Concept-Based MATHEMATICS Teaching for Deep Understanding in Secondary Classrooms Jennifer T.H. Wathall Foreword by H. Lynn EricksonPraise for Concept-Based Mathematics “T attended a Concepts Based Curriculum training course led by Jennifer Wathall and was really inspired by what I learned. Far too often, as teachers, we can become narrowly focused on the topics that we are covering; with concepts there is a whole new opportunity for students to understand the big ideas and the connections between different subjects. Jennifer skillfully guided us through how we can introduce students to a concept-based curriculum. I was really impressed with the method of writing generalizations which provide a framework for exploration. These generalizations can in fact make the focus of a lesson or series of lessons much more exciting, allowing students to break out of the constraints of a limited topic range. Ultimately, I left the course determined to try out a concepts-based model with a new unit we are developing on human rights. With the conceptual lens, this promises to be a much more thought-provoking unit for our students.” —John Edwards, Head of History Department King George V School, Hong Kong “Secondary teachers are constantly being encouraged to change their practice but few books have addressed the topics of secondary mathematics or given examples that secondary teachers can relate to. This book does that. Another strength is the connection of the content to the math processes and practices—the heart of good instruction. The figures provided to summarize big ideas are excellent. I love the potential of this book for using it as a text for middle and secondary teachers, a guide for professional development, and a place for individual reflection. I know for sure that I would use it for my student teacher seminar class and anytime that I was instructing upper level math teachers. I’ve been waiting for this!” —Barbara Fox, Adjunct Professor, Student Teacher Supervisor University of Massachusetts, Lesley University, Regis College“Jennifer Wathall’s Concept-Based Mathematics is one of the most forward-thinking mathematics resources on the market. While highlighting the essential tenets of Concept-Based Curriculum design, her accessible explanations and clear examples show how to move students to deeper conceptual understandings. This book ignites the mathematical mind!” —Lois A. Lanning, Author Designing a Concept-Based Curriculum for English Language Arts, K-12 “One of the major strengths of Concept-Based Mathematics is the examples and the visual diagrams that outline major topics. The book provides rubrics that allow teachers to determine where they are in their methodology and an opportunity to decide where they can improve their teaching strategies.” —Amanda McKee, High School Mathematics Instructor Florence County School District #5 “Jennifer Wathall provides a solid rationale, backed up by numerous practical and authentic examples to increase the quality of conceptual math classroom teaching practices so needed to develop the next generation learners. This is a must have for any secondary school’s professional library.” —Dave Nagel, Author Consultant Corwin / NZJ Learning (LLC) “The major strength of Concept-Based Mathematics is that it addresses teaching mathematics in a way that invites students to learn and encourages not only content knowledge, but depth of knowledge, rigor, and critical thinking. Inquiry is a means of synergizing your classroom and drawing students in so that they want to learn. This is going to require a change of mind-set for teachers and the administrators alike as well as training. This book provides an opportunity for both.”—Pamela L. Opel, Intervention Specialist Gulfport School District “Jennifer Wathall’s book offers a clear understanding of how complex learning of mathematics is, and how to use this understanding to create a thinking classroom. She explains, from a scientific point of view and in a very well-researched and comprehensive manner, sprinkled with plenty of practical examples, what is the interdependence between the processes and knowledge and how to plan, run, and assess for a concept-based mathematics classroom. This book is a must-read for all mathematics educators, a book that should definitely be on the table in each mathematics office.” —Dr. Daniela Vasile, Head of Mathematics South Island School, Hong Kong “Wathall is a master at covering all the bases here; this book is bursting with engaging assessment examples, discussion questions, research, and resources that apply specifically to mathematical topics. Any math teacher or coach would be hard-pressed to read it and not come away with scores of ideas, assessments, and lessons that she could use instantly in the classroom. As an IB Workshop Leader and instructional coach, I want this book handy on a nearby shelf for regular referral—it’s a boon to any educator who wants to bring math to life for students the world over.” —Alexis Wiggins, Instructional Coach, IB Workshop Leader and ConsultantConcept-Based MathematicsConcept-Based Mathematics Teaching for Deep Understanding in Secondary Classrooms Jennifer T. H. Wathall Foreword by H. Lynn Erickson | CORWIN MATHEMATICSC@RWIN FOR INFORMATION: Corwin A SAGE Company 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 (800) 233-9936 www.corwin.com SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/11 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 3 Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 Copyright © 2016 by Corwin All rights reserved. When forms and sample documents are included, their useis authorized only by educators, local school sites, and/or noncommercial or nonprofit entities that have purchased the book. Except for that usage, no part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. All trademarks depicted within this book, including trademarks appearing as part of a screenshot, figure, or other image, are included solely for the purpose of illustration and are the property of their respective holders. The use of the trademarks in no way indicates any relationship with, or endorsement by, the holders of said trademarks. Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wathall, Jennifer. Concept-based mathematics : teaching for deep understanding in secondary classrooms / Jennifer Wathall. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-5063-1494-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Mathematics—Study and teaching—Psychological aspects. 2. Mathematics —Study and teaching (Middle school) 3. Mathematics—Study and teaching (Secondary) I. Title. QA11.2.W376 2016 510.71’2—dc23 2015031139 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Cover image: Aed Magic i! by Suman Vaze 36" x 20", acrylic on canvas The 3 x 3 magic square can be constructed in only one way so that the verticals, hovizontals, and diagonals ail add to 15. This workis another way of looking at the magic square. 1617 18 1920 10987654321 Acquisitions Editor: Erin NullSenior Associate Editor: Desirée A. Bartlett Editorial Assistant: Andrew Olson Production Editor: Amy Schroller Copy Editor: Diana Breti Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Proofreader: Jennifer Grubba Indexer: Judy Hunt Cover Designer: Anupama Krishnan Marketing Manager: Rebecca Eaton DISCLAIMER: This book may direct you to access third-party content via Web links, QR codes, or other scannable technologies, which are provided for your reference by the author(s). Corwin makes no guarantee that such third-party content will be available for your use and encourages you to review the terms and conditions of such third-party content. Corwin takes no responsibilty and assumes no liablity for your use of any third-party content, nor does Corwin approve, sponsor, endorse, verity, or certify such third-party content.Contents Preface NOGTRONS . List of Figures . Foreword . Acknowledgments . About the Author . Author's Note . Part |. What Is Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction in MATHEMATICS: RESEARCH and Theory 1. 1. Why Is It Important for My Students to Learn Conceptually? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Why Do We Need to Develop Curriculum and Instruction to Include the Conceptual Level? The Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process Applying the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process Teaching for Inquiry Chapter Summa Discussion Questions 2. 2. What Are the Levels of the Structures of Knowledge and Process for Mathematics? le 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. a The Levels of the Structure of Knowledge The Levels of the Structure of Process Macro, Meso, and Micro Concepts in Mathematics The Marriage of the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process Two-Dimensional vs. Three-Dimensional Curriculum Models Chapter Summary Discussion Questions 8. Part Il. How to Craft Generalizations and Plan Units of Work to Ensure Deep Conceptual Understanding1. 3. What Are Generalizations in Mathematics? 1. What Is the Difference Between a Generalization and a Principle in Mathematics? 2. How Do We Craft Quality Mathematics Generalizations? 3. How Do We Draw Out Conceptual Understandings From Our Students? 4. Chapter Summary 5. Discussion Questions 2. 4. How Do | Plan Units of Work for a Concept-Based Curriculum? 1. Unit Webs 2. Unit Planning 3. Guiding Questions 4. Planning a Unit of Work for Functions 5. Planning a Unit of Work for Circles 6. Planning a Unit of Work for Calculus: Differentiation and Integration 7. Chapter Summary 8. Discussion Questions 9. Part Ill. How Do We Engage Students Through Instructional Practice? Strategies to Engage and Assess 1. 5. How Do | Captivate Students? Eight Strategies for Engaging the Hearts and Minds of Students 1. 2. Strategy 1: Create a Social Learning Environment Strategy 2: Provide an Open, Secure Environment to Allow for Mistakes as Part of the Learning Process . Strategy 3: Use Appropriate Levels of Inquiry and Employ Inductive Approaches to Develop Conceptual Understanding . Strategy 4: Reduce Whole Class Teacher Talk Time . Strategy 5: Cater to Everyone in your Class: Use Differentiation Strategies8. . Strategy 6: Assessment Strategies . Strategy 7: Be Purposeful When Asking Students to Answer Questions: There is Safety in Numbers Strategy 8: Flexible Fronts: Arranging your Classroom 9. Chapter Summary 10. Discussion Questions 2. 6. How Do | Know My Students Understand the Concepts? Assessment Strategies . Assessments With Conceptual Depth . Visible Thinking Routines Performance Assessment Tasks The Frayer Model . Concept Attainment Cards Agree, Disagree, and Depends . Zero, One, Two, or Three . Assessing and Developing Core Transdisciplinary Skills 10. Assessing the Developing Concept-Based Student 11. Self-Assessments 12. Chapter Summary 13. Discussion Questions 3. 7. How Do | Integrate Technology to Foster Conceptual Understanding? OPNAARONS Open Inquiry Tasks and Open-Ended Questions 1. Mathematics Graphing Software and Graphical Display Calculators . Flipped Classroom . Multimedia Projects . Collaboration Tools: Google Applications Apps on Mobile Devices When Not to Use Technology Chapter Summary . Discussion Questions 4. 8. What Do Ideal Concept-Based Mathematics ONAAAWNClassrooms Look Like? 1. Foster a Culture of Growth Mindset 2. Pedagogical Principles in an Ideal Classroom 3. Developing the Ideal Concept-Based Mathematics Lesson 4. Developing Concept-Based Lesson Planning in the Ideal Mathematics Classroom 5. Common Concerns and Misconceptions About Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction 6. Chapter Summary 7. Last Words 8. . Discussion Questions 10. Glossary 11. Teaching for Deep Understanding in Secondary Schools Book Study 12. References and Further Reading 13. IndexList of Figures Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Side by Side: The Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process 5 Figure 1.2 The Structure of Knowledge for Functions 6 Figure 1.3 The Structure of Process for Functions 8 Figure 1.4 The Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process for Functions, Side by Side 10 Figure 1.5 Inductive vs. Deductive Approaches 12 Figure 1.6 Two-Dimensional vs. Three-Dimensional Curriculum/Instruction Models 13 Figure 1.7 Developing Intellect Through Inquiry Process Continuum Model 14 Figure 1.8 Levels of Inquiry 16 Figure 1.9 Levels of Inquiry Hierarchy 16 Figure 1.10 Levels of Inquiry for Proving the Pythagorean Theorem Task 17 Figure 1.11 A Structured Inquiry Example 18 Figure 1.12 A Guided Inquiry Example 19 Figure 1.13 An Open Inquiry Example 20Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 The Structure of Knowledge for Trigonometry 26 Figure 2.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus in the Structure of Knowledge 29 Figure 2.3 The Structure of Process for Trigonometry 31 Figure 2.4 Comparison of Mathematics Processes in Different Parts of the World 33 Figure 2.5 The Six Mathematical Processes, Algorithms. Strategies, and Skills 35 Figure 2.6 An Example of a PEMDAS Algorithm 36 Figure 2.7 Examples of Six Mathematical Processes Broken Down Into Skills and Strategies 37 Figure 2.8 An Example of Reasoning and Proof 39 Figure 2.9 Number Talks Template 42 Figure 2.10 Example of a Student’s Number Talk 43 Figure 2.11 An Example of Making Connections and Creating Representations: Graphic Organizer for the Number System 46 Figure 2.12 The Different Uses of the Grid Method 50 Figure 2.13 Examples of Macro, Meso, and Micro Concepts in Mathematics 53 Figure 2.14 Examples of Micro Concepts in the International Baccalaureate Diploma Mathematics Courses 54 Figure 2.15 How Processes, Skills, and Facts Contribute to an Understanding of Concepts 55 Figure 2.16 Structures Example Side by Side for the Meso Concept Trigonometry 57 Figure 2.17 Table of Values 58Chapter 3 Figure 3.1 The Two Types of Enduring Understandings: Overarching and Topical 64 Figure 3.2 The Structure of Process for Equations 65 Figure 3.3 The Structure of Knowledge for Vectors 66 Figure 3.4 The Structure of Process for Logarithms 67 Figure 3.5 The Structure of Knowledge for Quadratics 68 Figure 3.6 Side by Side: The Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process for Quadratics 70 Figure 3.7 Scaffolding Template 71 Figure 3.8 Scaffolding Generalization for Sequences and Series 73 Figure 3.9 Scaffolding a Process Generalization 73 Figure 3.10 An Example of Inductive Inquiry to Draw a Generalization 75 Figure 3.11 An Example of a Graphic Organizer to Draw Generalizations From Students for Trigonometry 80 Figure 3.12 Strategies to Draw Generalizations From Students 81Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Unit Web for Functions 84 Figure 4.2 Examples of Conceptual Lenses for Mathematics 85 Figure 4.3 Generic Mathematics Unit Web Template 86 Figure 4.4 Step-by-Step Unit Planning Checklist 87 Figure 4.5 Examples of Debatable/Provocative Questions 89 Figure 4.6 Unit Planner for Functions 90 Figure 4.7 Weekly Planner for Functions 94 Figure 4.8 Teacher Notes for Coordinates Game 96 Figure 4.9 Unit Web for Circle Geometry 98 Figure 4.10 Unit Planner for Circle Geometry 99 Figure 4.11 Meso Concept: Calculus Unit Web 103 Figure 4.12 Unit Planner for Calculus 104 Figure 4.13 Calculus Weekly Planner 109 Figure 4.14 Gradients and Slopes 111 Figure 4.15 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 115 Figure 4.16 Stationary Points 116 Figure 4.17 The Product Rule 117 Figure 4.18 Real-Life Problems for Calculus 120 Figure 4.19 Student Solutions to Real-Life Problems for Calculus 123 Figure 4.20 Integration 126Chapter 5 Figure 5.1 Placemat Activity 132 Figure 5.2 An Example of a Structured Inquiry Task 136 Figure 5.3 An Example of a Guided Inquiry Task 141 Figure 5.4 Student's Response to a Structured Inquiry Task 142 Figure 5.5 Tri-Mind Activity on Functions 145 Figure 5.6 Student's Example of an Analytical Approach to Functions 146 Figure 5.7 Hint Cards for Functions 148 Figure 5.8 Know, Want, Learn Routine 149 Figure 5.9 The Learning Curve: When You Learn Something New... 150 Figure 5.10 No Front! An Example of How to Structure Your Classroom 153Chapter 6 Figure 6.1 Examples of Inquiry-Based Assessment Questions and Prompts 159 Figure 6.2 Examples of Visible Thinking Routines 161 Figure 6.3 More Examples of Visible Thinking Routines 162 Figure 6.4 Connect, Extend, Challenge Thinking Routine 163 Figure 6.5 Mathematics Performance Task on Linear Functions 166 Figure 6.6 Using the RAFTS Model to Design a Performance Task 166 Figure 6.7 Performance Task: Setting a Scenario 167 Figure 6.8 The Trigonometric Ratios of Similar Right-Angled Triangles 168 Figure 6.9 How to Use Trigonometry to Measure the Heights of Buildings 170 Figure 6.10 The Frayer Model Template 173 Figure 6.11 Example of the Frayer Model for Polygons 174 Figure 6.12 Table of Examples and Non-Examples for Rational Numbers 175 Figure 6.13 Probe for Agree, Disagree, or Depends 176 Figure 6.14 Assessing Approaches to Learning Skills 179 Figure 6.15 Rubric: The Developing Concept-Based Student 181 Figure 6.16 Example of a Self-Assessment Worksheet 183Chapter 7 Figure 7.1 SAMR Integration of Technology Model 189 Figure 7.2 The TPACK Model Framework 190 Figure 7.3 Using Graphing Software 193 Figure 7.4 Using Graphing Software for Circle Theorems 196 Figure 7.5 Flipped Classroom Lesson on Complex Numbers 200 Figure 7.6 Sine Curves Using Spaghetti 206 Figure 7.7 The Unit Circle 209 Figure 7.8 Triangle Inequality 213Chapter 8 Figure 8.1 Rubric: Concept-Based Instruction by Dr. Lois A. Lanning 222 Figure 8.2 Mastery Level for Concept- Based Lesson Planning 224 Figure 8.3 The Developing Concept-Based Teacher: Concept-Based Lesson Planning 225Book Study Resources A Participant's Metacognition Log 244Foreword H. Lynn Erickson How many times have you heard the lament, “I was so bad at mathematics in school?” Yet, those with an affinity for mathematics view it as a beautiful abstract language that cuts across fields of knowledge to solve problems, raise questions, explain mysteries, and create wondrous works of art. Jennifer Wathall is one of those people with this affinity. She desires to share her understanding and passion for mathematics with the world. How lucky we are! I wish all of my prior mathematics teachers had been able to read Jennifer’s book and learn from her. As I reflect on my years as a student and my mathematics education specifically, I remember feeling confused as we drilled on daily computations and struggled with word problems. I could do math but I did not understand math. In my own journey as a teacher, I came to realize the critical importance of conceptual understanding across all of the disciplines. Why had I not been trained to teach for deeper conceptual understanding? Secondary mathematics teachers across the world will appreciate reading Jennifer’s insights about the other half of the equation—the conceptual understanding of mathematics. In traditional mathematics education, we have “assumed” students understand the concepts of mathematics if they could perform the algorithms. It was a step forward as we required students to “explain their thinking” on mathematical problems, but this still did not ensure that students really understood the conceptual relationships inherent in the problem. Jennifer shows us that students need to demonstrate and verbalize their conceptual understanding of mathematics as well as apply it across multiple contexts. Concept-Based Mathematics: Teaching for Deep Understanding in Secondary Classrooms is a clear explanation of the content and process structures of mathematics supported by salient examples. Jennifer provides practical, engaging, and meaningful learning experiences that draw students to the beauty and power of mathematical concepts and their relationships. One of the strengths of concept-based curriculum and instruction models is that they are not “programs.” They are the explicit expression of thepreviously implied design principles for quality curriculum design and pedagogy. They overlay any curriculum and instruction model and should not be a choice. They are the principles that ensure deeper conceptual thinking and the transfer of understandings through time, across Cultures, and across situations. Whether school curricula are textbook based or teacher developed, they must reflect the three- dimensional design principles expressed in this book and other books on concept-based curriculum and instruction, or they will remain a lower level, two-dimensional design model—coverage of facts and skills. This book is cutting edge. It is the next step to bring mathematics education into the 21st century. It needs to be in the hand of every secondary mathematics teacher and teacher educator. All students deserve to experience the wonder and passion for mathematics that Jennifer so obviously feels. It is time to change the age-old lament to empowering testimonials—“I love mathematics!” “I can use mathematics every day to think and create!” “Math is fun!” “I get math!”Preface Purpose of the Book Traditional curriculum focuses on rules and procedures with little understanding of the conceptual relationships of mathematics—and mathematics is a language of conceptual relationships. Traditional curriculum assumes the deep understanding of concepts and fails to teach for transferability or to consider context. This book expands and develops the work of Lynn Erickson and Lois Lanning on concept-based curriculum into the realm of mathematics. When learning math, students need to be given time and space to explore and discover the beauty and creativity in math without being fearful of mistakes. Math anxiety exists because of an overemphasis on the processes and skills of this discipline. This book addresses how to create concept-based and inquiry-led curriculum and instruction with a goal to make math enjoyable and accessible to all of our students. Concept-based curriculum is a three-dimensional design model of curriculum and instruction that frames factual content and skills and processes with disciplinary concepts, generalizations, and principles. In concept-based curriculum and instruction, the development of intellect is achieved through higher order, synergistic thinking in which teachers use the facts, processes, and skills in concert with the concepts, generalizations, and principles. A traditional two-dimensional design model for curriculum and instruction focuses on factual content, processes, and skills and assumes conceptual understanding. The research and consensus on the benefits of developing conceptual understanding is undeniable. Concept-based curriculum produces deeper emotional and intellectual engagement in learning and therefore develops attributes such as critical thinking, reasoning, and creativity. The intention of this book is to extend the work of Lynn Erickson and Lois Lanning on the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process specifically to mathematics and to help math educators understand how to convey mathematical concepts and ideas using the vehicle of inquiry. All definitions used in the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process derive from the work of Lynn Erickson and Lois Lanning. We need to help students understand that everyone is capable doing math andit is not a matter of whether you can or can’t do math. This book expands and develops the work of Lynn Erickson and Lois Lanning on concept-based curriculum into the realm of mathematics. Special Features Special features include sample lessons, samples of student work, vignettes from international educators, and discussion questions that may be used in a book study with fellow teachers or in a professional development setting. As an individual teacher or as part of a study group, read each chapter and use the discussion questions at the end of each chapter to reflect on your own practice. Metacognition logs are included at the end of the book, to help you to process, synthesize, and self-reflect on each chapter of the book. There is a chapter on integrating technology to enhance learning and conceptual understanding (Chapter 7) and a Glossary to guide you through the terms used in the book. The main text is accompanied by a suite of free online resources, which include more sample instructional units and templates for worksheets that foster deeper conceptual understanding of particular math topics for secondary school. After reading this book, you will be able to focus instruction on deeper conceptual understandings and equip students for future success. It will provide you with practical examples of concept-based lessons, unit webs, unit planners, and different assessment tools to enable you to develop a concept-based approach to your curriculum and instruction. Concept-based mathematics is grounded in the philosophy that in order to develop intellect, instruction and curriculum needs to focus on the big ideas or conceptual understandings. This can be achieved through instructional practice and designing tasks that do not sacrifice the content or rigor of any prescribed syllabus. In fact, concept-based curriculum challenges students to employ higher order thinking skills. Concept- based curriculum can overlay any curriculum, such as the Common Core State Standards and Basal curriculum (United States), GCSE and A Levels (UK), as well as the International Baccalaureate Middle Years (MYP) and Diploma (DP) mathematics programs. In this ever changing, dynamic and complex world, mathematicseducation must engage students intellectually and emotionally. The ability to think conceptually, transfer understandings across contexts and situations, and to enjoy learning and problem solving are major goals for mathematics education today so we can prepare our students for future success. Technological advancements of even the last decade have influenced instruction, and the key to utilizing technology effectively is not what tool is being used but how the technology is used to enhance learning. Thope this book inspires you on your journey to develop conceptual understanding in your students and to eradicate math anxiety and fear by fostering a growth mindset. I hope you will join me on this journey for this much-needed math education reform. In this ever changing, dynamic and complex world, mathematics education must engage students intellectually and emotionally. How to Use the Companion Website http://www.resources.corwin.com/WathallConceptBasedMathematics © The companion website offers the following resources to supplement this book: © Straightforward activities designed to help teachers understand and apply concept-based curriculum and instruction; e¢ Examples that model each aspect of concept-based curricula; ¢ Blank templates for designing unit planners and writing quality generalizations; ¢ Guiding questions to help you and your book study group to reflect on the process of implementation and next steps; e¢ A metacognition log: a powerful tool for self-reflection that focuses on the end-of-chapter discussion questions in this book.If you are working with a book study group or PLC, you might want to upload the activities, templates, companion website discussion questions, and the metacognition log to a cloud on an app such as Google Drive so that you can share your personal written reflections with your team as you write them. Here are some suggestions for how an individual educator can use the website: Read Concept-Based Mathematics: Teaching for Deep Understanding in Secondary Schools, ensuring you address the discussion questions at the end of each chapter, and write a reflection on the metacognition log template. You can write your reflections on a piece of paper, on your personal computer, or you can upload them to a cloud to share with your book study group. Make notes on areas you would like to develop from the main book. Go through the website, using the templates to create your own examples, and answer the discussion questions. Think about a unit of work you would like to develop to ensure more conceptual understanding and use the templates to support your planning. Trial your ideas in the classroom and modify accordingly. Share with colleagues. Here are some suggestions for how a group of educators can use the website as a book study. Read one chapter a week and meet with the book study group to discuss them. Read a chapter of Concept-Based Mathematics: Teaching for Deep Understanding in Secondary Schools and write a reflection in the metacognition log. Share your metacognition log notes, one chapter at a time, with your book study group. Use the discussion questions from each chapter to stimulate sharing of ideas during your meetings with your study group. Go through the website, using the templates to create yourown examples. ¢ Think about a unit of work you would like to develop to ensure more conceptual understanding, and use the templates to support your planning. This could be a collaborative effort with three or four other teachers. ¢ Trial your ideas in the classroom. ¢ Share and review your unit planners with colleagues, either in person or in a cloud. Audience Drawn from my 24 years as an international educator and presenter, this book will uncover the secrets to help all students in middle and high school understand how to convey the conceptual language of mathematics. This book is intended for middle and high school teachers, trainee teachers in undergraduate education programs, and graduate education courses ranging from bachelor of education, diploma in education, to masters in arts specializing in education. Chapter Overview Part I (Chapters 1 and 2) of this book discusses what a concept-based curriculum looks like for mathematics and explains, in detail, Lynn Erickson’s Structure of Knowledge and Lois Lanning’s Structure of Process applied to the topic of functions. Examples of levels of inquiry (structured and guided) and inductive teaching are given. The key to inductive teaching is that students draw and form generalizations by working on specific examples initially. Part II (Chapters 3 and 4) guides readers in the practice of applying concept-based curriculum and instruction to math. Chapter 3 deals with crafting generalizations, which are statements of conceptual understanding. Lynn Erickson provides a three-step guide to writing quality generalizations, which are statements of what we want our students to understand from their program of study. Chapter 4 includes models of unit webs and unit planners. Part III (Chapters 5 through 8) looks at instructional strategies to intellectually and emotionally engage students to ensure deep conceptual understanding. Chapter 5 discusses eight strategies for lesson planningand captivating your students’ hearts and minds. Chapter 6 looks into more detail about formative assessment strategies to track student learning. Chapter 7 discusses how to integrate technology effectively and gives practical activities and digital tools that support conceptual understanding. These tools include using mathematical graphing software, flipped classroom models, multimedia projects, collaborative digital tools, and various educational apps for the classroom. Chapter 8 looks at the elements of an ideal math classroom. It includes rubrics to support the developing concept-based teacher and for developing concept-based instruction. Chapter 8 also addresses common concerns and misconceptions about concept-based curriculum and instruction. After reading this book, e You will have a better understanding of the benefits of a concept-based instructional design model; e You will be able to overlay a concept-based curriculum and instruction model onto any curriculum and implement it in your classroom; and ¢ You will have ideas and resources to engage your students and increase their conceptual understanding and enjoyment of mathematics.Acknowledgments There are very few people you meet who have such an impact on your life as H. Lynn Erickson has had on mine. I feel so fortunate that Lynn has chosen me to mentor and guide me through my journey into concept- based mathematics. I will forever be indebted for the care, time, and dedication she has shown me during the writing of this book. Lynn: You are a remarkable educator and you have been a wonderful role model for me, helping me believe that anything is possible. Thank you for showing me that I am only at the beginning of my journey in education. I wish to also thank the following people: Lois Lanning for giving me a different perspective, challenging me to think, and for her friendship; Erin Null for believing in this project and giving me invaluable advice; Desirée Bartlett for her patience, support, and hard work; My mother, Mei, who has always been a pillar of strength for me; My sons, Jordan and Jacob, who constantly surprise me with their achievements and who make me feel so proud to be their mother every day; My husband, Ken, who was extremely patient when he mostly got one-word answers to any conversations during the writing of this book. Without his love and support | would not be the person | am today. Additional Acknowledgements Thank you to Marjut Maenpaa for sharing the idea of the grid method and its application to more challenging problems. Thank you to Dr. Eileen Dietrich for giving me the sine curve spaghetti idea and Rowdy Boeyink for improving on this worksheet. Thank you Dr. Daniela Vasile for sharing your wonderfulideas on mathematics teaching with me. Thank you Suman Vaze for sharing your beautiful artwork with the world and me. You should be very proud of everything you have achieved in your life. Thank you Paul Chillingworth and Isaac Youssef for giving me valuable reviewer feedback. Publisher’s Acknowledgments Corwin gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the following reviewers: Paul Chillingworth Mathematics Advisor, Maths in Education and Industry Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK Jason Cushner School Reform Organizer Eagle Rock School and Rowland Foundation Estes Park, CO Barbara Fox Adjunct Professor, Student Teacher Supervisor University of Massachusetts Boston, MA David Horton Assistant Superintendent Hemet Unified School District Hemet, CAAmanda McKee High School Math Instructor Florence School District #5 Johnsonville, SC Dave Nagel Corwin Author Consultant Zionsville, IN Pamela L. Opel Teacher, Intervention Specialist Gulfport School District Gulfport, MS Jamalee Stone Associate Professor of Mathematics Education Black Hills State University Spearfish, SD Morris White High School Math Teacher Alamosa High School Alamosa, CO Isaac Youssef Higher Level Senior Moderator International BaccalaureateAuckland, New ZealandAbout the Author Jennifer T. H. Wathall has been a teacher of mathematics for more than 20 years. She graduated from the University of Sydney with a BSc majoring in mathematics and completed postgraduate Studies at the University of Hong Kong. She has worked in several international schools, including South Island School, Hong Kong; The United Nations International School (UNIS), New York; and she is currently working at Island School, Hong Kong as head of mathematics. In the international arena, she has presented workshops such as “How to Effectively Integrate Multimedia into the Classroom” at the 21st Century Conference in Hong Kong and Shanghai and the Asian Technology Conference in Mathematics, Bangkok and Beijing. She has also given talks around Asia about how to effectively integrate a 1:1 program into the mathematics classroom. As a qualified Intemational Baccalaureate workshop leader (‘Mathematics, Concepts, and Inquiry in the Diploma Program and Approaches to Teaching and Leaming”), Jennifer has delivered numerous workshops in the Asia Pacific region. Her role as a field representative for the IB Asia Pacific serves as part of the quality assurance framework. She has consulted for IB mathematics textbooks and has developed an IB Category 3 workshop on “The Use of the Casio GDC in IB Mathematics.” Jennifer has deliveredpresentations at the IB Asia Pacific Conference (“Using Inquiry in the IB Mathematics Classroom’) and at the IB Americas Annual Conference (“Concept-Based Mathematics”). Currently she is part of the external curriculum review group for IB diploma mathematics based in The Hague and Cardiff. As an expert in IB mathematics, Jennifer serves as an honorary faculty advisor and part-time instructor for the University of Hong Kong. She is a certified trainer in the DISC™ behavior assessment tool, and she is a certified independent consultant in Concept-Based Curriculum Design by Dr. H. Lynn Erickson. Jennifer works as a consultant helping math departments and schools transition to concept-based curriculum and instruction. She utilizes her skills as a certified performance coach to facilitate transition and change.Author’s Note I was born to be a teacher. I love being in the classroom and just spending time with my students with the goal of inspiring a love for learning. Nothing excites me more than seeing those light bulb moments during a lesson when students have a gleam in their eye because they get it. That gleam tells me my students understand on a deeper level than what a textbook or video can explain. I have been so lucky that all of my life I knew what my vocation would be. My father fostered my love of learning and teaching, as he was a teacher himself. He taught English in the air force before joining the diplomatic corps. He read to me most nights: sometimes Jane Austen or Charles Dickens and sometimes famous Chinese fables to teach me about Chinese culture and history. He was patient, intelligent, and possessed a lifelong thirst for knowledge. His passing in July 2014 inspired me to complete my two years of research and to write this book. Math education needs to change. Too many students have been scarred for life because of their negative experiences in math classrooms. Everybody can do math in an environment focused on conceptual understanding and a growth mindset. I hope to start a revolution in math classrooms and help teachers to think and reflect about what they are teaching. What do we want our students to learn and understand, and what is mathematics? Is it a discipline of processes? Mathematics comes from the Greek word mdthe-ma, which means “that which is learnt.” In Modern Greek, mdthe-ma means “to learn.” Math lessons need to focus on learning and not on performing. Many mathematicians have different interpretations of what mathematics is. Below are my favorite quotes from mathematicians. Pure mathematics is, in its way, the poetry of logical ideas. —Albert Einstein, German-born theoretical physicist and 1921 Nobel Prize winner, 1879-1955 Nature’s great book is written in mathematics. —Galileo Galilei; Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, andphilosopher; 1564-1642 Mathematics is the queen of sciences and number theory is the queen of mathematics. She often condescends to render service to astronomy and other natural sciences, but in all relations she is entitled to the first rank. —Carl Friedrich Gauss; German mathematician, physicist, and prodigy; 1777-1855 A mathematician, like a painter or poet, is a maker of patterns. If his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas. —Godfrey H. Hardy, English mathematician known for his achievements in number theory and mathematical analysis, 1877— 1947 Mathematics is a more powerful instrument of knowledge than any other that has been bequeathed to us by human agency. —René Descartes; French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer; 1596-1650 The essence of mathematics is not to make simple things complicated, but to make complicated things simple. —Stan Gudder, mathematics professor, University of Denver Whenever I am in a social situation and tell someone I am a math teacher, I receive one of two reactions: anxiety alongside an alarming panic, with people expressing how much they hated math at school; and the less common response—how much they loved math—which begins a lively conversation about the usefulness of math. The first response saddens me. How can mathematics elicit such fear and negativity? English, art, and even science teachers do not elicit such strong emotions in people. A longstanding tradition sees mathematics as an elusive discipline that few could comprehend. Many people recall negativeexperiences when learning mathematics that have instilled fear of the discipline. Timed tasks, rote memorization of formulae with little conceptual understanding, and a focus on performance have created math fear and reinforce these negative experiences. As a person who made mathematics education her career, I fortunately did not have those negative experiences as a child. I loved the challenge of puzzles and problems that were presented and possessed a passion for mathematics throughout my school life. When I was 12 years old, my mother took me to a fortune teller in Taiwan who looked into my eyes and said I would follow my passion to become a math teacher. Who knows if the fortune teller could really tell, but from that day as a child, I felt I knew my destiny and have been fortunate enough to be able to share my joy for math education well into my third decade.In loving memory of my father, David Kuo Cheng Chang, who inspired me to be a lifelong learner 1929-2014Part I What Is Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction in Mathematics? Research and TheoryChapter 1 Why Is It Important for My Students to Learn Conceptually? Around the world, mathematics is highly valued and great importance is placed on learning mathematics. Private tutors in non-Asian countries serve a remedial purpose, whereas in Asia, everyone has a tutor for providing an increased knowledge base and skill development practice. Many students in Asia enroll in programs like “Kumon,” which focus on practicing skills (which has its place) and “doing” math rather than “doing and understanding” math. When you ask students who are well rehearsed in skills to problem solve and apply their understanding to different contexts, they struggle. The relationship between the facts, skills, and conceptual understandings is one that needs to be developed if we want our students to be able to apply their skills and knowledge to different contexts and to utilize higher order thinking. Why Do We Need to Develop Curriculum and Instruction to Include the Conceptual Level? According to Daniel Pink (2005), author of A Whole New Mind, we now live in the Conceptual Age. It is unlike the Agricultural Age, Information Age, or the Industrial Age because we no longer rely on the specialist content knowledge of any particular person. The Conceptual Age requires individuals to be able to critically think, problem solve, and adapt to new environments by utilizing transferability of ideas. “And now we’re progressing yet again—to a society of creators and empathizers, of pattern recognizers and meaning makers” (Pink, 2005, p. 50). Gao and Bao (2012) conducted a study of 256 college-level calculus students. Their findings show that students who were enrolled in concept-based learning environments scored higher than students enrolled in traditional learning environments. Students in the concept-based learning courses also liked the approaches more. A better grasp of concepts results in increased understanding and transferability. With the exponential growth of information and the digital revolution, success in this modern age requires efficient processing of new information and a higher level of abstraction. Frey and Osborne (2013) report that in the next two decades, 47% of jobs in the United States will no longer exist due to automation and computerization. The conclusion is that we do not know what new jobs may be created in the next two decades. Did cloud service specialists, android developers, or even social marketing companies exist 10 years ago? How will we prepare our students for the future? How will our students be ableto stand out? What do employers want from their employees? It is no longer about having a wider knowledge base in any one area. Hart Research Associates (2013) report the top skills that employers seek are the following: Critical thinking and problem solving, Collaboration (the ability to work in a team), Communication (oral and written), and The ability to adapt to a changing environment. How do we develop curriculum and instruction to prepare our students for the future? ‘We owe our students more than asking them to memorize hundreds of procedures. Allowing them the joy of discovering and using mathematics for themselves, at whichever level they are able, is surely a more engaging, interesting and mind-expanding way of learning. Those “A-ha” moments that you see on their faces; that’s why we are teachers. David Sanda, Head of Mathematics Chinese International School, Hong Kong The Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process Knowledge has a structure like other systems in the natural and constructed world. Structures allow us to classify and organize information. In a report titled Foundations for Success, the U.S. National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008) discussed three facets of mathematical learning: the factual, the procedural, and the conceptual. These facets are illustrated in the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process, developed by Lynn Erickson (2008) and Lois Lanning (2013). The Structure of Knowledge is a graphical representation of the relationship between the topics and facts, the concepts that are drawn from the content under study, and the generalization and principles that express conceptual relationships (transferable understandings). The top level in the structure is Theory. Theory describes a system of conceptual ideas that explain a practice or phenomenon. Examples include the Big Bang theory and Darwin’s theory of evolution.The Structure of Process is the complement to the Structure of Knowledge. It is a graphical representation of the relationship between the processes, strategies, skills and concepts, generalizations, and principles in process-driven disciplines like English language arts, the visual and performing arts, and world languages. For all disciplines, there is interplay between the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process, with particular disciplines tipping the balance beam toward one side or another, depending on the purpose of the instructional unit. The Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process are complementary models. Content-based disciplines such as science and history are more knowledge based, so the major topics are supported by facts. Process-driven disciplines such as visual and performing arts, music, and world languages rely on the skills and strategies of that discipline. For example, in language and literature, processes could include the writing process, reading process, or oral communication, which help to understand the author’s craft, reader’s craft, or the listener’s craft. These process-driven understandings help us access and analyze text concepts or ideas. Both structures have concepts, principles, and generalizations, which are positioned above the facts, topics, or skills and strategies. Figure 1.1 illustrates both structures. Figure 1.1 can also be found on the companion website, to print out and use as a reference. © The Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process for Functions Mathematics can be taught from a purely content-driven perspective. For example, functions can be taught just by looking at the facts and content; however, this does not support learners to have complete conceptual understanding. There are also processes in mathematics that need to be practiced and developed that could also reinforce the conceptual understandings. Ideally it is a marriage of the two, which promotes deeper conceptual understanding. Figure 1.2 illustrates the Structure of Knowledge for the topic of functions. Topics organize a set of facts related to specific people, places, situations, or things. Unlike history, for example, mathematics is an inherently conceptual language, so “Topics” in the Structure of Knowledge are actually broader concepts, which break down into micro-concepts at the next level. Figure 1.1: Side by Side: The Structure of Knowledge and the Structure ofProcess Structure of Knowledge Structure of Process Erickson, @ 1995 Lanning, © 2012 THEORY PRINCIPLE PRINCIPLE GENERALIZATION GENERALIZATION © 2014 H. Lynn Erickson and Lois A. Lanning Transitioning to Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. As explained by Lynn Erickson (2007), “The reason mathematics is structured differently from history is that mathematics is an inherently conceptual language of concepts, subconcepts, and their relationships. Number, pattern, measurement, statistics, and so on are the broadest conceptual organizers” (p. 30). More about concepts in mathematics will be discussed in Chapter 2.Facts are specific examples of people, places, situations, or things. Facts do not transfer and are locked in time, place, or a situation. In the functions example seen in Figure 1.2, the facts are y = mx + c, y= ax? + bx +c, and so on. The factual content in mathematics refers to the memorization of definitions, vocabulary, or formulae. When my student knows the fact that y = mx + c, this does not mean she understands the concepts of linear relationship, y-intercept, and gradient. According to Daniel Willingham (2010), automatic factual retrieval is crucial when solving complex mathematical problems because they have simpler problems embedded in them. Facts are the critical content we wish our students to know, but they do not themselves provide evidence of deep conceptual understanding. Figure 1 he Structure of Knowledge for Functions Structure of Knowledge Erickson, © 1995. PRINCIPLE GENERALIZATION cubic, exponential memorized y=mx+e vocabulary, yead+bxte definitions, formulse, mathematical symbolsAdapted from original Structure of Knowledge figure from Transitioning to Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. Formulae, in the form of symbolic mathematical facts, support the understanding of functions. This leads to a more focused understanding of the concepts of linear functions, quadratic functions, cubic functions, exponential functions, variables, and algebraic structures in Figure 1.2. The generalization “Functions contain algebraic structures that describe the relationship between two variables based on real-world situations” is our ultimate goal for conceptual understanding related to the broad concept of functions. Please take a look at the companion website for more examples of the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process on the topic of linear functions. See Figures M1.1 and M1.2. © Concepts are mental constructs, which are timeless, universal, and transferable across time or situations. Concepts may be broad and abstract or more conceptually specific to a discipline. “Functions” is a broader concept, and the micro-concepts at the next level are algebraic structures, variables, linear, quadratic, cubic, and exponential. Above the concepts in Figure 1.2 are the principles and generalizations. Principles and generalizations are transferable understandings that allow students to make connections between two or more concepts. In mathematics, the principles are the theorems, the cornerstone truths. Though generalizations and principles are both statements of conceptual relationship, the principles do not contain a qualifier such as often, can, or may because they are immutable “truths” as we know them. Because generalizations do not rise to the level of a law or theorem, they may require a qualifier if they do not hold true in all cases. Principles and generalizations are often exemplified in a real-life context for mathematics; however, they are not exclusively portrayed in this way. In Figure 1.2, another generalization could have been the following: “Algebraic tools allow highly complex problems to be solved and displayed in a way that provides a powerful image of change over time” (Fuson, Kalchman, & Bransford, 2005, p. 351). Although the Structure of Knowledge provides the deep understanding of the content of mathematics, the processes, strategies, and skills also provide important conceptual understanding. The Structure of Process represents the procedural facet of learning mathematics. Processes, skills, and strategies are included in the lowest levelsin the Structure of Process. “Skills are smaller operations or actions that are embedded in strategies, and when appropriately applied ‘allow’ the strategies to work. Skills underpin a more complex strategy” (Lanning, 2013, p. 19). Strategies are systematic plans that learners consciously adapt and monitor to improve learning performance. As explained by Erickson and Lanning (2014), “Strategies are complex because many skills are situated within a strategy. In order to effectively employ a strategy, one must have control over a variety of the skills that support the strategy.” (p. 46). An example of a strategy in math would be making predictions or drawing conclusions. Processes are actions that produce results. A process is continuous and moves through stages during which inputs (materials, information, people’s advice, time, etc.) may transform or change the way a process flows. A process defines what is to be done—for example, the writing process, the reading process, the digestive process, the respiratory process, and so on. Figure 1.3 illustrates an example of the mathematical process of creating representations and the generalizations associated with this mathematical process. Throughout this functions unit, students will learn different strategies and skills that support the process of creating representations. This could include using a table of values or an algebraic or geometric form of a function. Concepts that can be drawn from this process include substitution, revision, interpretation, and models. Two or more of the concepts are used to write unit generalizations, which are also known as process generalizations. The process generalizations in Figure 1.3 are as follows: Mathematicians create different representations—table of values, algebraic, geometrical—to compare and analyze equivalent functions. The revision of a mathematical model or substitution of data may enhance or distort an accurate interpretation of a problem. When students are guided to these generalizations, they demonstrate their understanding of the creating representations process. Figure 1.3: Structure of Process Example for Functions‘or substitution of data may PRINCIPLE enhance or distort an accurate GENERALIZATION interpretation of a problem © Substitution © Interpretation * Revision * Mathematical Models * Variables * Representations, e.g., table of values, algebraic, geometrical * Equivalence Creating Representations Adapted from original Structure of Process figure from Transitioning to Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. Other strategies and skills, such as graphing and analytical skills, support the process of creating representations. This process supports the concepts of mathematical models, substitution, interpretation, revision, variables, equivalence, and so on. In Figure 1.4, we look at the dual part that the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process each play in ensuring a deep understanding of content and process in mathematics. For the concept of functions, we include the content that needs to be learned as well as the skills and strategies that are employed fluently to aid the process of creating representations. The ability to employstrategies and skills fluently is referred to as procedural fluency. Visit the companion website to see additional summaries of the components of the Structures of Knowledge and Process. See Figures M1.3 and M1.4. © To help understand the generalization “Functions contain algebraic structures that describe the relationship between two variables based on real-world situations,” we work to ensure the conceptual relationships are revealed. The concepts of algebraic structures, variables, linear, quadratic, and cubic help us connect the facts to give mathematical content more meaning and promote deeper understanding. The mathematical process involved is creating representations, and it supports the understanding of the concepts substitution, interpretation, revision, variables, mathematical models, and equivalence. Mathematical processes will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. Generalizations are statements that connect two or more concepts. The language of mathematics is different to languages like English and Chinese. There are things that are strictly allowed and there are things that are strictly not. It is the formal nature of the language that often causes confusion and errors in learners. However, overemphasis on the formality, and some teachers are only concerned with practicing formal exercises, prevents understanding of the beauty, creativity, and utility of mathematics. Chris Binge, Principal Island School, Hong Kong Applying the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process Inductive vs. Deductive Teaching In my first years of teaching, it was common practice in the mathematics classroom to adopt the PPP model (presentation, practice, and production) of deductive, teacher-led instruction. The PPP approach typically looks like this: Step 1: Teacher introduces the formula, such as the Pythagorean theorem, and demonstrates three working examples.Step 2: Ask students to practice using the formula. Step 3: Ask students to produce their own examples. Figure 1.4: The Structure of Knowledge and The Structure of Process for the Topic Functions, Side by Side Structure af Krawladge Structura of Process Frikann, & 1008, Lanning 2012 PRINCIPLE. GENERALIZATION [concepts Tl Concapts ] Strategies Skills yosinx Adapted from original Structure of Knowledge and Structure of Process figures from Transitioning to Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. The two-dimensional model of instruction, which focuses on the facts and content of the subject and the rote memorization of procedures and topics, is intellectually shallow. A two-dimensional curriculum and instruction model focuses on the bottom levels of the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process. This encourages students to work at a low-order level of thinking (such as memorization of facts or perfunctory performance of lower level skills) in a content/skill-based, coverage-centered curriculum. A two- dimensional model often presents the generalization or new concepts at the beginning of the learning cycle and follows a direct teaching methodology. This is typical of a deductive approach in teaching. I have witnessed many, many lessons utilizing this approach, and to me, this is like telling our students what the present is before they open it! The concept-based model is generally an inductive teaching model that draws the understandings from the students asa result of structured or guided inquiry. An inductive approach, like mathematical induction, allows learners to start with specific examples and form generalizations for themselves. In his research on how the brain learns mathematics, David Sousa (2015) states that the human brain is a powerful pattern seeker, and we have an innate number sense or what scientists call “numerosity.” The inductive approach utilizes this innate quality for number sense and pattern finding. The teacher acts as a facilitator, helping students to discover relationships and seek patterns for themselves. The three-dimensional model of instruction suggests a more sophisticated design with a third level: the conceptual level. In a three-dimensional curriculum and instruction model, the lower levels of the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process are important components, but the third dimension of concepts, principles, and generalizations ensures that conceptual thinking and understanding are prominent. A three-dimensional, inductive approach encourages students to construct generalizations at the end of the learning cycle through the use of inquiry. As stated by Erickson and Lanning (2014), “Deep understanding and the transfer of knowledge and skills require that teachers understand the relationship between the factual/skill level and the conceptual level, and use this relationship effectively in instruction” (p. 23). Figure 1.5 illustrates the difference between inductive and deductive approaches. Figure 1.5: Inductive vs. Deductive Approaches Deductive Approach Students are given the Students then practice the generalizations at the generalizations through beginning of a lesson specific examples Inductive Approach Students are given Students construct specific examples at the generalizations from beginning of the lesson An inductive model is a student-centered approach, helping students to think logically and scientifically and allowing students to generalize by utilizing higher order thinking. Discovering inductive approaches changed my entire teaching practice and influences every student learning experience I plan for my students. The inductive approach provides a framework; it is a structure for all mathematical concepts to be conveyed to students in an analytical, coherent fashion. The key to inductive teaching is that students draw and form generalizations by working on specific examples initially.Introducing the Pythagorean theorem utilizing an inductive approach would look like this: 1. Look at the following right-angled triangles and work out the squares of each of the sides. (Students work out specific numerical examples.) 2. What generalization can you make about the relationship between all three sides when they are squared? (Students now generalize by pattern seeking.) Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000) offer a comprehensive survey of neurological and psychological research that provides strong support for constructivism and inductive methods. “All new learning involves transfer of information based on previous learning” (p. 53). Inductive instruction presents new information in the context of situations, issues, and problems to which students can relate, so there is a much greater chance that the information can be linked to their existing cognitive structures. John D. Bransford et al. (2000) explain, “Motivation to learn affects the amount of time students are willing to devote to learning. Learners are more motivated when they can see the usefulness of what they are learning and when they can use it to do something that has an impact on others” (p. 61). Inductive methods, such as problem-based learning, support techniques that use authentic situations and problems. Generalizations and principles in the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process are timeless, universal, transcend cultures, and are transferable ideas. They allow the learner to connect the facts and concepts for deeper meaning and understanding. The three-dimensional model of curriculum and instruction, according to Erickson and Lanning (2014), includes concepts, generalizations, and principles to ensure that curriculum and instruction focus on intellectual depth, the transfer of understanding, and the development of conceptual brain schemata. The three-dimensional model is contrasted with the traditional two-dimensional model of coverage and memorization. Figure 1.6 illustrates the two-dimensional model, also known as the “inch deep, mile wide” approach to curriculum. In contrast, the three-dimensional model represents a more comprehensive, sophisticated design for curriculum and instruction. Figure 1.6: Two-Dimensional vs. Three-Dimensional Curriculum/Instruction Models28 CURRICULOM/INSTRECTION TOPIC/SKILL-BASED MADEL 310 CURRICLUM/IN STRUCTION CONCIPT-BASEH MODEL versus Transitioning to Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. Inductive approaches lead to generalization formation. Teaching for Inquiry Inquiry is a vehicle and is about not telling students what the surprise is before opening the present. I have met many teachers in my travels, and often I hear the following about inquiry: “| don’t have time for inquiry! | need to get through the content!” “| have inquiry lessons once per week!” “Inquiry just doesn’t work with my students; they need to be spoon fed!” “Inquiry does not work for my students; they do not have the ability!”Inquiry refers to posing questions, problems, or scenarios rather than providing established facts or knowledge. Inquiry means to seek truth, information, or knowledge, and individuals carry out the natural process of inquiry throughout their lives. Unfortunately, traditional curriculum discourages inquiry; students learn not to ask questions and to accept facts that are given. A study by Gelman, Gruber, and Ranganath (2014) found that learning is more effective when students are curious. Memory is also enhanced when students are in a state of curiosity. Inquiry encourages curiosity in students by posing questions to engage thought and interest. Through inquiry and a variety of pedagogical approaches, such as cooperative and problem-based learning, students can develop skills for success while understanding the concepts involved (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008). Lynn Erickson encapsulates this idea as follows: “Information without intellect is meaningless.” Figure 1.7 illustrates the synergistic relationship between the facts, skills, and concepts all being achieved through a continuum of inquiry. In order to develop intellect in our students we need to establish synergistic thinking through the inquiry continuum. Figure 1.7: Developing Intellect Through Inquiry Process Continuum Model Inquiry Process Continuum aE MC Le tac Petite) Lor) and Skills Understandings be Know, Do ¢mmm> Understand © 2016 Jennifer WathallErickson and Lanning (2014) state that “Synergistic thinking requires the interaction of factual knowledge and concepts. Synergistic thinking requires a deeper level of mental processing and leads to an increased understanding of the facts related to concepts, supports personal meaning making, and increases motivation for learning” (p. 36). The vehicle of inquiry is used to foster synergistic thinking. The design of guiding questions in the form of factual, conceptual, and debatable questions also supports synergistic thinking and allows students to bridge the gap between the facts and skills and conceptual understandings. For additional resources, visit the companion website where you will find an example of a traditional activity as well as guidance on how to facilitate synergistic thinking and a template to plan a synergistic student activity of your own. See Figures M1.6 & M1.7. © As an example, in order to understand the concepts of linear functions, parameters, and variables, one must know facts, such as y = mx + c or Ax + By +(C=0, and be able to plot points and create different representations. The inquiry process would ask students to investigate linear functions for different values for the parameters m and c. This supports the understanding of the concepts of linear, parameters, variables, and functions. Inquiry also stimulates student motivation and interest and leads to a deeper understanding of transferable concepts. I have had the pleasure of working with Mike Ollerton, a pioneer in inquiry- based learning of mathematics from the United Kingdom. In his short piece on “Enquiry-Based Learning” (2013) he writes, “The underpinning pedagogy of enquiry-based learning (EBL) is for learners to gain and to use & apply knowledge in ways which places responsibility for the learning upon students. This is at the heart of supporting independent learning and requires the teacher become a facilitator of students’ knowledge construction; as a key aspect of sense making.” Different levels of inquiry are used as appropriate to the context and classroom situation. Figure 1.8 describes the levels of inquiry, adapted from the work of Andrew Blair (http://www. inquirymaths.com). Figure 1.9 shows the hierarchy of the levels of inquiry. The triangle represents the progression of inquiry levels, which can start off being quite narrow and structured, then move to a guided approach, and then ultimately to open inquiry, giving all students more opportunities to explore. The three levels of inquiry—structured, guided, and open—originated in thelearning approaches of science-based disciplines (Banchi & Bell, 2008). The important questions here are why and when do we use the different levels of inquiry? Figure 1.8: Levels of Inquiry Tere Structured * Heavily scaffolded * Predictable line of inquiry + Predictable outcomes Guided * Different lines of inquiry * Predictable outcomes Open Different lines of inquiry ¢ Unpredictable outcomes Figure 1.9: Levels of Inquiry Hierarchy Open Inquiry Guided Inquiry Structured Inquiry Structured inquiry is heavily scaffolded and suitable perhaps for learners and teachers who are new to inquiry. Structured inquiry fosters confidence in learners while promoting autonomy and independence. Teachers who are not accustomed to using inquiry find it difficult to “let go” of control, and structured inquiry provides a happy medium. The outcomes are predictable and predetermined by the design of the task. Guided inquiry presents learners with opportunities for different lines of inquiry, with predicable outcomes. For example, ask students for different methods to prove a particular theorem (e.g., the Pythagorean theorem). Guided inquiry has fewer prompts and gives the learner more freedom to choose his orher own pathways to the desired outcome. Open inquiry promotes different lines of inquiry with unpredictable outcomes. Truly authentic, open inquiry engages the learner’s interest and creativity. For example, the International Baccalaureate Mathematics Standard and Higher Levels include an internal assessment called a “personal exploration.” Students are asked to choose an area of mathematics, conduct their own research, and draw their own conclusions. One of my past students, who was a ranked Hong Kong tennis champion, chose to write about tennis and binomial theorem. Another student with scoliosis looked at the curvature of her spine over the years using statistical analysis. Open inquiry is not to be confused with pure “discovery” learning, when very little guidance is given to the learner. There is a misconception that inquiry is about giving students an open problem and letting them “run with it” with little guidance or input from the teacher. This is far from the intention of inquiry. Inquiry is student centered, inherently inductive, and peaks students’ motivation and interest. Inquiry is not an excuse for passivity. The teacher’s role is vital in facilitating and guiding the students during different stages of learning. On the following pages there are three examples of student tasks on the same topic: proving the Pythagorean theorem. The topic is presented in three different ways to illustrate structured, guided, and open levels of inquiry. Figure 1.10 summarizes the main features and the difference between the three levels of inquiry for the Pythagorean theorem task. Figures 1.11, 1.12, and 1.13 are the student tasks. Figure 1.10: Levels of Inquiry for Proving the Pythagorean Theorem TaskLh BE a) hay Structured approach Step-by-step scaffolded questions and prompts The table allows students to calculate the areas of different shapes within the large square and prompts students to find a relationship. Guided approach Fewer scaffolded prompts Given the large square with the tilted square inside, students must work out that finding the areas of the shapes inside. Open approach Students are asked to research their own proof with hundreds to choose from. They need to explain and show understanding of their proof. Through inductive inquiry, students are given opportunities to find generalizations and patterns they observe from specific examples. Studies have shown that a concept-based curriculum using an inductive approach results in a higher level of retention and conceptual understanding of the content. According to Borovik and Gardiner (2007, pp. 3-4), the following are some of the top traits of mathematically able students: * Ability to make and use generalizations—often quite quickly. One of the basic abilities, easily detectable even at the level of primary school: after solving a single example from a series, a child immediately knows how to solve all examples of the same kind. © Ability to utilize analogies and make connections. ¢ Lack of fear of “being lost” and having to struggle to find one’s way through the problem. Notice these abilities are described as traits that are not genetic predispositions but qualities that can be nurtured and developed in students. Opportunities to fail or “get stuck” give students the ability to lack fear of being lost or “stuck.” In her 2008 Harvard commencement address, J. K. Rowling, author of the Harry Potter books, said, “It is impossible to live without failing at something, unless you live so cautiously that you might as well not have lived at all—in which case, you fail by default.” There are three principles outlined in the report How Students Learn:Mathematics in the Classroom (Bransford et al., 2005) that are consistent with the concept-based curriculum model: Principle 1: Teachers must engage students’ preconceptions. (p. 219) This refers to recognition of students’ prior knowledge and prior strategies and the need to build on them to create new strategies and new learning. Principle 2: Understanding requires factual knowledge and conceptual frameworks. (p. 231) This principle suggests the importance of the factual and conceptual and providing a framework for learners to connect the two in the form of generalizations. Learners need to have procedural fluency as well as know the conceptual relationships in order to develop mathematical proficiency. Principle 3: A metacognitive approach enables student self-monitoring. (p. 236) Learners need to be given time and space to explore mathematical concepts— in other words, to self-monitor. More opportunities to reflect on their experiences will help learners to construct their ideas into larger categories and take control of their own learning. With this overwhelming evidence, you may now ask, how do we develop curriculum and instruction using a concept-based and inquiry-led model? In Chapter 2, we will look at the facts, skills, and strategies in mathematics and how to use them to build conceptual understanding through the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process. Subsequent chapters provide practical activities to guide your journey in developing a three-dimensional concept- based model for curriculum and instruction. Open inquiry is student centered, with extensive input from the teacher. Sample Student Learning Experience Figure 1.11: A structured inquiry exampleProving Pythagorean Theorem Find the area of the following shapes and complete this table A B c ‘Area of the | Area ofthe | Area of the large square _ tilted square _ four triangles Connecting A,B, and C Explain in words the relationship you have discovered. Use a diagram to illustrate your explanation, © For a completed version of Figure 1.11, please visit the companion website. Sample Student Learning Experience Figure 1.12: A Guided Inquiry ExampleProving the Pythagorean Theorem Investigate the relationship between a, b, and c using the following diagram. b a Sample Student Learning Experience Figure 1.13: An Open Inquiry ExampleProving the Pythagorean Theorem There are hundreds of proofs for the Pythagorean theorem. Research one proof and explain the proof with diagrams. Use any medium to explain your proof. This could include a poster, movie, applet, or Google presentation. To state a theorem and then to show examples of it is literally to teach backwards. E. Kim Nebeuts From Inspirational Quotes, Word, Sayings (2015) Deductive approaches are the norm in traditional math classrooms—we rote-learn processes in a mechanical way without understanding the true reasoning and meaning behind the problem itself. Inquiry-based learning requires us to think and analyze for ourselves, then come up with a conclusion or generalization, which is the fun and beauty behind learning mathematics. We are encouraged to challenge ourselves and step away from our comfort zones in order to expand our knowledge ofmathematics. Both learning methods are effective in the short term for an exam. But I have found inductive, inquiry-based approaches allow new information and working methods to be stored in my long-term memory as I actually understand what I am doing. Chun Yu Yiu, Grade 12 student Island School, Hong Kong Northside ISD (San Antonio, TX) has been involved in concept-based curriculum for 10 years. It was important for this district that serves 103,000 students to have a K-12 curriculum in all major content areas that was developed using the tenets of concept-based curriculum. Our curriculum staff have been trained and certified by Lynn Erickson. Our teachers and administrators are clear about what our students are expected to know, understand, and do. Concept-based curriculum is without a doubt one of the main reasons Northside ISD continues to be a high performing district. Linda Mora, Deputy Superintendent for Curriculum and Instruction Northside ISD, San Antonio, Texas Chapter Summary This chapter laid the foundation for why we need to move from a two- dimensional to a three-dimensional curriculum and instruction model to include the conceptual level. Evidence supports the effectiveness of a concept- based curriculum, which is grounded in an inductive and inquiry-led approach. Concept-based models lead to increased mathematical proficiency and understanding. The chapter discussed what a concept-based curriculum looks like for math and the benefits to students’ learning. An overview of the symbiotic relationship between the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process in the realm of mathematics was also provided. Developing intellect requires synergistic thinking, which, according to Lynn Erickson (2007), is an interplay between the factual and conceptual levels of thinking. Synergistic thinking is at the heart of a concept-based curriculum and instruction. An inductive model is a student-centered approach, helping students to think logically and scientifically, allowing students to generalize by utilizing higher order thinking. The inductive approach provides a framework; it is a structure for all mathematical concepts to be conveyed to students in an analytical, coherent fashion. The key to inductive teaching is that students draw and form generalizations by working on specific examples initially. Levels of inquiry provide teachers and learners with the opportunity to gain confidence when exploring mathematical concepts. Structured and guidedinquiry facilitates differentiation and promotes student and teacher confidence. Extensive studies in mathematics education indicate a need for curriculum and instruction to include the conceptual level for enduring, deeper understandings. If we are to prepare our students for an unknown future, due to vast technological advances, we must ensure we foster higher order thinking skills. The next chapter will explain, in detail, the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process as applied to the facts, skills, strategies, and processes of mathematics. Discussion Questions 1. Does math education need to undergo a reform? Why or why not? 2. Why do educators need to include the conceptual understandings of a topic represented in a three-dimensional curriculum model? . How do the Structures of Knowledge and Process apply to the mathematics realm? . What are the features of inductive teaching and the benefits of an inductive approach when learning mathematics? . How does synergistic thinking develop intellect? . How would you use the different levels of inquiry in your classroom? Think of examples of when you might use each (structured, guided, open).Chapter 2 What Are the Levels of the Structures of Knowledge and Process for Mathematics? Quite a few years ago, in my first lesson on trigonometry with a new class, I asked my students whether they had learned about trigonometric ratios in right- angled triangles. They all replied, “No.” When I wrote SOHCAHTOA on the board, they said, “Oh, that’s what you mean.” They all knew the formula adjacent hypotenuse but did not understand that SOHCAHTOA represents similarity in a set of right-angled triangles sharing a common acute angle. This was a mere memorized fact and algorithm for them, and they had little understanding of the concepts of ratio, similarity, and angles in right-angled triangles. They had been taught to focus on the facts and algorithms first, and there was an assumption of conceptual understanding. These lower levels of thinking are represented in the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process. cosx = As mentioned in Chapter 1, knowledge has an inherent structure, just as the animal and plant kingdoms have structures. With this structure, we are able to classify and recognize similarities, differences, and relationships. Concept- based curriculum requires an understanding of the different levels in the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process and how they affect curriculum design and instruction. Concept-based models include the higher level of intellectual thinking: the conceptual level. An understanding of the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process gives us the ability to plan curriculum and instruction for intellectual development. Let us recap the levels in the Structure of Knowledge. The Levels of the Structure of Knowledge The Factual Level The lowest level in the Structure of Knowledge is the factual level. Factual knowledge includes rote memorization and does not guarantee conceptual depth of understanding. Facts are specific examples of people, places, situations, or things. They are locked in time, place, or situation. Facts are not transferable and include definitions, formulae in the form of symbols (e.g., y = mx + c), and the different names of polygons (e.g., pentagon, hexagon). Figure 2.1 illustrates the Structure of Knowledge applied to the topic oftrigonometry. Figure 2.1: The Structure of Knowledge for Trigonometry Structure of Knowledge Erickson, © 1995 PRINCIPLE GENERALIZATION ' Right-angled triangle © Acute angle © Ratio © Similar % + & BIgSIB 319.4, g 3 > "ou Adapted from original Structure of Knowledge figure from Transitioning to Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. The factual level includes knowing the shape of the graph of ¥ = S¥ without necessarily understanding how this is generated and memorized formula suchadjacent COS = ——————— as hypotenuse, These facts help students to support the understanding of the concepts of ratio, magnitude, angle, and direction when learning about right-angled trigonometry in a concept-based curriculum. Knowing a definition or a formula does not imply understanding. Memorized formulae in mathematics are facts that support the broader concepts in mathematics. These facts include the vocabulary, definitions, and formulae in the form of mathematical symbols. For mathematical proficiency and understanding, learners need to know the facts to reinforce their understanding of the related concepts. To know means to memorize facts or definitions that are critical to understanding the generalizations (statements of conceptual relationships) for a particular unit. To continue with the theme of right-angled trigonometry, let us look at the example of the Pythagorean theorem to illustrate this point: For right-angled triangles, the area of the square drawn from the hypotenuse represents the sum of the areas of the squares drawn from the other sides. This is a statement of conceptual understanding, which connects the concepts of hypotenuse, area, squares, and sum applied to right-angled triangles. There are numerous inquiry tasks that guide students to understand this principle, one being from http://nrich.maths.org/2293 called “Tilted Squares.” In this task, students are asked to spot patterns, make generalizations, and even discover the Pythagorean theorem by finding the areas of tilted squares. The formula for the Pythagorean theorem is a2 +b? = c2. This is a memorized fact, which does not reflect conceptual understanding. This fact only applies to a specific question, such as the following: Find c when a = 3 and b = 4. b The recall of these facts is highly compressible in the brain and is crucial whenproblem solving and learning math. Once you understand the process or concept, the brain has an incredible capacity to file this information away for later use—in other words, compress it in the brain. William Thurston (1990), a Fields Medal winner in mathematics, defined compression particularly well when he wrote, “Mathematics is amazingly compressible: you may struggle a long time, step by step, to work through some process or idea from several approaches. But once you really understand it and have the mental perspective to see it as a whole, there is often a tremendous mental compression. You can file it away, recall it quickly and completely when you need it, and use it as just one step in some other mental process. The insight that goes with this compression is one of the real joys of mathematics (p. 847). The Difference Between Formulae and Theorems in the Structure of Knowledge A formula is an equation that uses mathematical symbols or variables to show a relationship and is represented by the facts in the Structure of Knowledge. Theorems are statements that have been proven and connect explanations of conceptual understandings. Theorems are represented by principles in the Structure of Knowledge. Let us look at the fundamental theorem of calculus. The first part of this theorem describes the relationship between differentiation and integration as inverse processes of each other. The second part of the fundamental theorem of calculus helps students to evaluate a definite integral without having to go back to the definition of taking the limit of a sum of rectangles. The fundamental theorem of calculus may also be expressed as a fact or formula in mathematical symbols: Let f(x) be continuous in the interval [a, b] and F(x) = f(*), then F(x)=[* fae If students know this fact or formula, do they have a deep understanding of the fundamental theorem of calculus? Do they understand the concept of integration as being an inverse process of differentiation or understand that calculus allows the evaluation of a definite integral without having to go back and take the limiting sum of a bounded area? Figure 2.2 shows the fundamental theorem of calculus depicted in the Structure of Knowledge.Figure 2.2: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus in the Structure of Knowledge Structure of Knowledge Erickson, © 1995 PRINCIPLE GENERALIZATION Foy = [finde Adapted from original Structure of Knowledge figure from Transitioning to Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. Facts in math include memorized formulae in math symbols and vocabulary and definitions. The Topic and Concepts LevelsTopics in math are broader concepts that break down to specific micro concepts at the next level. In Figure 2.2, the topic “integration” is supported by the micro concepts “limits,” “summation,” and “bounded areas.” More on the classification of math concepts will be discussed later in this chapter. The Generalizations and Principles Level Generalizations and principles are statements of conceptual understanding that allow students to make connections between two or more concepts. In mathematics, the principles are theorems—the cornerstone truths. In Figure 2.1, the generalizations are as follows: Similar right-angled triangles share a common acute angle Similar right-angled triangles share common ratios of corresponding sides In Figure 2.2, the fundamental theorem of calculus represents a principle: Theorems in calculus allow the evaluation of a definite integral without having to go back to the definition and take the limiting sum of a bounded area. Crafting quality generalizations requires an investment of time. How to craft generalizations will be discussed in the next chapter. The Levels of the Structure of Process Mathematical Processes, Algorithms, Strategies, and Skills in the Structure of Process Students in my first trigonometry class were able to easily find lengths of sides and angles in right-angled triangles, but when I asked them to explain why this worked, no one could explain using the concepts of similarity and ratios of sides. To my students, SOHCAHTOA were buttons on a calculator and a memorized procedure or algorithm to get an answer. These students had been exposed to traditional methods that focused on memorizing algorithms. Mathematics classrooms worldwide have tended to focus on rote learning procedures or algorithms, and often too little attention is paid to why or how. Why do we multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor when we divide fractions?Why can we not divide by zero? Why do two negatives make a positive? These are examples of important questions that need to be addressed to support conceptual understanding. Waterbury School System in Connecticut embarked on the concept-based curriculum model in 2012. Darren Schwartz, the Instructional Leadership Director of Waterbury Public Schools, explains the reasoning behind adopting the concept-based approach: The mission of the Waterbury School System is to establish itself as the leader in Connecticut for urban education reform in partnership with the State Department of Education and the entire Waterbury community. The school system will provide opportunities for all students to maximize their skills and talents in an atmosphere where teaching and learning flourish under the never-wavering belief that all students can be exemplary students, while becoming respectful, responsible, productive citizens vital to our community. There has been a long-standing tradition in math instruction to teach and model using algorithms first. In our district we focus firstly on the conceptual understanding of math and provide the opportunity for students to discover algorithms through an inquiry based learning process. Darren Schwartz, Instructional Leadership Director Waterbury Public Schools, Connecticut Strategies are a number of skills that learners use in a methodical and systematic way to support learning. Figure 2.3: The Structure of Process for TrigonometryStructure of Process Lanning, © 2012 PRINCIPLE GENERALIZATION * Angle, line segments © Right-angled triangles * Computational efficiency Strategies Skills Adapted from original Structure of Knowledge figure from Transitioning to Concept—Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. Skills are small operations or actions that are embedded in strategies, and when appropriately applied, they “allow” the strategies to work. Skills underpin strategies. Examples of skills are being able to create a table of values, plot a graph, or to use trial and error to solve a problem (Erickson & Lanning, 2014). Mathematical processes are complex, sophisticated performances, which arecomposed of strategies, algorithms, and skills (Erickson & Lanning, 2014). Mathematical processes are broad techniques that students draw upon when learning mathematics and support the understanding of the concepts in a unit of work. Problem solving is an example of a mathematical process. Figure 2.3 (see page 31) looks at concepts related to trigonometry for a Structure of Process and how this relates to the problem solving process. Problem solving is a fundamental building block of mathematics and is an example of a sophisticated mathematical process. Curricula around the world bring together core mathematical complex processes as a necessary component when learning math. These processes support conceptual understanding of process generalizations such as the example in Figure 2.3: “Mathematicians rely on computational efficiency to evaluate line segments and angles in right-angled triangles.” Figure 2.4 compares the mathematical processes for different curricula from various countries around the world and some states in the United States. Note that this table does not represent a one-to-one correlation of each mathematical process however there is overlap and common themes. What is important to note is that each curriculum recognizes that mathematical processes are an important component when learning math and promote higher order thinking, developing reasoning, and critical thinking. What do you notice about the common threads of mathematical processes between the different systems shown in Figure 2.4? The Common Core State Standards from the United States includes attention to precision and modeling, while Hong Kong and the International Baccalaureate include inquiry approaches and inquiry skills. The Australian Statements of Learning: Working Mathematically encompasses many processes, such as problem posing and solving, mathematical inquiry, representation, and communication. Common to all systems is the importance of the mathematical processes of problem solving, reasoning, communicating mathematics in various ways, being able to recognize connections, and utilizing different tools to create representations. Although they are not described identically in every system, you can see how the processes align well. 1. Problem Solving 2. Reasoning and Proof 3. Communicating 4. Making Connections5. Creating Representations Figure 2.4: Comparison of Mathematics Processes in Different Parts of the World Ss renal er ors ao 1 taealarate ead eee ee ee rest Oetves Taki lls Saas of Lary SMP t ‘Use problem-solving | Problem solving | Problem solving | Mathematical Make senso of ‘medal that incorporates problem problems and | analyzing given solving | persevere in information, formulating Solving them 2 plan or strategy, | ‘determining a solution, {ustfying the sokition, and evaluating the probiom-solving process | And the reasonablenoss | ‘of the solution SMP ‘Communicate mathematical | Reasoning Reasoning | Mathematical ‘| Reason ‘ideas, reasoning, and reasoning abstractly and ‘their implications using ausnanateely utile representations, including symbols, | dagrams, graphs, and | language, as appropriate | SNPS ‘Display, explain, and justify | Communication | Communicating | Mathematical Constuct viable | matharatical ideas and sls cormnunication “sguments and | afd arguments using Interpretation ‘tique the [precios mathematical | reasoning of language in written or others ‘eral communication | US Common Car State Yrs Essential Kenai an Hons Keng ra ran Tc) fecal Hgts rer Muerte ee SMP 4 ‘Apply mathematics 0 ] ‘Model wih probloms arising in| earl ‘vend if,socmty, | and the workplace SNPS Selet ook, ling ral |Tehnolooy ‘Mathematical seaperopriats ‘objects, manipulatives, representations ‘Tool sat [Paper and pencil taicaly| Sh tachnalogy a appropriate, to salve probioms SMPs ‘Display, explain, and justly | Knowledge and | Communicating | Mathematical ‘Attend to precision | mathematical leas understanding | sis Communication | and arguments using | precise mathematical | fanguage in written o¢ a eal communication —_| oon |e | SMP 7 ‘Analyze mathematical | Knowledge and | Conceptualizing | Mathematical Lookforand mate | ‘lationships to coanect | understanding | — skis connections ‘use ofstucure | afd communicate mathematical ideas ta Tepresentatlons SMP 8 Analyze mathematical | Inquiry Inquiry skills | Mathematical ice irend relationships to connect reasoning ree ‘and communicate ae mathematical ideas | patanaie, in repeated ‘connections reasoning enn ton. is includes problem posing and solving, representation and modeling. Investigating, ‘conjecturing, ‘easoning and proof, and ‘estimating and checking the reasonableness of results or outcomes. Key aspects of working mathematically, oar on ree Incvidually and with othars, aro ‘formulation, solution, Interpretation, and ‘communication. ‘The processes of working mathematically ‘draw upon and make connections botwwen the knowledge, ‘sats and understandings ‘acquired tn Number, ‘Algebra, function and pattern, maasuroment, chance and data, sand space, There is a sixth vital core mathematical process that is included in theInternational Baccalaureate and Hong Kong processes: the use of inquiry approaches and skills, which for the sake of ease I will call investigating. These six complex mathematical processes cannot be completely isolated when learning mathematics or tackling a problem. For example, different representations may help you to reason and find a proof or communicate ideas. Each of these processes (represented on the Structure of Process) can be broken down into smaller strategies and skills. Figure 2.5 is a model of the processes, algorithms, strategies, and skills for mathematics. Figure 2.5: The Six Mathematical Processes, Algorithms, Strategies, and Skills Problem Solving gwrategieg Skills Algorithms Transitioning to Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin Press Publishers, Thousand Oaks, CA. Each mathematical process encourages higher order thinking and consists of different algorithms, strategies, and skills to be employed when learning math. Algorithms, strategies, and skills are usually specific to the unit of study, while these six mathematical processes are transferable across disciplines. For example, we can communicate, reason, and investigate in science or history.Students need to know algorithms, such as how to substitute into a formula, multiply, or divide. An algorithm is specific to mathematics and is defined as a set of computational rules to produce a specified outcome. The order of operations rule PEMDAS (parentheses, exponent, multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction) is an example of an algorithm. (In the UK, the acronym BODMAS is used, which stands for brackets, order, divide, multiply, add, and subtract.) Algorithms consist of skills, which allow learners to follow a set of rules leading to a specified outcome. Memorizing an algorithm does not necessarily imply conceptual understanding. Figure 2.6 illustrates an example of an algorithm for finding the magnitude of a vector (using the Pythagorean theorem) using the order of operations rule (PEMDAS or BODMAS). Figure 2.6: An Example of a PEMDAS Algorithm PEMDAS Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication and Division, Addition and Subtraction To find the magnitude of a vector we use the Pythagorean theorem and follow this algorithm: TSUbante: Evaluate the exponents What is the magnitude of the vector a = Si+ 12)? jaf = V5 +12’ Jal = V25+144 169 |al la=v v V13 Figure 2.7 lists some specific examples of skills and strategies for each of the six mathematical processes. Skills and algorithms form strategies, which support mathematical processes. In mathematics, each of these six processes has specific meaning and applies to various situations. Most math learning involves employing a combination of two or more processes, so although they are interconnected, we can look at each process and its attributes in detail. 1. Problem Solving The fundamental building block of mathematics is problem solving. It is adefined series of skills and strategies that form mathematical techniques that a learner employs when faced with an unfamiliar situation. Typical problem solving should be challenging, engaging, and pique learners’ motivation and interest enough to encourage pursuit of the situation presented. Solving problems involves thinking logically and making decisions in a systematic way. George Polya (1957, p. 253), a Hungarian mathematician, proposed the following principles when problem solving: 1. Understand the problem 2. Devise a plan 3. Carry out the plan 4. Review and extend Figure 2.7: Examples of Six Mathematical Processes Broken Down Into Skills and Strategies Conmanicatig ed Actitout Use data to make a ‘conjecture Make generalizations Listen as part of a group Discuss as part of a ke Use words, drawings, charts, Investigate ‘unfamiliar Interpret the questi wections | tabl betwoan facts Give justification for group i technology ‘Change your point | results Write reflectively canta Change your point | "8 Rovutatsey | between | Include geometric stvew ask ty" fe Z symbols and Igebraic forms of Ionia Recognize mistakes or | jfaveleammedor | recedes | teprosentatons “posits Tamed rensosing | una ae Guess and check | Use a variety of ae = Workbackrard | foningmetheds, | ogy asa | tothorsal relevant Wdeas ‘write an oper language word Create difent sontonee = Connect naw cs of ing * Salf-regulation ‘Question _— soveasmpleror | 2 Loyeetewpe | Citar problems to similar problem |< Formulating and | Clay old Persevers testing theories | Cn ea = Thinking critically | Explain Kdeae Understanding the problem could mean rewording the question and extracting key ideas. At times, if one does not understand the problem, another strategy could be to look at a simpler or similar problem. Students need to develop a strong foundation in problem solving to understand concepts in math. Figure 2.7 gives examples of skills and strategies to use when problem solving. These include the ability to look for a pattern, identify all possibilities, guess and check, and interpret what the question is asking. 2. Reasoning and Proof The ability to make generalizations and provide explanations and justification for arguments is key to the reasoning skill. Reasoning leads to a web of generalizations, which provide an interconnectedness of mathematical knowledge. Reasoning also leads to building mathematical memory to understand concepts. Learning through reasoning gives learners opportunities to make mistakes. Mistakes and misconceptions are a powerful tool in thelearning cycle. The classroom environment needs to support, almost champion, the power of mistakes in learning. Critical thinking skills and asking “why” can drive the steps in the process of reasoning and proof. Once students are guided through reasoning and proof to a generalization through inductive inquiry, mathematics affords us the beauty of proving these generalizations. Figure 2.8 is an alternative proof to the double angles identity of sin 2x and cos 2x, which can be used after students discover through inductive inquiry the double angle results. 3. Communicating Communicating refers to talking and writing about mathematics. It is important for learners to not only be given opportunities to explain and describe their ideas and stages in learning but also to be given opportunities to listen and discuss descriptions and explanations. Presenting different methodologies equips learners with alternative perspectives and enables learners to build a repertoire of strategies for problem solving. Discussion, sharing ideas, and collaboration are important aspects when learning any discipline. Ideally this is in the form of paired or small group work, rather than overreliance on teacher- led whole class discussion. Number Talks Number talks are based on the 1990s research of Kathy Richardson and Ruth Parker (Number Talks Tool Kit, 2015). This type of communication is especially important in laying the foundation of mental methods that help students understand higher, more sophisticated mathematics studied later. Number talks are a communication tool to help students develop computational fluency by comparing number relationships and looking at the different ways to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. Just as we can communicate ideas using words, we can also communicate with each other using numbers and equations. Number talks are initiated by oral conversations. Written and graphical representations of mathematical solutions can help support a number talk. In order to ensure that students are learning to become (emerging) proficient mathematicians, we should teach them to communicate with numbers as well as words. Number talks are characterized by the following: Class discussion Classroom environment and community The teacher's role Mental mathematics Purposeful computation problemsTo establish effective foundations in numeracy, number talks should be regular and consist of 5 to 15 minutes of purposeful computation. I have started this practice with a Year 7 (Grade 6) class, and I use the template in Figure 2.9 to draw out different methods by asking students to communicate (both orally and in written form) their methodology. My Year 7 (Grade 6) class has looked at different ways to mentally multiply two-digit numbers by one-digit numbers. Figure 2.10 is an example of different methods from my very capable student, Bhuvan, who was asked to mentally work out 23 x 5. When students are able to see and create different visual, schematic representations of different methods, they lay a foundation for their future understanding in algebra of the associative and distributive properties to work out questions such as 3(x + 4) or even (x + 3)(x - 2). Research also shows that learners who have a variety of different methods to draw upon are more proficient in math. Bhuvan is an extremely able student who shows three different strategies for multiplying 23 by 5. This type of activity provides a foundation for algebraic techniques in the future such as using the distributive property, understanding inverse operations, and using the associative property. Engaging in number talks supports students’ communication of mathematics and allows them to create different representations of various strategies to employ in the future. Sample Student Learning Experience Figure 2.8: An example of reasoning and proofThe Double Angle Results ABC is an isosceles triangle with AC=AB=1 Draw a perpendicular line from apex A to BC and call the intersection D. This creates two right-angled triangles, ABD and ACD. Label angle CAD and BAD “x” on this diagram. The expression for angle ACD in terms of xis Similarly, angle ABD is In triangle ACD, side AD is and side CD is because of SOHCAHTOA! The sine rule is Applying this to our original triangle, ABC, find an expression for sin 2x. Using this triangle, find a simpler expression for sin (90 — x)sin 2x= The cosine rule is Applying the cosine rule to triangle ABC, we have: Which gives: cos 2x= Now, using sin?x + cos?x = 1, find two other forms of this double angle result. cos 2x= Explain what you have proved. What are the applications and significance of these identities?© For a completed version of Figure 2.8, please visit the companion website. Social Constructivist Approach Another form of communication is the social constructivist approach. The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) laid the foundation for social constructivist theory, which states people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiences, reflecting on those experiences, and collaboration among learners. Learners cognitively develop in a context of socialization (Vygotsky, 1978). Instruction and culture are also important for knowledge acquisition, and Vygotsky asserted three main principles, which I have applied to learning mathematics: 1. Children learn effectively from one another. 2. Mathematics should be incorporated into meaningful tasks with purpose. 3. Discussion is an important element in the internalization of mathematical ideas and understanding. Figure 2.10: Example of student’s number talkBhuunn Arora 7R Number Talks 1m pairs you will be discussing and writing down some methods you used in your hhead to work out the question posed. Question: Mentally work the answer out and write down the answer here: \\'5 ‘Write down your method here below. Can you represent your method in a diagram? Explain to your partner how you worked out the answer to the question posed, Write down your partner's method here: ZOx5=10p 100415 =S, 345-5 {iu es Ties ‘As a pair make up another question but you now must use your partner's method to ‘work out the answer in your head. WBS 5p GOrS=%S yg | 4n5=45 fale 95 Think of three other ways that you could Work out the answer to your question and explain the methods here. Zois= bo | GR | Mss '0e-S-as | 9:5 f= 14sSocial constructivism emphasizes assisted discovery through teacher-student and student-student interactions. This implies learners need to be given opportunities to communicate with each other. Discussion helps learners to form and construct mental structures for deep conceptual understanding. In the number talk activity, students discuss their methods and see different schematic representations of the problem. This helps students to construct their own understanding of the concepts of associative and distributive properties. Uri Treisman (1992) researched the disparity between Asians and other minority (Latino and black) races in terms of student achievement in calculus. Both groups had similar homogeneity in terms of socioeconomic levels and background knowledge. Why were the Asians performing better than other minority races? Treisman found Asians regularly met socially to discuss the work and compare answers; the Asians learned from each other. They discussed, debated, and edited each other’s solutions. In contrast, the other minority groups worked independently and often in isolation. Treisman introduced the idea of intensive workshops to supplement the calculus course, giving students opportunities to collaborate, work in groups, and learn from each other through discussion. The minority groups who had enrolled in these workshops not only outperformed their own minority peers but also white and Asian students, regardless of the differences in background knowledge or SAT scores. These workshops provided learning in a social context, which promoted reasoning and conceptual growth. Due to the effectiveness of this approach, most university undergraduate and postgraduate programs now incorporate group projects as part of assessment to encourage learning through collaboration. Sample Student Learning Experience Figure 2.9: Number Talks TemplateNumber Talks In pairs, you will be discussing and writing down some methods you used in your head to work out the question posed. Question: Mentally work the answer out and write down the answer here: Write down your method here below, Can you represent your method in a diagram? Explain to your partner how you worked out the answer to the question posed. Write down your partner's method here: As a pair, make up another question, but you now must use your partner's method to work out the answer in your head. Think of three other ways that you could work out the answer to your ques- tion and explain the methods here. Research shows that learning in a social context through discussion promotes reasoning and conceptual growth.Writing Mathematics Another strategy to encourage students to communicate their conceptual understanding is writing mathematics. David Sousa’s studies on the brain reveal that writing mathematics, in the form of words and explanations, helps students to learn mathematical concepts more effectively, encouraging higher order thinking skills. Writing mathematics creates a permanent record of learners’ thoughts and how they organized their ideas to develop new applications and to solve problems. David Sousa (2015) explains, “In addition to requiring focus, writing provides another modality for processing information and skills, thereby helping the students to find sense and meaning, and increasing the likelihood that the new learning will be remembered” (p. 62). In the Double Angle reasoning and proof worksheet (Figure 2.8), students were asked the following questions to encourage the writing of mathematics: Explain what you have proved. What are the applications and significance of these identities? These types of prompts encourage students to express their understanding in the form of prose. Other examples of writing prose could be writing in a reflection journal or putting together written summaries after a unit to reinforce the concepts covered. Different modes of communication allow students to develop communication skills. These include reading and writing correct mathematical terminology and, of course, nonverbal and verbal forms of communication. If students do not learn to discourse using the language of mathematics—which is conceptual —then they will fail to demonstrate mathematical literacy. 4. Making Connections Mathematics is a cumulative body of knowledge that has well-integrated connectedness. The process of making connections refers to the learner’s ability ¢ To see connections between facts and how they relate to one another; ¢ To make connections between symbols and procedures; ¢ To make connections between what they are learning and the real world;* To connect new problems to old; to see different concepts and how they relate to one another. A graphic organizer can help students to form the connections within a unit of work. Figure 2.11 is a graphic organizer showing how rational numbers, real numbers, natural numbers, and integers relate to each other in a Venn diagram. An extension of this organizer would include how complex numbers and imaginary numbers relate to the other sets in the diagram. By showing students a graphic organizer such as Figure 2.11, or, better yet, asking them to fill out a blank one themselves, you are using another means of communication (visual) to demonstrate the connections of different sets of numbers. If students are able to accurately fill out the Venn diagram themselves, they are approaching a better understanding of the concepts being taught. 5. Creating Representations Representations (such as Figure 2.11) are ways to express different mathematical ideas; they include graphs, tables, geometric figures, and so on. In the previous discussion on number talks (Figure 2.10), Bhuvan was asked to communicate verbally and nonverbally and also asked to create different representations. Number talks are a combination of communicating and creating representations processes. Different representations can help learners to understand in different ways and see connections. The process of creating mathematical representations aligns with one of the Effective Mathematics Teacher Practices of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2014) which states, “Use and connect mathematical representations. Effective teaching of mathematics engages students in making connections among mathematical representations to deepen understanding of mathematics concepts and procedures and as tools for problem solving.” The purpose of representation is threefold: 1. To help learners organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas; 2. To select, apply, and translate different forms of representation to solve problems; and 3. To use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical phenomena. Mathematics should be represented visually at every opportunity to help students to understand the concepts in learning, regardless of whether a learner is a visual learner. The use of technology can create different representations, such as using regression models to model real-life situations. In addition to helping your students understand the material, instilling in them the habit of