Probabilistic Time Estimates
Ŷ Beta distribution
– a probability distribution traditionally used in
CPM/PERT
a + 4m
4m + b
M
Mean (expected
( t d ti
time):
) t=
6
2
b-a
Variance: σ2= 6
where
a = optimistic estimate
m = most likely time estimate
b = pessimistic time estimate
Examples of Beta Distributions
P(time)
P(time)
a m t b a t m b
Time Time
P(time)
a m=t b
Time
Project Network with Probabilistic
Time Estimates: Example
Equipment
installation Equipment testing
and modification
1 4
6,8,10 2,4,12 System Final
training debugging
System 10
development 8
Manual 3 7 11
3,7,11 , ,
1,4,7
Start 2 testing Finish
3,6,9
5 11
Position 2,3,4 9 1,10,13
recruiting 2,4,6
Job Training System
3 6 System changeover
1,3,5 3,4,5 testing
Orientation
7
2,2,2
Activity Time Estimates
TIME ESTIMATES (WKS) MEAN TIME VARIANCE
ACTIVITY a m b t ɛ2
1 6 8 10 8 0.44
2 3 6 9 6 1 00
1.00
3 1 3 5 3 0.44
4 2 4 12 5 2.78
5 2 3 4 3 0.11
6 3 4 5 4 0.11
7 2 2 2 2 0.00
8 3 7 11 7 1.78
9 2 4 6 4 0.44
10 1 4 7 4 1.00
11 1 10 13 9 4.00
Activity Early, Late Times,
and Slack
ACTIVITY t ɛ2 ES EF LS LF S
1 8 0.44 0 8 1 9 1
2 6 1.00 0 6 0 6 0
3 3 0.44 0 3 2 5 2
4 5 2 78
2.78 8 13 16 21 8
5 3 0.11 6 9 6 9 0
6 4 0.11 3 7 5 9 2
7 2 0.00 3 5 14 16 11
8 7 1.78 9 16 9 16 0
9 4 0.44 9 13 12 16 3
10 4 1.00 13 17 21 25 8
11 9 4.00 16 25 16 25 0
Earliest, Latest, and Slack
Critical Path
1 0 8 4 8 13
8 1 9 5 16 21
10 13 17
16
1 0 3
8 9
Start 2 0 6 Finish
7 9 16
6 0 6 9
5 6 11 16 25
3 6 9 9 9 13
9 16 25
4 12 16
3 0 3 6 3 7
3 2 5 4 5 9
7 3 5
2 14 16
Total project variance
σ2 = ɛ22 + ɛ52 + ɛ82 + ɛ112
σ = 1.00 + 0.11 + 1.78 + 4.00
= 6.89 weeks
Probabilistic Network Analysis
Determine probability that project is
completed within specified time
x-μ
Z= σ
where
μ = tp = project mean time
σ = project standard deviation
x = proposed project time
Z = number of standard deviations x
is from mean
Normal Distribution Of Project Time
Probability
Zσ
μ = tp x Time
Probability of Completion Time
What is the probability that the project is completed
within 30 weeks?
P(x ≤ 30 weeks)
x-μ
σ2=6
6.89
89 weeks Z=
σ
σ = 6.89 =
30 - 25
2.62
σ = 2.62 weeks
= 1.91
μ = 25 x = 30 Time (weeks)
From Z scores Table, a Z score of 1.91 corresponds to a probability
of 0.4719. Thus P(30) = 0.4719 + 0.5000 = 0.9719
Probability of Completion Time
What is the probability that the project is completed
within 22 weeks?
x-μ
P(x ≤ 22 weeks) σ 2 = 6.89 weeks Z =
σ
σ = 6 89
6.89 = 22 - 25
2.62
σ = 2.62 weeks
= -1.14
x = 22 μ = 25 Time
(weeks)
From Z scores Table, a Z score of -1.14 corresponds to a probability of
0.3729. Thus P(22) = 0.5000 - 0.3729 = 0.1271
Limitations of PERT/CPM
Ŷ Assumes clearly defined, independent
activities
Ŷ Specified precedence relationships
Ŷ Activity times (PERT) follow beta
distribution
Ŷ Subjective time estimates
Ŷ Over-emphasis on critical path
– Monte Carlo Simulations
Project Crashing
Ŷ Crashing
– reducing project time by expending additional
resources
Ŷ Crash time
– an amountt off ti
time an activity
ti it is
i reduced
d d
Ŷ Crash cost
– cost of reducing activity time
Ŷ Goal
– reduce project duration at minimum cost
Project Crashing: Example
2 4
12
8
7
1 4
12
3 6
4 5 4
4
Project Crashing: Example
$7,000 –
$6,000 –
Crash cost
$5,000 – Crashed activity
Slope = crash cost per week
$4,000 –
$3,000 – Normal activity
Normal cost
$2,000 –
$1,000 –
Crash time Normal time
– | | | | | | |
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Weeks
Normal Activity and Crash
Data
TOTAL
NORMAL CRASH ALLOWABLE CRASH
TIME TIME NORMAL CRASH CRASH TIME COST PER
ACTIVITY (WEEKS) (WEEKS) COST COST (WEEKS) WEEK
1 12 7 $3,000
$3 000 $5,000
$5 000 5 $400
2 8 5 2,000 3,500 3 500
3 4 3 4,000 7,000 1 3,000
4 12 9 50,000 71,000 3 7,000
5 4 1 500 1,100 3 200
6 4 1 500 1,100 3 200
7 4 3 15,000 22,000 1 7,000
$75,000 $110,700
$500 $7000
Project Duration:
2 4
$700
36 weeks
8 12
7
1
12
4 FROM …
$400 3 6
4 5 4
4 $200
$3000
$200
$500 $7000
2 4
8 12 $700
7
1
TO… 7
4
Project Duration: $400 3 6
31 weeks 4 5 4
Additional Cost: 4 $200
$3000
$2000 $200
Time-Cost Relationship
Ŷ Crashing costs increase as project
duration decreases
Ŷ Indirect costs increase as project duration
increases
Ŷ Reduce project length as long as crashing
costs are less than indirect costs
Time-Cost Tradeoff
Minimum cost = optimal project time
Total project cost
Indirect cost
Cost ($)
Direct cost
Crashing Time
Project duration
References
Ŷ Hughes, B., and Cotterell, M. (1999)
Software Project Management, 2nd edition,
McGraw-Hill. (slides)
Ŷ Pfleeger, S.L. (1998) Software
Engineering: Theory and Practice,
Prentice Hall.
Ŷ Roberta Russell & Bernard W. Taylor, III
(2006) Operations Management - 5th
Edition, John Wiley & Sons (slides)
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