highway centerline.
 Avoid unnecessary horizontal PI’s (deflection with no curve) adjacent to
a horizontal curve.
 Avoid negative horizontal alignment stationing.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Overview
The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients (straight lines
in a vertical plane) and vertical curves. The vertical alignment is
usually drawn as a profile, which is a graph with elevation as vertical
axis and the horizontal distance along the center line of the road as
the horizontal axis. Just as a circular curve is used to connect
horizontal straight stretches of road, vertical curves connect two
gradients. When these two curves meet, they form either convex or
concave. The former is called a summit curve, while the latter is
called a valley curve. This section covers a discussion on gradient
and summit curves.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the
road with respect to the horizontal. While aligning a
highway, the gradient is decided for designing the vertical
curve. Before finalizing the gradients; the construction cost,
vehicular operation cost and the practical problems in the
site also has to be considered. Usually steep gradients are
avoided as far as possible because of the difficulty to climb
and increase in the construction cost.
More about gradients are discussed ahead.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Effect of Gradient
The effect of long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is
considerable. This is particularly important in roads where
the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due to
restrictive sight distance at uphill gradients the speed of
traffic is often controlled by these heavy vehicles. As a
result, not only the operating costs of the vehicles are
increased, but also capacity of the roads will have to be
reduced. Further, due to high differential speed between
heavy and light vehicles, and between uphill and downhill
gradients, accidents abound in gradients.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Representation of gradient
The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is
denoted as +n and the negative gradient as -n.
The deviation angle N is: when two grades meet,
the angle which measures the change of
direction and is given by the algebraic difference
between the two grades (n1 - (-n2)) = n1 + n2
Example: 1 in 30 = 3.33% is a steep gradient,
while 1 in 50 = 2% is a flatter gradient.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Types of gradient
Many studies have shown that gradient up to seven percent can have
considerable effect on the speeds of the passenger cars. On the contrary,
the speeds of the heavy vehicles are considerably reduced when long
gradients as flat as two percent is adopted. Although, flatter gradients are
desirable, it is evident that the cost of construction will also be very high.
Therefore, IRC has specified the desirable gradients for each terrain.
However, it may not be economically viable to adopt such gradients in
certain locations; steeper gradients are permitted for short duration.
Different types of grades are discussed below and the recommended type
of gradients for each type of terrain.
Ruling gradient, limiting gradient, exceptional gradient and minimum
gradient are some types of gradients which are discussed below.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient
with which the designer attempts to design the vertical profile of
the road. This depends on the terrain, length of the grade, speed,
pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal
curve. In flatter terrain, it may be possible to provide at gradients,
but in hilly terrain it is not economical and sometimes not possible
also. The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by considering a
particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle with
standard dimensions. But our country has a heterogeneous traffic
and hence it is not possible to lay down precise standards for the
country as a whole. Hence IRC has recommended some values for
ruling gradient for different types of terrain.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Limiting gradient
This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient
results in enormous increase in cost of
construction. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it
may be frequently necessary to adopt limiting
gradient. But the length of the limiting gradient
stretches should be limited and must be
sandwiched by either straight roads or easier
grades.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Exceptional gradient
Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients
given at unavoidable situations. They should be
limited for short stretches not exceeding about
100 meters at a stretch. In mountainous and
steep terrain, successive exceptional gradients
must be separated by a minimum 100 meter
length gentler gradient. At hairpin bends, the
gradient is restricted to 2.5%.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Critical length of the grade
The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded truck can
operate without undue reduction in speed is called critical length of the
grade. A speed of 25 kmph is a reasonable value. This value depends on the
size, power, load, grad-ability of the truck, initial speed, final desirable
minimum speed etc.
 Minimum gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important.
Camber will take care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage
along the side drains require some slope for smooth flow of water.
Therefore minimum gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it
depends on the rain fall, type of soil and other site conditions. A minimum
of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and 1 in 200 for open soil
drains are found to give satisfactory performance.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Creeper lane
When the uphill climb is extremely long, it may be desirable to introduce an
additional lane so as to allow slow ascending vehicles to be removed from the main
stream so that the fast moving vehicles are not affected. Such a newly introduced
lane is called creeper lane. There are no hard and fast rules as when to introduce a
creeper lane. But generally, it can be said that it is desirable to provide a creeper
lane when the speed of the vehicle gets reduced to half the design speed. When
there is no restrictive sight distance to reduce the speed of the approaching
vehicle, the additional lane may be initiated at some distance uphill from the
beginning of the slope. But when the restrictions are responsible for the lowering
of speeds, obviously the lane should be initiated at a point closer to the bottom of
the hill. Also the creeper lane should end at a point well beyond the hill crest, so
that the slow moving vehicles can return back to the normal lane without any
danger. In addition, the creeper lane should not end suddenly, but only in a tapered
manner for efficient as well as safer transition of vehicles to the normal lane.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Grade compensation
While a vehicle is negotiating a horizontal curve, if there is a gradient also,
then there will be increased resistance to traction due to both curve and
the gradient. In such cases, the total resistance should not exceed the
resistance due to gradient specified. For the design, in some cases this
maximum value is limited to the ruling gradient and in some cases as
limiting gradient. So if a curve needs to be introduced in a portion which
has got the maximum permissible gradient, then some compensation
should be provided so as to decrease the gradient for overcoming the
tractive loss due to curve. Thus grade compensation can be defined as the
reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve because of the additional
tractive force required due to curve resistance (T – Tcos α), which is
intended to offset the extra tractive force involved at the curve.
 Highway Design
 Vertical Geometrical Design
 Grade compensation
IRC gave the following specification for the grade
compensation.
 Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter
than 4% because the loss of tractive force is negligible.
 Grade compensation is 30+R /R %, where R is the radius
of the horizontal curve in meters.
 The maximum grade compensation is limited to 75/R %.
 Highway Design
 Summit curve
Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards.
They are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in
figure in any of the following four ways:
 When a positive gradient meets another positive
gradient.
 When positive gradient meets a flat gradient.
 When an ascending gradient meets a descending
gradient.
 When a descending gradient meets another descending
gradient.
 Highway Design
 Summit curve
 Type of Summit Curve
Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results, the
common practice has been to use parabolic curves in
summit curves. This is primarily because of the ease with it
can be laid out as well as allowing a comfortable transition
from one gradient to another. Although a circular curve
offers equal sight distance at every point on the curve, for
very small deviation angles a circular curve and parabolic
curves are almost congruent. Furthermore, the use of
parabolic curves was found to give excellent riding comfort.
 Highway Design
 Summit curve
 Design Consideration
In determining the type and length of the vertical curve, the design
considerations are comfort and security of the driver, and the
appearance of the profile alignment. Among these, sight distance
requirements for the safety are most important on summit curves.
The stopping sight distance or absolute minimum sight distance
should be provided on these curves and where overtaking is not
prohibited, overtaking sight distance or intermediate sight distance
should be provided as far as possible. When a fast moving vehicle
travels along a summit curve, there is less discomfort to the
passengers. This is because the centrifugal force will be acting
upwards while the vehicle negotiates a summit curve which is
against the gravity and hence a part of the tyre- pressure is relieved.
 Highway Design
 Summit curve
 Design Consideration
Also if the curve is provided with adequate sight distance, the
length would be sufficient to ease the shock due to change in
gradient. Circular summit curves are identical since the radius
remains same throughout and hence the sight distance. From this
point of view, transition curves are not desirable since it has varying
radius and so the sight distance will also vary. The deviation angles
provided on summit curves for highways are very large, and so a
simple parabola is almost congruent to a circular arc, between the
same tangent points. Parabolic curves are easy for computation and
also it had been found out that it provides good riding comfort to
the drivers. It is also easy for field implementation. Due to all these
reasons, a simple parabolic curve is preferred as summit curve.
 Highway Design
 Summit curve
 Length of the summit curve
The important design aspect of the summit curve is the
determination of the length of the curve which is parabolic. As
noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided by the sight distance
consideration. That is, a driver should be able to stop his vehicle
safely if there is an obstruction on the other side of the road.
Equation of the parabola is given by y = ax2, where, a = N/2L, where
N is the deviation angle and L is the length of the In deriving the
length of the curve, two situations can arise depending on the uphill
and downhill gradients when the length of the curve is greater than
the sight distance and the length of the curve is greater than the
sight distance.
 Highway Design
 Flexible pavement design
A flexible, or asphalt, or Tarmac pavement typically consists of three
or four layers. For a four layer flexible pavement, there is a surface
course, base course, and sub base course constructed over a
compacted, natural soil sub grade. When building a three layer
flexible pavement, the sub base layer is not used and the base
course is placed directly on the natural sub grade.
A flexible pavement's surface layer is constructed of hot-mix asphalt
(HMA). Un-stabilized aggregates are typically used for the base
course; however, the base course could also be stabilized with
asphalt, Foamed Bitumen, <Road stone Recycling> Portland cement,
or another stabilizing agent. The sub base is generally constructed
from local aggregate material, while the top of the sub grade is
often stabilized with cement or lime.
 Highway Design
 Flexible pavement design
With flexible pavement, the highest stress occurs at the surface and the stress
decreases as the depth of the pavement increases. Therefore, the highest quality
material needs to be used for the surface, while lower quality materials can be used
as the depth of the pavement increases. The term "flexible" is used because of the
asphalts ability to bend and deform slightly, then return to its original position as
each traffic load is applied and removed. It is possible for these small deformations
to become permanent, which can lead to rutting in the wheel path over an
extended time.
The service life of a flexible pavement is typically designed in the range of 20 to 30
years. Required thicknesses of each layer of a flexible pavement vary, widely
depending on the materials used, magnitude, number of repetitions of traffic loads,
environmental conditions, and the desired service life of the pavement. Factors
such as these are taken into consideration during the design process so that the
pavement will last for the designed life without excessive distresses.
 Highway Design
 Rigid pavement design
Rigid pavements are generally used in constructing airports and major highways,
such as those in the interstate highway system. In addition, they commonly serve as
heavy-duty industrial floor slabs, port and harbor yard pavements, and heavy-vehicle
park or terminal pavements. Like flexible pavements, rigid highway pavements are
designed as all-weather, long-lasting structures to serve modern day high-speed
traffic. Offering high quality riding surfaces for safe vehicular travel, they function as
structural layers to distribute vehicular wheel loads in such a manner that the
induced stresses transmitted to the sub grade soil are of acceptable magnitudes.
Portland cement concrete (PCC) is the most common material used in the
construction of rigid pavement slabs. The reason for its popularity is due to its
availability and the economy. Rigid pavements must be designed to endure
frequently repeated traffic loadings. The typical designed service life of a rigid
pavement is between 30 and 40 years, lasting about twice as long as a flexible
pavement.
 Highway Design
 Rigid pavement design
One major design consideration of rigid pavements is reducing fatigue failure due
to the repeated stresses of traffic. Fatigue failure is common among major roads
because a typical highway will experience millions of wheel passes throughout its
service life. In addition to design criteria such as traffic loadings, tensile stresses due
to thermal energy must also be taken into consideration. As pavement design has
progressed, many highway engineers have noted that thermally induced stresses in
rigid pavements can be just as intense as those imposed by wheel loadings. Due to
the relatively low tensile strength of concrete, thermal stresses are extremely
important to the design considerations of rigid pavements.
Rigid pavements are generally constructed in three layers - a prepared sub grade,
base or sub base, and a concrete slab. The concrete slab is constructed according
to a designed choice of plan dimensions for the slab panels, directly influencing the
intensity of thermal stresses occurring within the pavement. In addition to the slab
panels, temperature reinforcements must be designed to control cracking behavior
in the slab. Joint spacing is determined by the slab panel dimensions.
 Highway Design
 Rigid pavement design
Three main types of concrete pavements commonly used are Jointed plain
concrete pavement (JPCP), jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
and continuously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP). JPCP’s are
constructed with contraction joints which direct the natural cracking of
the pavement. These pavements do not use any reinforcing steel. JRCP’s are
constructed with both contraction joints and reinforcing steel to control
the cracking of the pavement. High temperatures and moisture stresses
within the pavement creates cracking, which the reinforcing steel holds
tightly together. At transverse joints, dowel bars are typically placed to
assist with transferring the load of the vehicle across the cracking. CRCP’s
solely rely on continuous reinforcing steel to hold the pavement’s natural
transverse cracks together. Pre-stressed concrete pavements have also
been used in the construction of highways; however, they are not as
common as the other three. Pre-stressed pavements allow for a thinner
slab thickness by partly or wholly neutralizing thermally induced stresses
or loadings.
 Highway Design
 Drainage system design
Designing for proper drainage of highway systems is crucial to their
success. Regardless of how well other aspects of a road are
designed and constructed, adequate drainage is mandatory for a
road to survive its entire service life. Excess water in the highway
structure can inevitably lead to premature failure, even if the failure
is not catastrophic.
Each highway drainage system is site-specific and can be very
complex. Depending on the geography of the region, many methods
for proper drainage may not be applicable. The highway engineer
must determine which situations a particular design process should
be applied, usually a combination of several appropriate methods
and materials to direct water away from the structure.
 Highway Design
 Drainage system design
Erosion control is a crucial component in the design of
highway drainage systems. Surface drainage must be
allowed for precipitation to drain away from the
structure. Highways must be designed with a slope or
crown so that runoff water will be directed to the
shoulder of the road, into a ditch, and away from the
site. Designing a drainage system requires the
prediction of runoff and infiltration, open channel
analysis, and culvert design for directing surface water
to an appropriate location.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 Highway construction
Highway construction is generally preceded by detailed
surveys and sub grade preparation.The methods and
technology for constructing highways has evolved over
time and become increasingly sophisticated.This
advancement in technology has raised the level of skill
sets required to manage highway construction projects.
This skill varies from project to project, depending on
factors such as the project's complexity and nature, the
contrasts between new construction and
reconstruction, and differences between urban region
and rural region projects.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway construction
There are a number of elements of highway construction which can be broken up
into technical and commercial elements of the system. Some examples of each are
listed below:
Technical Elements
 Materials
 Material quality
 Installation techniques
 Traffic
Commercial Elements
 Contract understanding
 Environmental aspects
 Political aspects
 Legal aspects
 Public concerns
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
Highway construction can be characterized by large right-of-way having
length of considerable amount. Due to this Highway construction
constitutes materials that are needed in large quantum. Depending upon
the type of highway pavement, flexible or rigid the material required for
highway construction is decided. This post contains general information
regarding the Types of materials used in a highway construction and their
characteristics are also discussed.
These items of major importance which are used in normal highway
construction
are:
 Bituminous Materials
 Soil
 Aggregates
 Portland Cement Concrete
 Admixtures
 Pavement Marking Materials
 Structural Steel
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Bituminous Materials
Bituminous material, or bitumen in the form of asphalt, is one of the
major highway construction materials used.
Its use ranges from binders for the highest type pavements of
complex engineering designs for the ultimate traffic, to direct
spray applications.
To protect an existing pavement or to provide a low-cost, all-
weather road for a minimum of traffic.
Asphalt materials, as used, range in consistency from semisolid to
liquid products, which are processed and blended to conform to
specification requirements for various types and grades.
Asphalt is normally a residue product from the distillation of crude
oil and, as refined, is a heavy, viscous material that is semisolid at
normal atmospheric temperatures.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 Highway Materials
 Bituminous Materials
By controlled processing or blending desired viscosity
and hardness characteristics can be produced.
This product is called asphalt cement and is also known
as paving grade or penetration grade asphalt.
Bituminous Materials, of the Highway Materials Manual
contains the test procedures, sampling requirements,
and testing equipment.
Necessary to characterize and control, within
specification requirements, asphalt cements, cutback
asphalts, emulsified asphalts, and asphalt -aggregate
mixtures.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Emulsified asphalt,
Emulsion, is made from asphalt cement.
It is tiny particles of asphalt cement mixed with water and an emulsifying
agent — usually a detergent.
Emulsions are called liquid asphalts because, unlike asphalt cements, they
are liquid at normal air temperatures and therefore do not require heat to
liquefy.
To produce emulsions, hot asphalt cement and water containing the
emulsifying agent are pumped at high pressure through a colloid mill.
The emulsifying agent coats the asphalt particles and puts an electric
charge on their surfaces.
This charge causes the asphalt droplets to repel one another so they don’t
combine.
These charges are used to categorize emulsions as cationic (positive
charge) or anionic (negative charge).
aggregates.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 Highway Materials
 Emulsified asphalt,
Charges are important because they affect the compatibility
of emulsion with mineral aggregates.
An anionic emulsion should be used with limestone
aggregate that usually bears a positive surface charge.
A cationic emulsion should be used with sandstone because
these aggregates usually bear a negative surface charge.
After an emulsion is mixed with aggregates it sets or
breaks.
The asphalt droplets react with the aggregate and combine,
squeezing out the water.
The water then evaporates, leaving the asphalt droplets to
set and produce a continuous film on the aggregates.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Advantages of Asphalt:
The following advantages have been reported for chip seals when
using:
 An asphalt binder less soft in hot weather and less brittle in cold
weather.
 Improved asphalt binder adhesion and strength for increased
cover aggregate/chip retention.
 The ability for earlier sweeping to remove excess chips.
 The surface treatment of roads, streets and highways with higher
traffic volumes and
speeds.
 Allows for the use of larger size chips.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Soils
Major works of man since the beginning of time have depended on the use
of soils.
Not only does soil form the foundation, or supporting surface for buildings,
bridges, roadways and culverts, but it is the most common constituent,
in the form of aggregate, in the works themselves.
Soils are the most basic abundant material in highway engineering and as
such, are well characterized by the expression "common as dirt."
The steps taken to prepare foundations manipulate and transport soils and
prepare them for use as aggregates accounts for well over 70 percent of
the total cost of construction for a normal highway project.
It is easy to see then why knowledgeable consideration of every aspect of
soils is very important to successful highway engineering.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Aggregates
The surface, base, and sub base of pavements consist of aggregates or a mixture of
aggregates with cement and water (Portland cement concrete) or a bituminous
material (bituminous concrete).
The strength properties of a layer are a function of both the quality and the
proportions of ingredients.
Aggregates are hard, durable, mineral materials obtained by mining or quarrying
operations of deposits of sand, gravel, talus or ledges, and may be defined as
"granular material of mineral composition.
Used either in combination with a binding medium to form bituminous concrete,
Portland cement concrete, mortar, plaster, etc, or alone as in road bases, railroad
ballast, filter beds, etc.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Portland cement Concrete
Portland cement concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, air, sand
and gravel or crushed stone.
It is formed when the cement and water (paste) combine chemically and
binds the entire mixture into a rock-like mass.
It may be thought of as a two component material; paste and aggregate.
The paste is comprised of cement, water, and entrained air.
The aggregate portion is generally composed of sand and gravel and
comprises 70 to 80 percent of the volume of the concrete.
Aggregates both fine and course, should be selected for their quality,
strength, durability and resistance to environmental affects.
They should be smoothly graded. The quality of the concrete depends also
on the quality of the paste.
In properly made concrete each particle of aggregate is completely coated
with paste and all of the space between particles is filled with paste.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Admixtures
In recent years there have come into use a number
of additives developed to improve various characteristics of
concrete in both the plastic and hardened states.
Other additives gaining in usage are known as water reducing
admixtures and set retarding admixtures.
Water reducing additive is intended to impart more workability
into a plastic concrete with less water, thereby increasing its
strength through a reduced water/cement ratio.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Admixtures
Set retarding additive is intended to slow the setting characteristics
of the mix and thereby allowing more time for placing and finishing.
However, these additives are of diverse chemical compositions and
can produce adverse reactions when used in a mix, either between
the additives themselves when combined in a mix or with the
cement, aggregates or water making up the mix.
Any time an additive is proposed for use in a mix, trial mixes should
be made with the additives to evaluate their effectiveness and
to check for any adverse reactions.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Pavement Marking Materials
Pavement markings have important functions in providing guidance and
information to drivers.
Pavement markings convey important information to drivers without
diverting their attention from the road.
In some cases they supplement regulations or warnings given by other
devices.
In other cases they are used alone and produce results that cannot be
obtained by any other device.
Many materials can be used for pavement marking.
The choice depends on cost, durability, reflectivity, pavement surface, and
drying time.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Pavement Marking Materials
 Paint
Water-based paint applied either cold or hot, is the most commonly
used pavement marking. It is low cost with a short drying time, but
its visibility on wet nights is just moderate.
 Thermoplastics
These pavement-marking materials are made of thermoplastic
heated to about 400° F and spread onto the pavement surface.
Glass beads to increase reflections can be spread on top, mixed in,
or both. Thermoplastics have a long service life, good visibility, and
good reflectivity.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Pavement Marking Materials
 Epoxy
Also applied as a liquid with special equipment, epoxy has good
visibility and reflectivity, and cost is moderate. Markings remain 3 to
4 years.
 Tapes
Pre-formed tape can be either inlaid as part of new construction, or
overlaid. It has excellent visibility
and reflectivity and lasts 7-8 years, but is higher cost. Wet reflective
tape has excellent wet night reflectivity with about a 4-year life.
Cost is medium and durability is poor.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Structural Steel
Structural steel is a category of steel construction material that is
produced with a particular cross section or shape, and some
specified values of strength and chemical composition. Structural
steel composition, strength, size, shape, strength, and storage are
controlled in most advanced countries. The word structural steel
includes a broad variety of low carbon and manganese steels that
are used in great numbers for civil and marine engineering
applications. Numerous structural steels also include minor
quantities of significant additions of other elements like Nb,V, Ti and
Al. These are called High Strength Low Alloy or micro-alloyed
steels. Structural steels are manufactured in section and plate
shapes and are normally used in bridges, buildings, ships, and
pipelines.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 Highway Materials
 Types of Structural Steel
After iron, carbon is the most important element in steel.
The increase of carbon produces materials with high
strength and low ductility. The techniques used for the
production of steel are high- computerized stress analysis,
precision stress analysis, and innovative jointing. The types
of structural steel sections normally used are beams,
channels, flats, and angles. The main kinds of structural steel
are generally categorized according to the under
mentioned categories of chemical composition:
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Materials
 Types of Structural Steel
Carbon-manganese steels: The major chemical ingredients are iron,
carbon, and manganese. These are normally called mild structural
steels or carbon steels. The strength and ductility are high, and being
economical is therefore widely used. The famous category amongst
this type is ASTM grade A36.
High-strength, low-alloy steels: This is a recent development in the
steel industry. Chemical elements are added to improve the
strength. A commonly used type is ASTM grade A572.
High-strength tempered and quenched alloy steels: These are used
for structural purposes and generally available is ASTM grade A514.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
Typically, construction begins at the lowest elevation of the site,
regardless of the project type, and moves upward. By reviewing the
geotechnical specifications of the project, information is given
about:
 Existing ground conditions
 Required equipment for excavation, grading, and material
transportation to and from the site
 Properties of materials to be excavated
 Dewatering requirements necessary for below-grade work
 Shoring requirements for excavation protection
 Water quantities for compaction and dust control
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
The type of road construction used varies from one
job to another.The type of construction adopted for a
particular road depends on:
 The volume and nature of traffic to use the road,
 The nature of the materials available,
 The topography,
 Foundation conditions,
 Type and availability of construction equipment,
 Financing arrangements and timing.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
Any road construction job consists of number of basic steps, although the
relevant importance and the interaction between these steps will vary
from job to job. These steps can be summarized as:
 Planning, programming and pre-construction activities;
 Site clearance;
 Setting out
 Earthworks;
 Bridge construction;
 Drainage structures;
 Pavement construction;
 Placement of road surfacing;
 Placement of road furniture;
 Landscaping
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Planning, programming and pre-construction activities
At the planning phase of project development, highway agencies
seek to estimate the time duration of project implementation for
purposes such as construction planning, contract administration,
and work zone impact assessments. This paper investigates the
estimation of highway project duration on the basis of variables
known at the planning phase such as planned cost and project type,
and contract type. Project types are pavement construction,
rehabilitation, maintenance, traffic facility installation, and bridge
construction. The contract types considered are fixed-duration and
fixed-deadline contracts. Using a variety of model specifications, the
paper presents mathematical relationships between highway project
duration and the magnitude of the planned cost and project type,
and contract type.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Planning, programming and pre-construction activities
The paper shows that all other factors remaining the same, the duration of fixed-
date deadline contracts generally exceed that of fixed-duration contracts; and
higher levels of planned cost translate non-linearly into greater project duration.
The developed models can help project administrators provide improved estimates
of project duration and thus could help reduce project time delays. Also, the
models are useful in forecasting work zone durations, a key aspect of work zone
user cost estimation
Planning /Programming is the most considerable factor in any road or highway
project it includes;
 Allocation of important stations to be connected,
 The nature of the materials available,
 The topography,
 The funds available for the project
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Site clearance
Site clearance can include a number of different waste
disposal activities including the removal of rubble and other
demolition materials, fly tipping areas and the clearance of
overgrown or contaminated land. It not only includes areas
where rubbish is lying about but any location where the
surroundings need to be cleared, for example removing
vegetation from areas where there has been overgrowth or
where space needs to be made to erect a building or other
construction.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Site clearance
Site clearance can require a range of skills and is not just
about taking away waste. It might involve gardening experts,
demolition teams and hazardous waste professionals who
will all have input. These are usually part of large
undertakings where risk assessments and waste
management plans have to be set up at the tender process.
Heavy machinery such as diggers and other plant
excavators may also be used, particularly in situations
where the area is being made suitable for construction.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Setting out
Road and drainage set-out surveys generally provide the set-out required
for the designed horizontal and vertical alignment of a road or drain.
Survey can consist of a peg or mark placed indicating an offset and level at
incremental distances along the designed alignment. This information will
determine the required cut/fill required, to meet the design criteria.
On green filed sites, road construction may begin with survey for bulk
earth works, set-out would generally indicate the tops and toes of batters
with cut and fill levels relative to the design. On existing roads and road
upgrades new kerb and asphalt may be all that is required. In this case off
set pegs or marks can be placed at incremental distances to determine the
line and level of the designed kerb line required to be constructed.
Pavement cut and fill levels sometimes may be required also if there is new
asphalt to be laid or road profiling required.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Setting out
Both road and drainage set-out generally will require
as-built surveys to be carried out. This information can
be used to calculate how close the road has been built
to design, and if it meets the design tolerances and
standards.Volumes of material used and required can
also be determined from these surveys and are useful
in accounting for materials used and also forecast what
cut or fill volumes remains.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Earthworks
Earthworks can be described as "the disturbance of land
surfaces by blading, contouring, ripping, moving, removing,
placing or replacing soil or earth, or by the excavation, or
by cutting or filling operations".
The Process of earthworks is to excavate the existing land
to a suitable level so that road construction may begin. The
earthworks can take the form of either excavation in the
form of cuts or the construction of embankments to carry
an elevated highway.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Earthworks
Normally in a road design project, both will be necessary
Excavation and movement of earth from one part of the
site to the next will be necessary. This should be done with
as little waste created or as little extra material required as
disposal or collection is expensive. Also included under the
topic of earthworks is the compaction of the road
materials to the appropriate level such as Embankment top
or Sub Grade.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Bridge construction
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles
without closing the way underneath such as a body of
water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage
over the obstacle. There are many different designs that
each serve a particular purpose and apply to different
situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on the
function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the
bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to
make it, and the funds available to build it.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Bridge construction
Bridges can be categorized in several different
ways. Common categories include the type of
structural elements used, by what they carry,
whether they are fixed or movable, and by the
materials used.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Bridge construction
 Structure type
Bridges may be classified by how the forces
of tension, compression, bending, torsion and shear are distributed
through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal
forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The
separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-
stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and
placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a
large number of members, as in a truss.
 Beam Bridge
 Truss Bridge
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Bridge construction
 Structure type
 Cantilever Bridge
 Arch bridge
 Tied Arch Bridge
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Bridge construction
 Structure type

 Suspension Bridge
 Cable Stayed Bridge
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Bridge construction
 Fixed or movable bridges
Most bridges are fixed bridges, meaning they have no moving parts
and stay in one place until they fail or are demolished. Temporary
bridges, such as Bailey bridges, are designed to be assembled, and
taken apart, transported to a different site, and re-used. They are
important in military engineering, and are also used to carry traffic
while an old bridge is being rebuilt. Movable bridges are designed to
move out of the way of boats or other kinds of traffic, which would
otherwise be too tall to fit. These are generally electrically powered.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Drainage structures
Highway drainage may be defined as the process of interception and
removal of water from over, under and the vicinity of the road surface.
Road drainage is very important for safe and efficient design of the road
way and hence is an essential part of highway design and construction. A
part of rainwater falling on road surface and adjoining area is lost by
evaporation and percolation. The remaining water known as surface water,
either remains on the surface of the road and adjoining area, or flows away
from it, depending upon the topography and general slope of the area.
Removal and diversion of this surface water from highway and adjoining
land is known as surface drainage.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Drainage structures
Due to percolation, if water table does not rise near of the road
sub-grade, it does not create any problem as it does not affect the
road sub-grade. If water table rises to the vicinity of road sub-grade,
it requires to be lowered as it will definitely affect road sub-grade.
Measures adopted to lower the subsoil water table are called sub
surface drainage.
Some of the retained water which cannot be drained off by normal
methods of drainage is called held water and special measures have
to be taken either to drain it off or keep it low so that it may not
affect the road sub-grade.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
EFFECTS OF IMPROPER DRAINAGE
One of the major causes of road failure is its improper drainage. Improper drainage
of the road causes destruction in the following ways:
 Road surface if made of soil, gravel or water bound macadam, it will become
soft and losses strength.
 The road sub-grade may be softened and its bearing capacity reduced.
 Variation in moisture content in expensive soils causes variation in the volume
of sub-grade and thus causes failure of roads.
 Failure of formation slopes is also attributed to poor drainage.
 If rain water is not properly drained and allowed to flow along the road side for
long distances, slip and landslides may occur causing road failures.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
EFFECTS OF IMPROPER DRAINAGE
 Erosion of side slopes, side drains, and formation of gullies may result if proper
drainage conditions are not maintained.
 Flexible pavement’s failure by formation of waves and corrugations is due to
poor drainage.
 Continuous contact of water, with bituminous pavements causes failures due to
stripping of bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some of
the bituminous pavement layers and formation of pot holes.
 Rigid pavement’s prime cause of failure in by mud pumping which occurs due to
water in fine sub-grade soil.
 Excess moisture causes increase in weight and thus increase in stress and
simultaneous reduction in strength of the soil mass. This main reason of failure
of earth slopes and embankment foundation.
 Erosion of soil from the top of un-surfaced roads and embankment slopes in
also due to surface water.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
 Surface water should not be allowed to remain standing on
the road pavement and shoulders. Measures should be taken to
drains off this water, immediately.
 The surface rain water from the adjoining area should not be
allowed to come towards the road surface. For this, general slope
of the ground adjoining road, should be made slopping away from
the road. This objective can be achieved by aligning road on ridge.
 Side drains should be of sufficient capacity and having sufficient
longitudinal slope so that it may drain of all the collected surface
water, efficiently.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
 Surface water flowing across the road pavement should not
develop cross ruts or erosions on road surface and shoulders.
For this, high embankment slopes should be protected either by
turfing or pitching.
 Seepage water and other capillary waters should
be drained off by suitable underground drainage system.
 Maximum level of under ground water table should be
maintained well below the sub-grade level of the road.
Under ground water table should remain at least 1 m to 2 m
below the road sub-grade.
 In water logged areas, special measures should be taken to keep
down the harmful salts.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process

Drainage Structures
 Side Ditch
 Intercepting Drain
 Ditch Check
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process

Drainage Structures
 Kerbs and Gutters
 Pipe Drain
 Catch Basin and Manholes
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process

Drainage Structures
 Pipe Culvert
 Slab Culverts
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process

Drainage Structures

 Box Culverts
 Arch Culverts
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Pavement construction

There are two major type of pavements depending upon the

materials used. A briefs description of all types is given here.
 Flexible Pavement
 Rigid Pavement
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Pavement construction
 Flexible Pavements

Bitumen has been widely used in the construction of flexible pavements for a long
time. This is the most convenient and simple type of construction. The cost of
construction of single lane bituminous pavement varies in plain areas. In some
applications, however, the performance of conventional bitumen may not be
considered satisfactory because of the following reasons:
 In summer season, due to high temperature, the bitumen becomes soft resulting
in bleeding, rutting and segregation finally leading to failure of pavement.
 In winter season, due to low temperature, the bitumen becomes brittle resulting
in cracking, raveling and unevenness which makes the pavement unsuitable for
use.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Pavement construction
 Flexible Pavements
 In rainy season, water enters the pavement resulting into pot holes and
sometimes total removal of bituminous layer.
 In hilly areas, due to sub zero temperature, the freeze thaw and heave cycle
takes place. Due to freezing and melting of ice in bituminous voids, volume
expansion and contraction occur. This leads to pavements failure.
 The cost of bitumen has been rising continuously. In near future, there will be
scarcity of bitumen and it will be impossible to procure bitumen at very high
costs.
Recently, large number investigations have demonstrated that bitumen properties
(eg. viscoelsticity and temperature susceptibility) can be improved using an additive
or a chemical reaction modification.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Pavement construction
 Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements, though costly in initial investment, are cheap in long run because
of low maintenance costs. There are various merits in the use of rigid pavements
(Concrete pavements) are summarized below:
 Bitumen is derived from petroleum crude, which is in short supply globally and
the price of which has been rising steeply. India imports nearly 70% of the
petroleum crude. The demand for bitumen in the coming years is likely to grow
steeply, far outstripping the availability. Hence it will be in India's interest to
explore alternative binders. Cement is available in sufficient quantity in India, and
its availability in the future is also assured. Thus cement concrete roads should
be the obvious choice in future road programs.
 Besides the easy available of cement, concrete roads have a long life and are
practically maintenance-free.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Pavement construction
 Rigid Pavements
 Another major advantage of concrete roads is the savings in fuel by commercial
vehicles to an extent of 14-20%.The fuel savings themselves can support a large
programme of concreting.
 Cement concrete roads save a substantial quantity of stone aggregates and this
factor must be considered when a choice pavements is made,
 Concrete roads can withstand extreme weather conditions – wide ranging
temperatures, heavy rainfall and water logging.
 Though cement concrete roads may cost slightly more than a flexible pavement
initially, they are economical when whole-life-costing is considered.
 Reduction in the cost of concrete pavements can be brought about by
developing semi-self-compacting concrete techniques and the use of closely
spaced thin joints. R&D efforts should be initiated in this area.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Flexible Pavement

Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or

bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material
of appropriate quality in layers over the subgrade.Water bound macadam roads
and stabilized soil roads with or without asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible
pavements.

 Preparation of the existing base course layer

The existing surface is prepared by removing the pot holes or rust if any. The
irregularities are filled in with premix chippings at least a week before laying surface
course. If the existing pavement is extremely way, a bituminous leveling course of
adequate thickness is provided to lay a bituminous concrete surface course on a
binder course instead of directly laying it on a WBM.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Flexible Pavement
 Application of Tack Coat
It is desirable to lay AC layer over a bituminous base or
binder course. A tack coat of bitumen is applied at 6.0
to 7.5 kg per 10 sqm area, this quantity may be
increased to 7.5 to 10 kg for non-bituminous base.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Flexible Pavement

 Preparation and placing of Premix

The premix is prepared in a hot mix plant of a required capacity with the
desired quality control. The bitumen may be heated up to 150 – 177 deg C
and the aggregate temperature should not differ by over 14 deg C from
the binder temperature. The hot mixed material is collected from the
mixture by the transporters, carried to the location is spread by a
mechanical paver at a temperature of 121 to 163 deg C. the camber and
the thickness of the layer are accurately verified. The control of the
temperatures during the mixing and the compaction are of great
significance in the strength of the resulting pavement structure.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Flexible Pavement
 Rolling of Asphalt
A mix after it is placed on the base course is thoroughly compacted by
rolling at a speed not more than 5km per hour.
The initial or break down rolling is done by 8 to 12 tone roller and the
intermediate rolling is done with a fixed wheel pneumatic roller of 15 to
30 tones having a tyre pressure of 7kg per sqcm. The wheels of the roller
are kept damp with water.
The number of passes required depends on the thickness of the layer. In
warm weather rolling on the next day, helps to increase the density if the
initial rolling was not adequate. The final rolling or finishing is done by 8 to
10 tone tandem roller.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Flexible Pavement
 Quality control of bituminous concrete construction
The routine checks are carried out at site to ensure the quality of
the resulting pavement mixture and the pavement surface.
Periodical checks are made for
 a) Aggregate grading
 b) Grade of bitumen
 c) Temperature of aggregate
 d) Temperature of paving mix during mixing and compaction.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Flexible Pavement
 Quality control of bituminous concrete construction
At least one sample for every 100 tones of the mix discharged by
the hot mix plant is collected and tested for above
requirements. Marshall tests are also conducted. For every 100
sqm of the compacted surface, one test of the field density is
conducted to check whether it is at least 95% of the density
obtained in the laboratory. The variation in the thickness allowed is
6mm per 4.5m length of construction.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Flexible Pavement
 Finished surface:
The AC surface should be checked by a 3.0 m straight
edge.The longitudinal undulations should not exceed
8.0 mm and the number of undulations higher than 6.0
mm should not exceed 10 in a length of 300 m. The
cross-traffic profile should not have undulations
exceeding 4.0mm.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements normally use Portland cement concrete as the prime structural
element. Depending on conditions, engineers may design the pavement slab with
plain, lightly reinforced, continuously reinforced, prestressed, or fibrous concrete.
The concrete slab usually lies on a compacted granular or treated subbase, which is
supported, in turn, by a compacted subgrade.The subbase provides uniform stable
support and may provide subsurface drainage. The concrete slab has considerable
flexural strength and spreads the applied loads over a large area. Figure 1 illustrates
a typical rigid pavement structure. Rigid pavements have a high degree of rigidity.
Figure 2 show how this rigidity and the resulting beam action enable rigid
pavements to distribute loads over large areas of the subgrade. Better pavement
performance requires that support for the concrete slab be uniform. Rigid
pavement strength is most economically built into the concrete slab itself with
optimum use of low-cost materials under the slab.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Rigid Pavements
 Concrete Slab (Surface Layer).
The concrete slab provides structural support to the aircraft, provides a skid-
resistant surface, and prevents the infiltration of excess surface water into the
subbase.

 Sub base.
The subbase provides uniform stable support for the pavement slab. The subbase
also serves to control frost action, provide subsurface drainage, control swelling of
subgrade soils, provide a stable construction platform for rigid pavement
construction, and prevent mud pumping of fine-grained soils. Rigid pavements
generally require a minimum subbase thickness of 4 inches (100 mm).
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Rigid Pavements
 Frost Protection Layer.
In areas where freezing temperatures occur and where frost-susceptible
soil with a high ground water table exists, engineers must consider frost
action when designing pavements. Frost action includes both frost heave
and loss of subgrade support during the frost-melt period. Frost heave may
cause a portion of the pavement to rise because of the non uniform
formation of ice crystals in a frost-susceptible material. Thawing of the
frozen soil and ice crystals may cause pavement damage under loads. The
frost protection layer functions as a barrier against frost action and frost
penetration into the lower frost-susceptible layers.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road surfacing
 Construction of Rigid Pavements
 Subgrade.
The subgrade is the compacted soil layer that forms the foundation of the
pavement system. Subgrade soils are subjected to lower stresses than the
surface and subbase courses. These stresses decrease with depth, and the
controlling subgrade stress is usually at the top of the subgrade unless
unusual conditions exist. Unusual conditions, such as a layered subgrade or
sharply varying water content or densities, may change the locations of the
controlling stress. The soils investigation should check for these conditions.
The pavement above the subgrade must be capable of reducing stresses
imposed on the subgrade to values that are low enough to prevent
excessive distortion or displacement of the subgrade soil layer.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road furniture
Road furniture refers to all fixtures in the road and road reserve. The term
includes fixtures on the road surface such as steel covers and traffic domes
(silent cops) or lane markers, light poles, guide/signposts, bus shelters and
crash barriers.
A Bus Shelter or Bus Stop Shelter is a shade structure erected adjacent to
a bus stop, to shield potential passengers from rain and/or the sun.
The useful life of a bus shelter will vary considerably depending on how it
is constructed and a wide range of environmental factors.
A guidepost is a white timber or plastic post fitted with delineators that is
used to mark and delineate roadside hazards, road widths, alignments and
structures. They should be installed at a uniform distance from the edge of
the road.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Placement of road furniture
One of the principal elements of roadside furniture is the signing infrastructure.
Signs are an essential element of the road system. Sign sizes vary to the extent that
they can be supported by one or more supports. Overhead signs are supported on
a gantry spanning the road with substantial supporting legs or on a cantilever over
the road supported on a substantial post. A traffic sign (also Traffic Control Sign) is
a sign, board, plate, screen, or another device, whether or not illuminated, displaying
words, figures, symbols or anything else to regulate, direct or warn road users.
A Traffic Light (or traffic signal) is an electronic device positioned at a
road intersection or pedestrian crossing that regulates the flow of traffic through
the intersection or at the crossing by variously displaying to motorists and
pedestrians either; a red, amber or green light (or symbol), indicating which
vehicles and/or pedestrians have right of way at a particular point in time.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Landscaping
Landscape design decisions need to be based on an integrated and
methodical approach that avoids arbitrary decisions. The insights,
evaluations and mitigation opportunities identified during the
landscape assessment stage form the basis for design decisions. The
design of highway landscaping should:
 Be responsive to the surrounding landscape, the site, and the
needs of highway users and local communities
 Meet Transit’s Expectations for Highway Landscaping as set out in
Section 2 of the Guidelines.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Landscaping
Highway landscaping design and management solutions need to be
developed with consideration of the ongoing operational needs of the
highway. To ensure safety and maintenance considerations are adequately
identified and taken account of, landscaping design and maintenance
programs need to be developed collaboratively with input from relevant
Transit experts, in particular:
 Planners
 Project engineers
 Safety engineers
 Asset managers.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and
management
 The Road Construction Process
 Landscaping
In addition, solutions should also be informed by the:
 Results of consultation with stakeholders including
community groups, and adjacent landowners
 Contents of any relevant district or regional planning
instruments prepared under the RMA and the outcomes
of discussions with relevant local authorities.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Landscaping
The landscape vision is a statement of broad intent, which should convey the
overall desired outcomes and the general manner in which the highway landscape
will be treated. Depending on the landscape and environmental context, the vision
for an overall landscape treatment may be quite general, for example: To establish
highway landscaping that reflects the local landscape character. Or the vision may
be quite specific in seeking a particular outcome:
 For a corridor with high ecological values it may provide a linkage for flora and
fauna between different areas
 For a feature landscape it may mean establishing visual features, distinct
theme(s), or contrast with the surrounding area
 For a gateway it may mean providing a sense of arrival or entry point into a
town, city or region
 For a scenic route it may mean emphasising and enhancing views of natural
scenic areas, cultural features or landscapes.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Landscaping
The master plan conveys the overall vision for a section of highway
in graphic terms. A master plan will describe the overall conceptual
layout and landscape treatment, including interactions with adjacent
landscapes or wider urban context , and will show staging and
priorities. Outputs for this stage should include:
 A design statement outlining the design themes and vision for the
highway and identifying how Transit’s expectations have been
achieved
 Coloured plan(s) to a suitable scale that depict the broad-scale
landscape layout and treatment
 Sketches, elevations, sections, photo-montages, or images to
clearly depict the design intent.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Landscaping
The detailed design stage is the realization of the mitigation
opportunities, landscape vision, and decisions made during the
preceding design process. Detailed design will be required on all
highway landscape projects, as this forms part of the
implementation documentation for the landscape design. The
maintenance implications of the proposed design must be
considered at this stage, in conjunction with the appropriate Transit
asset manager. Drawings should be prepared using CAD as this
allows efficient exchange of information with other professionals on
the highway project.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 The Road Construction Process
 Landscaping
Depending on the project size and complexity, outputs at this stage may include:
 Site preparation plans (scale 1:200-500) showing the location of appropriate storage and
stockpiling areas, trees to be removed or pruned, tree-protection zones, site access, and parking.
 Layout and materials plans (scale 1:200-500) with the layout of the landscape works
superimposed over the highway layout plan.
 Grading and drainage plan (scale 1:200-500) – some landscape input may be required for final
earth shaping and drainage, particularly for plant establishment.
 Planting plans (scale 1:200-500) which must show the accurate location of existing and proposed
planting.The planting schedules should clearly differentiate and notate each type of planting using
a simple labeling system based on botanical names.
 Detail plans (scales 1:10-1:50) illustrate the methods of construction or how the planting will be
implemented
 Schedule of material sources, itemized costing of the materials and tasks or actions for
completing the landscape works, including a program of phased plantings.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
Highway maintenance is the process of keeping public roads in a
state of good repair it involves remedying defects such as potholes
that occur in the carriageway from time to time
(corrective maintenance) and providing treatments such as crack
sealing which will slow the rate of deterioration
(preventative maintenance).Typical maintenance activities
include: Crack filling and sealing.

Road maintenance is essential in order to

 Preserve the road in its originally constructed condition,
 Protect adjacent resources and user safety, and (3) provide
efficient, convenient travel along the route.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
Unfortunately, maintenance is often neglected or improperly performed resulting in rapid
deterioration of the road and eventual failure from both climatic and vehicle use impacts. It follows
that it is impossible to build and use a road that requires no maintenance.
In order to plan for road maintenance needs, it is important to keep a complete set of "as built"
plans and records of all maintenance operations and observations.The as built plan should contain
the following:
 Complete job index
 Complete history of project from planning stage to construction
 Photographic records
 Exact location and observations of any unstable conditions in relation to the road location
 Exact location of culverts and other drainage features
 Wet areas that may have required additional excavation and replacement with more suitable
ballast backfield materials
 All major changes made to the original plan
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
Probably the most valuable tool for any maintenance program is the
knowledge and experience gained by individuals performing the
maintenance. Every effort should be made to retain competent,
knowledgeable, and experienced individuals in these positions not
only from the standpoint of instituting and executing a good
maintenance program, but for future road planning needs as well.
In deciding on an appropriate level of maintenance for a particular
road or road segment, consideration must be given to the amount
and type of vehicle use and physiographic and climatic variables
which may impact drainage structures.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Drainage System Maintenance
Drainage structures must be kept free of debris and obstructions.
On newly constructed roads, or in upstream areas where heavy
earth moving is taking place (e.g., urban development, logging,
mining, etc.), cleaning may have to be more frequent.
Grass growing in ditches, unless it is dense enough to cause a major
impediment to flow, should not be removed during cleaning.
Likewise, shoulder and cut banks must not be undercut.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Drainage System Maintenance
The objective in "pulling a ditch" is to grade the ditch so as to clean it of
debris that could divert flow from the ditch on to the road surface. Hand
clearing with a shovel is effective when the work load is light or the
presence of structures (e.g. cross drains or culvert inlets) make it
impractical to use heavy equipment. With a grader, the following procedure
is followed:
◦ Flag all culverts and cross drains
◦ Remove snags, rocks, and other hazards before grading begins
◦ Cut only the ditch bottom and shoulder; avoid undercutting the cut slope; do
not redress the cut slope
◦ Spread fines into the road with surface reworking
◦ Avoid working around culverts or other channel crossing structures so as to
minimize damage to inlets
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Drainage System Maintenance
Debris in and around culverts should be removed by hand or by
grapples or tongs rather than by heavy equipment working directly
in the stream. Stream channels should be completely free of
floatable debris (branches, leaves, small logs, construction material,
garbage, etc.) for at least 30 m (100 feet) upstream. If plugging of a
particular culvert occurs frequently and a debris deflector or "trash
rack" was not included in the original design, one should be installed
as part of the maintenance program.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Road Surface Maintenance
Road surfaces should be reworked only as necessary to provide a smooth running
surface and a good crown or slope for drainage. All-season roads will require
continual monitoring for surface and subgrade wear or deterioration. Rutting and
loss of ballast often occur during rainy season use. Snow removal equipment can
also destroy the road surface by removing or altering the crown and removing
ballast. A plan should be in place to provide ballast when necessary to maintain
continued use of the road.
On non-surfaced roads, a grader on the first pass should move material from the
shoulder to a windrow in the center of the roadway. On the second pass, the blade
should be centered on the windrow and continue working along the roadway. The
blade should be adjusted so as to provide a slight slope or crown and should avoid
cutting too deep into the road surface. Any excess material should be stored in the
berm-not side cast over the edge of the fill.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Road Surface Maintenance
A wide variety of chemicals are commonly used to treat road surfaces to minimize
wear, reduce dust, or de-ice. However, many of these products provide only
minimal benefit and represent a potential hazard to water quality . Oil based dust
palliatives must be used very carefully where the potential for entering surface or
groundwater exists. Likewise, salts such as sodium chloride (NaCI) and calcium
chloride (CaCl2), along with additives to prevent caking, rust, and corrosion, can
cause acute and chronic toxicity in aquatic organisms and fish, contamination of
groundwater supplying public and domestic water users, and death to vegetation
adjacent to the road. Maximum salt concentrations can be found at soil surfaces
nearest the road, but because they can be readily leached, salts can easily enter
groundwater. High concentrations of salts have been found in streams during dry
season low flows when the major component contributing to stream flow consists
of groundwater.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Road Surface Maintenance
Sulfite waste liquor from pulping operations is used extensively for dust
abatement, however, it too has a potential for adversely impacting water
quality through its high biochemical oxygen demand. Fortunately, though,
the BOD-containing agents in pulping liquors will oxidize rapidly on the
road surface. Controlled application during dry weather to prevent runoff
will minimize impacts.
Herbicides used to control roadside vegetation represent the final class of
road maintenance compounds that present a potential health or water
pollution hazard if used incorrectly. Compounds such as dioxin, contained
in 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, are extremely toxic even in minute quantities.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Road Surface Maintenance
Practices and methods to help minimize impacts from road chemicals include:
 Control application. Use only as much chemical as needed, both in
concentration and rate of application, to provide the desired effect. Chemical
manufacturers provide detailed information on the label of the container
concerning dilution requirement, application rate and method, worker safety
precautions, spill cleanup procedures, and other useful information. Be aware of
weather conditions. Do not apply chemicals immediately prior to or during
rainfall. Provide adequate training, performance standards, and supervision of
application personnel and equipment. Perform trial applications to determine if
calculated application rate is adequate. Keep records of chemical compounds
used, the target species identified, concentration and application rates, vegetative
growth stage (pre- or post-emergent), any unusual vegetative or environmental
factors present during the application, and results of the application.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Road Surface Maintenance
Practices and methods to help minimize impacts from road chemicals
include:
 Use extra caution near streams. Avoid applying chemicals where
the road crosses a channel and for 20 m (60 ft) on either side. If
necessary, provide a filter strip between the road and the stream.
Prevent spillage near or into streams. Do not, under any circumstances,
discharge unused chemical into a stream.
 Disposal of excess chemical and container treatment. Clean and
rinse equipment and storage containers in an area where waste water
can be safely collected and treated. If necessary, collect and ship excess
hazardous chemicals to an authorized hazardous waste disposal facility.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Emergency Storm Response
An effective way of dealing with storm damage to roads and property is to provide for an
emergency response program in which personnel and equipment can be mobilized as needed on
short notice.This concept is similar in practice to that dealing with emergency measures used in fire
control.The purpose of the plan is to:
 Prevent loss of life or injury
 Prevent damage to soils, streams, fisheries, and other resources
 Prevent and/or minimize damage to capital improvements, private property, roads, and other
features
 Provide for efficient, economical, and necessary use of available finances, equipment, and
personnel
 Evaluate structural and resource damage when it occurs and determine needs for corrective
measures to prevent further damage
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Emergency Storm Response
Necessary items to include in a storm response action plan are:
• A system to collect and analyze weather, soil, and road conditions
• A communication system between personnel responsible for activating the storm action plan
• Establishment of organizational plans and responsibilities for prevention and control of storm
damage
• Methods of financing and documenting costs of personnel and equipment; outline of
individuals authorized to use finances, personnel, and equipment
• Telephone numbers for providing public information and communication with law
enforcement and other public agencies
• Provisions for monitoring the effects of storms and efforts to prevent damage;
reconnaissance and estimates of extent of damage to structures and resources; preliminary
cost estimates
• Storm damage reporting procedures
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Emergency Storm Response
Weather data should be collected daily and should include daily amounts
of precipitation, cumulative precipitation per storm, total per season,
month, etc. Any information indicating run-off amounts, snow pack
accumulation/melt rates, temperature, temperature changes, wind and
barometric pressure should be noted. Additional or more frequent
information updates can be requested as conditions warrant. A rating
system for storms, such as that used for fires, can be developed based on
historical data and/or local knowledge. For each condition, a specific set of
activities ranging from observation to full region-wide patrols and work
teams will be identified.
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 Highway Maintenance
 Road Abandonment and Reclamation
Forest roads are often designed for temporary or intermittent use in which two
situations may exist:
 The road is planned for closure with the intent of reconstructing at some point
in the future, or
 The road is planned for permanent closure.
In the first instance, if the interval of non-use is relatively short, a physical barricade
blocking all entrances to the road may be all that is required provided that periodic
checks are made throughout the non-use period to ensure that road drainage
structures, erosion control measures, and other slope protection measures are
functioning properly. A barricade may consist of a locked gate or a variety of crude
barriers constructed of native materials--rock, slash, cull logs, etc.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Road Abandonment and Reclamation
If periodic checks and maintenance cannot be performed (e.g.
during heavy snow pack conditions) other measures in addition to
barricading need to be taken. These measures might include
installing a system of rolling dips or water bars, out sloping, and
stabilizing all cut and fill slopes. Scarification and re-vegetation of
exposed surfaces, including the roadway itself, may be appropriate
depending on the type of road surface, the potential for erosion,
and the non-use period.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Road Abandonment and Reclamation
When an extended non-use period is planned and the risk of
environmental damage from failure is significant, a partial restoration of the
original ground profile may be considered. The objective here is to convert
a portion of surface water flow back to subsurface flow and to provide
more efficient surface runoff capacity. An effective method, called "Kanisku"
closure, can be used on side slopes less than 60 percent and is illustrated
in Figure 121. If terrain and road conditions permit the use of this
technique without significant loss of soil over the edge of the fill, this
procedure can be accomplished with an angle-blade bulldozer. This
technique is not appropriate on end haul constructed roads, on ballasted
or surfaced roads, on some soil types, or in regions with high precipitation.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Maintenance
 Road Abandonment and Reclamation
Stream crossings on intermittent-use roads require special attention. In addition to
guidelines presented elsewhere in this book, design, construction, and maintenance
considerations for intermittent-use roads include:
 Minimize the amount of culvert fill.
 Use generous culvert end area estimates.
 Design for permanent installation.
 Plan for supplemental maintenance checks if there is any doubt as to the ability
of the installation to withstand heavy storm events.
 If a stable installation is technically or economically infeasible, include
subsequent culvert removal if it can be accomplished with minimal water quality
impact. If not, avoid the site.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Management
Highway Management involves the deployment of a range of mitigation techniques
that aim to reduce the environmental impacts of roads, including those impacts
related to negative effects of roads on soils, water, species, and habitats.
The environmental effects of roads include spatial and temporal dimensions, as well
as biotic and abiotic components. These effects may be local (along a road segment)
or expansive (related to a large road network). In addition to direct loss of habitat
and ecosystems caused by the footprint of resource roads, another spatial aspect is
the “road-effect zone”3 that can radiate out from the sides of the road and/or
extend downstream where effects on aquatic conditions may be located a distance
from the source. The road-effect zone also changes light conditions and disturbs
soils and thus creates conditions suitable for invasive plants.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Management
In some cases, authors group road effects into direct and indirect
impacts. In another instance summarized road effects as those
common during construction, those along a newly completed road,
and those with long-term impacts. In most reports highlighted in
this article, researchers have focused directly on road effects; in
other instances, researchers are testing for the effects of an array of
variables including roads. Below, road-related impacts are grouped
to identify effects on:
 Soils, water, and aquatic wildlife and habitat; and
 Terrestrial wildlife and habitat.
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Management
The final subsection highlights other road effects. For instance, a few examples of
potential effects on soil, water, and aquatic wildlife and habitat may include:
 Displaced and compacted soils resulting in loss of biomass productivity;
 Altered conditions that change soil pH, plant growth, and the vegetative
community structure (i.e. light levels and water retention; soil displacement,
temperature, and compaction; and dust);
 Reconfigured landforms that can result in changed hydrologic regimes (e.g.
altered water table position; interrupted groundwater flow diverted to surface
systems; increased water temperatures; changes in the timing of runoff; drained
natural wetland habitats; unintentional artificial wetlands; and restricted or
altered channels which can result in altered streambed materials); and/or
 Highway Construction, maintenance, and management
 Highway Management

 Increased number and extent of landslides and debris flow, which

can affect terrestrial and aquatic systems.
In the context of water funds, mitigation techniques for managing
roads typically focus on applying strategic planning (i.e. avoiding
vulnerable sites; identifying the most serious problems by assessing
road systems at watershed scale; etc.) and undertaking on-the-
ground mitigation techniques (site-level actions to reduce erosion,
improve culverts and bridges; etc.). Other common mitigation
techniques include implementing access management and closing
and decommissioning roads.