Name : Salma Manzoor

F. Name : M. Manzoor Alam

Roll # : BY650980

Assignment : 01
Semester : Autumn 2019

Course : Educational Psychology

(840)

Tutor Name : Sumayya Hanif.

Address : R-11/12 Star Homes, ground floor, Nipa, Karachi.

E-mail : [email protected].
Q.No.1: Discus different methods of educational psychology which method do you like
the most and why ?

Various Methods of Educational Psychology:-

Educational psychology is being enriched by the methods employed by various system
of psychology. Psychology uses many methods which attain or approximate to the ideal of
verifiability. Some methods are not purely scientific., nevertheless they supply as a lot of
information about the complexity of human mind and behaviour. Educational psychology uses
scientific methodology for the study of man. The main characteristics of scientific methodology
are given below:

1- Assumes that the universe is an orderly one where cause and effect relation ship
works.
2- Uses experimentation for gathering data and.
3- Employs devices, tools and apparatus to ensure exactness and objectivity.
4- Educational psychology uses this methodology for the study of man.

Some important methods used by educational psychologies are as follows:

 Clinical methods.
 Psychological methods.
 Experiment methods.
 Differential methods.

Details of each method are given below:

Clinical Methods:
The clinical method is the direct result of the finding that each individual is different
from another and is therefore, a separate case his problems has some definite causes and
antecedents lying both within himself and in his environment. The problem in question does
not arise all of a sudden but has a history behind it.

Clinical method employs both diagnosis and treatment and in doing so it operates at
level of art as well as of science.

The types of problems under investigation are shyness, nervousness, thumb-sucking,

speech defects, truancy, phobias, stealing, telling lies, sex disorders and sex offences, etc.

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 Diagnosis of the problem is the first step. To begin there is a careful physical
examination, then the case history is prepared to gain insight into the problem. It is followed by
interview and psychological testing of the individuals abilities and personality traits.

Treatment follows on the basis of the hypothesis developed and the influences drawn
from the comprehensive diagnostic. It may involve change of environment (school or home).
But more important is the attitude of the individual himself which must undergo a change. The
child can be helped in this regard through play-therapy, psychology-drama, role-playing or
behaviour modification techniques which are based on the principle or conditioning.

Psycho-physical Methods:
Psycho-physics is the science that investigates the quantitative relationships between
physical event and corresponding psychological events or the investigation of quantitative
relationships between stimuli and responses. In educational psychology they are used to study
the problem of school noise, class-room illumination, fatigue, attention, perception, learning,
remembering, forgetting and education of the child on with sensory handicaps.

The main methods devised by the psycho-physicist are:

1- The method of limits of minimal changes.

2- The method of adjustment and:
3- The method of constant stimuli.

In the first method and absolute threshold is determined by minimally changing the
stimulation is successive trials along some physical dimension until the sensation is felt or
conversely is not felt the differential threshold can be determined by holding the standard
stimulus constant and varying the comparison stimulus in minimal steps till a just noticeable
difference is reported.

In the second method, the subject himself controls the stimulus until by increasing its
intensity. It is just barely sensed or by decreasing its intensity, a sensation just barely
disappears. A similar technique is used for determining a different threshold.

In the third method the stimulus values are presented in regulated steps but in an
irregular order. The subject responds to the stimulus and the percentages of correct and
incorrect responses are calculated the absolute threshold value is that stimulus intensity that is
detected 50 percent of the times, for determining differential threshold through his method,
the subject responds to a series of comparison stimuli which are passed repeatedly with
comparison stimulus has a greater sensory value in this judgment. The actual differential
threshold is then statistically calculated.

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Experiment Method:
An experiment involves hypothesis testing under rigidly controlled conditions. The
hypothesis for the experiment involves an independent, variable and at least one dependent
variable. The independent variable is defined as the factor which is manipulated, increase or
decreased, by the experiment, while the dependent variable is the factor which varies or
changes is the result of manipulating the independent variable. It is only the independent
variable. It is only the dependent variable which is manipulated. All other factors are kept
constant.

An experiment may be conducted in a laboratory or a class-room or other field situation

most educational, psychological and sociological experiments in the classroom or in field are
conduct with groups rather than individuals. Common group designs are : a) One-group
design; b) Equivalent or parallel group design; c) Rotation groups design; and d) Factorial
designs. The first design consists of comparison of the performance of a single group under two
different sets of conditions, in the second design the relative effects of two treatments are
compared on the basis of two or more groups which are equated on all relevant factors. The
rotation-group design takes equivalent groups and the investigation is conducted by rotating
the groups at periodic intervals, the factorial designs or multivariate analysis, make possible the
simultaneous study or effects of the number of factors taken singly and in interaction with one
another.

The idea of experimental research in the field of education has been borrowed from
science and mathematics. The experimental method is generally regarded as the most
sophisticated research method for testing hypothesis.

Despite its scientific vigour, experimentation is only one aspect of the scientific method
because the activities of which experimentation is simply an important form:

However, experimentation is the name given to the type of educational research in

which the investigator controls the education factors to which a child or group of children is
subjected during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting achievement.

J.W. Best (1992) describes it as, “Experimental research is the description and analysis of
what will be or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions”, thus the keywords in an
experimental research are:

1- What will be ?
2- What will occur ?
3- Carefully controlled conditions.

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 However, the essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a
depend variable of the manipulation of an independent variable. The uses of experimentation
in education are as under:

1- Determining and evaluating the adequacy and effectiveness of educational alims and
objectives through the measurement of out comes.
2- Serving as basis for the formulation execution and modification of educational policies
and programme.
3- Ascertaining the effects of any change in the normal educational programmes and
practices.

Here it will be useful to know the characteristics of an experiment. It will certainly

further elaborate the idea of experimental method.

An experiment calls for the satisfaction of three basic intellelated conditions, i.e, control
Randomization and Replication.

Control:
Control is the basic element in experimentation. The influence of extraneous factors
that are not included in the hypothesis are prevented from operating and contusing the
outcome which is to be appraised.

The following types of controls are exercised is an experiment.

1- Physical experiment.
2- Selective Control.
3- Statistical control.

Randomization:
As it is very difficult to exercise complete control, effort are made to assign cases in the
experimental and control groups randomly.

Replication:
This implies conducting a number of sub-experiments within the frame work of an over
all experimental design.

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 However, experimentation in education is not a perfectly precise method. They are very
variables which are extremely difficult or even impossible to control. The basic condition of
“other thing being equal” is difficult for educational research. All experiments in in education
are ultimately experiments with children who for ethical reasons, must not be subjected to
conditions that may harm them. There are boundaries of a normal character for
experimentation which must not be infringed.

There are many areas in which experimental studies in education can approximate
strictly empirical research, for example, the teaching of spelling through different methods and
the difference between the effect of the autorotation and the democratic set up in education
are problems which have been handled in a scientific way through the experimental approach.

Differential Method:
The differential methods employ individual differences as variables of investigation. The
investigator selects his subjects according to certain criterion. For example the investigator may
select his subject on the basis of intelligence and then compare their achievement on various
school subjects.

Amory the various approaches and techniques employed in differential methods are
correlation techniques, longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches, they elm ploy various
statistical technique to quantify their data and to test their findings and inferences under
conditions of mathematical exactness.

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Q.No.2: Discuss the general characteristics of physical and motor development ?

General Characteristics of Physical and Motor

Development:
Rate of growth differs among adolescents. In some cases the change is relatively
gradual and in other it seems almost “as they go to bed one night as children and awaken the
next morning as adults”.

Skeletal Growth:
Girls are about two years ahead of boys at this age. Bone growth is completed with
sexual maturity. The face and body are attaining adult contours.

Dentition:
A few children cut wisdom teeth as the end of this period. Dental correction continues
to be one of the greatest needs of childhood.

Muscular Development:
There is improvement in co-ordination. The muscles of girls remain soft while those of
boys become hard and firm. Control and grace are displayed in postures.

Organic Development:
The heart increases greatly in size. In majority of cases puberty cycle is completed.
Aliments of this age are headache, nose bleed, nervousness and palpitation.

Tuberculosis increases in teen-agers.

A renewed psychologist writes about the adolescent girl: “All the vagaries of young girls
which are so trying to their elders, their extravagance of dress, their high-pitched voices, their
giggling and simpering the emotional instability and changes of mood the defiance of authority
and disrespect for age and experience their boldness and self assertiveness, are part of the age-
old process of growing up….. parents who attempt forcibly to restrain her who upbraid her
indifference to their wishes or gibe at her efforts to assert her own personality only succeed in

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confirming her own personality only succeed in confirming her opinion of their inability to
understand her and in widening the breach which must invariably separate one generation
from another the mother who is too sweet and loving, indulging the child’s every him and ruling
her by appeals to her love and sympathy for her does no better”.

Mental Growth and Development:

Intellectual growth begins with rapid sensory and perceptual development early years of
life by this third year the child develops skillful perceptual ability in exploration of this world for
about ten years be builds it reaching his maximum capacity in adolescence when his senses and
perceptions are as sharp and keen as they will not be again. General ability shows a steady and
continuous growth from childhood through adolescence. The maximum intellectual capacity
seems to develop in the period from fifteen to seventeen.

Thurston discovered that different mental abilities at different ages. He found that of
the seven primary mental abilities the perceptual speed factor was the first to mature. Space
and reasoning attained maximum level at the age of fourteen. The memory and numbers
factors matured at sixteen. The factors which mature the latest were word fluency and verbal
comprehension.

The concepts of distance and space develop quite early concepts of number, time and
cause and effect relations develop rather gradually heredity sets the limits which environments
cannot transcend. These limits are not easily known. The school should provides such an
environment as well as release the intellectual abilities of children specially those who belong
to the lower-socio-economic classes. The method of teaching should also aim at developing
understanding, thinking and reasoning.

Language Development:

A child uses sound as a means of communicating with others long before he is able to articulate
words. He can respond to the language of other before his uses words himself. Normally a child
produces babbling sound at the age of two month. At 2-4 months he can use single syllabus. At
six emotions. After 13 month he can repeat sounds. By 18 months he points our subjects by
name. at two years the use of some words gets established from two years onward there is an
immediate and tremendous increase in vocabulary. The important feature of language
development is the gain in precision in using words. The ability to select term and phrases to
denote different shades of meaning.

Language development is sensitive to environment and conditions and experiences

provided to the child. Children of high socio-anomic status tend to learn meaningful

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communication earlier because of guidance and attention given to them. The child’s
environment will have a notable effects on his learning of correct pronunciation, good usage
and correct grammar. Also children who associate them selves with adult are precocious in
language development. In schools we must develop positive attitude in children towards
learning languages.

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Q.No.3: Discuss the importance of emotional development for student. What is your
role as teacher in emotional development among student ?

Importance of Emotional Development for students:

Emotions involve a combination of felling and impulses physical and physiological
reactions. The emotional, surges can be constructive or disruptive, there are three general
features of emotional development.

There is differentiation in emotional responses from a sort of general excitement.

Bridges found general agitation and excitement entailing the whole body develops into feelings
of distress and delight by six months and jealousy by twelve months, delight develops into
eation affection by twelve months and joy by twenty-four months.

The effective stimuli tend to evoke a specific emotional change from direct tangible and
concrete in childhood to in direct signs and symbolizing adulthood for example the idea of an
atomic war keeps many an adult to ender hooks and old person many gladden his heart by the
memory of his past success. The process by which the number of affective stimuli increase or
they become complex, indirect and symbolic, is due to learning maturation, manipulation
language and reasoning.

It is the decline in immediate over and explosive expression of emotions. As the child
grows older his emotional expression of emotions become more subtle, subdued distinguished,
delayed and complex. For example, a person may just use wit, humor, irony or stair to show his
anger, jealousy and hostility.

Emotion and Adolescence:

In the words of Richmond, “The restlessness, the changing moods, the flaming
enthusiasms, often short live, the romantic fancies and the tendency to day dreaming the self-
conceit and self-assertion characteristics of the girl in her teens a rise from the deepest
recesses of her nature. Adolescence is the heyday of the emotional life, the blossom time of all
those feelings and emotional life which depend at bottom upon sex”. This is equally true in the
case of boys.

History is full of stories of the boldness and self-assertion of Young men in their teens
and of their reckless and daring exploits, some of which have result in great good and other in
evil.

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 Finally this is the period of more complex emotions such as, admiration, awe, reverence,
gratitude, scorn, contempt, hatred, joy, grief, pity, shame, as well as aesthetic feelings and
sentiments of moral approval and disapproval.

Role of Teacher:
1) Teacher should manage sports for children for their proper physical development.
2) Teacher should offer maximum opportunities of the children for their intellectual
development.
3) A proper motivation should be provided for the development of hobbies of the children.
4) The environment of the school and home should be favourable to the emotional
development of children.
5) Special attention should be paid to the company that children enjoy.
6) The curriculum should be flexible and interesting.

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Q.No.4: Write Notes on the following:

(i) Moral Development. (ii) Adolescence and Development.

Moral Development:
The term morality stands for following the moral code of society or conformity in behaviour to
the manners, values and customs of the social group. Ethical understanding stands for an
individual’s knowledge of differences between right and wrong. Character stands for at least
four things: (1) Consistency in behaviour, (2) thoughts, attitudes, sentiments or ideals, (3)
concept of idealized self, (4) functioning or behaving in a social setting. According to
Havighurst, there are five levels of character development.

Amoral Stage:
At this stage the performer is unaware of the effects his act has on others.

Self-centered Level:
At this level the child chooses to gratify his own wishes although he knows that this act
might have a bad effect upon others. A self-centered act is done more with a view to satisfying
one’s impulses or desires than to disregard a moral rule.

Conforming or Conventional Level:

At this level the child may ignore his own impulses and act only in the manner which is
normal in his group.

Irrational Conscientious Level:

Conscience is used for internal self-criticism which makes a person reject an act because
it conflicts with his ideals even through it may attain his external goals. Behaviour is irrational
and con-scientism when an individual acts in the light of the values which are held emotionally
rather then rationally, e.g always speak the truth even if it results in some body being hanged.

Rational, Altruistic Level:

Here the values are not founded in emotional conditioning but in rational judgment. At
this level he acts and decides on the basis of reasoning and the best consideration for others. In
school the teachers should help children develop self discipline and a regard for the welfare of
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others. Moral instruction in the classroom is desirable. But more important is to provide social
and group situation in which children yet practical opportunity for the development of co-
operation, honesty, fair-play, courage and the ability to contribute to the joy and comfort of
others. Good work habits are whole some, social attitudes can be developed in the classroom.
Activities like games, camping, clubs and so forth help the child to live and co-operate with
others and also to know how others think, feel and act. The character problems of an individual
child should be solved through counseling and guidance.

Adolescence and Development:

The age at which the child enters the period of adolescence as marked by physiological,
intellectual and physiological factors, various greatly from individual to individual. It is very
difficult to define exactly the period of life which constitutes adolescence. No sharp
chronological boundaries may be fixed to this period. Generally speaking, it covers a period of
seven or eight years, normally from 12 to 18 or 20 with large variations, in many cases. Some
children may manifest traits of its advent as early as the 10 th year while others may manifest it
fill the fifteenth or sixteenth year. Twelve or thirteen may be considered as the normal period
for boys in subcontinent and even for girls when adolescence begins.

Adolescence is best defined in relation to puberty. It is the period which begins with
puberty and ends with the general cessation of physical growth; it emerges from the later
childhood stage and merges into adulthood. Importance of this period is given below.

a) This is the most critical period of a student’s development which the teacher has to
deal. It is a period of day-dreams of adventures intense affections and stirring of the
“heart” some educationalist think it to be a period of great “stress and strain”,
“storm” and “strife”.
b) According to Rabindra naha tayore “In the world of human affairs there is no worse
nuisance than a boy at the age of fourteen. He is neither ornamental nor useful. It is
impossible to shower affection on him as a little boy; and he is always getting in the
way”.

However, the adolescent is an odd, awkward, graceful, respectful, selfish, altruistic,

idealistic, narrow-minded, sympathetic, cruel individual”.

The following are the main characteristics of adolescence:

1) The child of this period lacks experience through he may exhibit a ‘know-it-all’
attitude.

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 2) He is intensity emotional. He fluctuates between two extremes. He may be active
and happy at one time and moody and dull at another.
3) He is seeking his own place in the life around him.
4) He responds more readily to the influence of the teacher than of the parents.
5) There is ultimate admiration of some adult whom he considers to be outstanding on
addescent is essentially a hero-worshipper.
6) There is interest in the emphasis on physical attractiveness and good grooming.
7) Girls are more interested in boy than boys are in girls, of course both are interested
in the opposite sex.
8) In extreme cases homo-sexually its established.
9) He is a combination of opposites. Sometime he is an altruist and sometimes a
mister. On the one hand, he behaves liked a child in many ways and on the other he
likes to be treated like an adult.. he wants to have the privileges of adulthood but
does not want to undertake obligations and responsibilities.
10) An adolescent exhibits an over-active imagination. This period is characterized as a
period of day-dreams.
11) He want to from small groups of gangs.
12) There is a strong tendency and self-assertion which is prominent owing to the new
ojentation which sets in life.
13) The adolescent wants to free himself from bondage. There is a tendency to revolt
against authority.
14) The growth of intelligence reaches its maximum during this period.
15) The adolescent is extremely passionate for expressing his own opinions and for
appreciation.
16) He regards himself as more suited than the adults and grown-ups to frame rules,
laws, codes and morals which will be just and true.
17) A group of adolescents gets down to practical work with great zeal and works
patiently.

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Q.No.5: What are general characteristics of personality? Also discuss the personality and
children adjustment problems. How teacher can play influential ole in
personality development of students?

General Characteristics of Personality:

1- It is continuous.
2- It is a product of heredity and environment.
3- It is a product of inner aspects and outer ones.
4- It is unique.
5- It has two function-overt and covert.
6- It is dynamic.
7- It has certain conscious and certain unconscious motivation.
8- It is the end product of learning.

As far as personality development is concerned, its results from a combination inherited

and environmental factors. At birth we are endowed with a complex set of genes that provide
for potential development. Although this potential has its limits which no environment can
transcend, these limits may be attained in an improvised environment twins brought up in
separate environment show a greater quality of scores in intelligence test than unrelated
children reared in separate environments the greater similarity of intelligence between twins is
explained on the basis of their greater similarity in heredity. But environmentalists point out
that the equality of intelligence scores is not as high as between the twins reared at the same
place, which points to the influence of the environment.

Personality and Children Adjustment Problems:

Great changes occur over a period of a few days in personality, attitudes and social
organization because of the new environment. Sociologists and anthropologists has found how
culture is literally built into the organism. If you study urban culture, suburban and rural culture
you will notice the differences even in the intervals between meals, feeling practices, time of
weaning type of toilet training and kinds of stimuli to which children react emotionally.

Psychologists also point put the importance of social factors in the home, the neigh
bourhood and the school in shaping our personality traits, parents and home conditions, shape
the child in his early formative years. A happy and congenial home atmosphere with healthy
relations between the parents and the child is very important for a balanced, well adjusted
personality to develop on the other hand study on delinquents in England shows that broken

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homes produce unstable, delinquent and badly adjusted personalities, what kind of school and
teachers a child gets affects his emotional, social and intellectual growth to a great extent
directly of indirectly. For ex pupils of popular teachers cheated very little, while those of disliked
teachers were alps to be a crooked in their ways.

As stated earlier personality is the result of heredity and environment. Teachers should
keep this constantly in mind while teaching, guiding, counseling or evaluating their pupils.

As far as the question of adjustment is concerned, it is defined as the process by which

the individual seeks to maintain physiological and psychological equilibrium and propels him
self toward self-enhancement. However, the question of adjustment revolves around such
concepts as conflict, frustration and anxiety. If all conflicts were to be resolved automatically,
the individual would have no adjustment problem and of course, no cause for learning. The fact
that difficulties arise is the basis for both self-realization and self destruction.

The Role of Teacher:

The personality of the teacher is important outside as well as inside the classroom.
Teacher are continually in contact with their students. However, we are so concerned about the
behaviour of the students that we often overlook the personality and behaviour requirements
of the teacher. A teacher spends most of the school day in close association with his students
and as a result, his basic attitudes and actions, his tastes and mannerisms have great influence
on them. The teacher castes the emotional climate in the class room by just being friendly or
unfriendly, tolerant or overcritical, generous or severe, clam or nervous. This directly affects the
children themselves because children learn attitudes and behaviour by example. Emotional
tensions, for instance are contagious a teacher who is fearful, tense and generally hostile can
induce fear, worry and insecurity among those in his charge.

The learning situation is also affected by the personality and behaviour of the teacher,
for the student’s response to what is being taught is largely determined by his response to the
teacher. This is important because one of the major objectives of education is to instill in
student’s a love of learning. Specifically the teacher strives to interest his student in the subject
the teachers, effective or ineffective teachers with correspondingly good or poor personalities,
often determine not only the response to their own courses but also the student’s future
attitude toward the entire subject. Various annoying behaviour patterns and habits of the
teacher reduce his effectiveness in the development of the personality of his students and in
teaching-learning.

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Personality Development of Students:
Various scholars have given different definitions to make clear the meaning of
personality. According to Jerome (1971, P.5) personality is the sum of activates that can be
discovered by actual observation over a long enough period of time to give reliable information.

Likewise, Eyseck (1953, P.12) says, “personality is the more or less stable and enduring
organization of a person’s character temperament, intellect and physique which determine his
unique adjustment to the environment.

Due to the mention of various aspects of personality including the “Organization” of a

person’s traits, this definition is considered comprehensive although it leaves a person’s traits
behaviour which is as important as the other aspects mentioned by Eyesenk. It main short
coming may be that it considers personality definite and static.

In addition to the above mentioned description there are more views regarding the
meaning given to personality by scholars of different categories.

Philosophical View:
The meaning of personality according to David R.S. (1988, P.2) is a philosophical view
and he calls it “completeness”, this ideal of completeness of a human being denotes his
personality.

Social View:
According to man sociologists, people are images of the society they live in. according to
Faris, personality is the subjective side of a man’s culture, his social effectiveness.

Bio Physical View:

Whatever an individual possesses inside him represents his personality, because the
external behaviour of the individual only express his internal characteristics.

Psychological View:
According to this view all the aspects of an individual’s development represent his
personality. There are the physical, mental, emotional and social facets of his individuality,
Woodworth says that “personality is the total quality of individual behaviour”.

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 In the various aspects of an individual personality his physical, intellectual emotional
social volitional and moral sides are included.

Characteristics of the nature of an individual personality include self-consciousness,

uniqueness, sociability, adjustability, persistency, dynamism, unity and integrity and goal
orientation, while consciousness and an objectives attitude develop in the individual with time.
This is personality every individual possess one or the other quality which is unique or specific
to him. As a result of social experience social adjustability develops in one’s personality. If this
persistently occurs it means that the personality is not static but dynamic. The personality or
behaviour of a person is goal oriented. All the aspects of a person’s personality exhibit unit and
integrity such as physical social, emotional and mental we can this unity as personality. In other
words the whole personality is affected by all its aspects.

Various people have defined personality by “using various approaches”. In simple terms,
personality consists of the following approaches.

1- The way we look.

2- The way we dress.
3- The way we talk.
4- They way we act.
5- The skill with which we do things.
6- The way we maintain our health.

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