CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Write here an introductory paragraph for the methodology. Present the organization of
the methodology section

RESEARCH DESSIGN
Explain why you use quantitative research in your study. Explain the specific quantitative
approach used and why this is chosen.

Quantitative Research Designs

Research Design – refers to an overall strategy that a researcher uses to logically and coherently
integrate the various components of a study.

1. Descriptive Research Design – aims to observe and report on a certain phenomenon, types
of behaviour, or traits as it takes place or manifests itself. One limitation of the descriptive
research design is its inability to establish causal relationship. This is why the descriptive
research design is used when little is known about a topic or when the study is exploratory in
nature.
2. Correlational Type – aims to determine whether an increase or decrease in one variable
corresponds to the increase or decrease in another. It does not seek to establish cause-effect
relationship but mere association among variables.
3. Ex Post Facto Type – aims to infer a cause from the already existing effects. Although thus
research attempts to establish causal relationship between variables, the ex post facto
research design does not use experimental manipulation. Thus, it cannot be said that a change
in the variables takes place in the actual study.
4. Quasi-experimental Research Design (Partial Experimental) – aims to establish causal
relationship between two variables. This effect is presumed to have occurred during the study
itself. This means that experimental manipulation is applied to the subjects to some extent.
Since participants are not randomly assigned to either the treatment or control group, there is a
lack or randomness in this type or research design. Because of this, the quasi-experimental
design provides limited conclusiveness in establishing the causal relationship between
variables.
5. Experimental Type (True Experimental) – aims to establish causal relationship that applies
variable manipulation more extensively. It does not only assign groups but specific individuals
to the control and treatment group.
a. Intervention – or treatment involves the manipulation of independent variable in an
experiment.
b. Treatment Group – the group of participants or subject subjected to the intervention.
c. Control Group - the group of participants or subject not subjected to the intervention.
6. Prototyping – a developmental approach to improve the planning and execution of creative
designs such as software or technology development.
CONTEXT AND PARTICIPANTS
Explain the context of the study or the time and place where the study is conducted.
Explain relevant details about the participants. These include the number of participants and their
demographic characteristics such as age, gender, socio-economic status, and their relevant
background information.

Samples and Sampling Methods

Sample Size – group of participants taken from the population subjected to study.
Sampling – refers to the process of systematically selecting individuals, units, or group tp be
analyzed during the conduct of study.
Ways of Determining the Sample Size
1. Heuristics – refers to the rule of thumb for the sample size used in a study.
2. Literature Review – checking the sample size used by the similar study. These studies can
serve as a reference in proving the validity of the sample size that you plan to use.
3. Formula – the most widely and commonly used way of determining the sample size of the
study. The formula below suggested by the National Education Association in the United
States can be used to compute for the needed sample size.
X 2 NP (1−P)
s= 2
d ( N−1 ) + X 2 P(1−P)
s = required sample size
2
X 2 = table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the desired confidence level (1.96)
N = population size
P = population proportion (0.5)
d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (0.05)

4. Power Analysis – considered the most precise way of determining the sample size. As
suggested by its name, this strategy is founded on the principle of statistical power. Statistical
power refers to the probability of rejecting the false null hypothesis, thus suggesting that there
is, indeed, a relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Ideally, a study
possesses a statistical power of 80%. Power analysis is then used to determine the sample
size sufficient for measuring the effect size of the treatment. Effect size refers to the degree of
difference between the control and the treatment groups.

Random Sampling
Random sampling (or Probability sampling) involves the selection of a group of participants from
a larger population by chance.
Types of Random Sampling in Quantitative Research
1. Simple Random Sampling – all individuals in a given population have an equal chance of
being selected. It is the best way to obtain a representative sample. One technique that you
can use in simple random sampling is the fish bowl technique wherein you select participants
by drawing out names from a transparent glass bowl.
2. Stratified Sampling – similar to simple random sampling in that the members of the
population can all be selected by chance. However, in stratified sampling, the population is
divided into subgroups or strata. The samples are then selected from these subgroups, and not
from the population as a whole.
3. Cluster Sampling – involves the grouping of the population into subgroups or cluster.
However, these clusters are not created based on specific characteristics or traits; thus they
are heterogeneous. Specific participants are not selected from each subgroups/cluster. Instead
the whole subgroups or clusters are selected to meet the planned sample size of participants.
4. Systematic Sampling – participants are selected from a list based on their order in the
population or on a predetermined interval. This interval is obtained by dividing the population
size by the sample size for the study. You are not requires to begin with the first person in the
list.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Describe instrument and justify its use. Explain how it is validated and revised. If it is adopted,
explain the reason for its adoption and describe its reliability and validity.

Instruments in a Quantitative Research

Instrument – tools used to gather data for a particular research design.

QUESTIONNAIRES
A questionnaire is a paper-based or electronics tools for collecting information about a
particular research interest. It is a list of questions or indicators that the participants need to
answer.

Types of Questionnaire:
- Structured Questionnaire uses closed-ended questions or indicators.
- Unstructured Questionnaire allows participants to respond to open-ended questions.
- Semi-structured Questionnaire has characteristics of both structures and unstructured
questionnaire.

Advantages of Questionnaire:
- Help collect data quickly from a large number of participants.
- Encourage the participants to be open to the researcher since their identity can be made
anonymous.
- Has flexibility because the respondents can answer it in their own convenient time.

Disadvantages of Questionnaire:
- Questions it contains can be interpreted differently by the participants.
- Some participants may be unable to complete or return the questionnaire on the set
deadline.
- May lack depth as they do not allow further probing into the answers of the participants.

Guidelines in Using the Questionnaires:

1. Decide on the method of administering the questionnaire.
2. Draft your questionnaire.
a. Divide your questionnaire into two or three parts: the personal information section, the
main section, and the open-ended question section (if necessary).
b. Align the indicators or questions contained in your questionnaire with your specific
research questions or objectives.
 c. Provide clear directions for answering the questionnaire.
d.o Use routing if there is a need to skip some items in the questionnaire.
Enumeration
e. When several
- Recognition Questionsrelated questions
provide optionsneed to be asked,
to choose from. begin with general questions first
followed by
o Multiple-choice the specific one.
f. o Do not make an overly lengthy questionnaire as this may discourage the participants
Matching
from completing it.
o Dichotomous
- Open-endedsure
g. Make that theprompt
Questions predetermined responses
the participants matchinthe
to answer nature
greater of questions. These
detail.
o predetermined responses must then be translated into numerical values to make them
Non-performance-based
quantitative.
o Performance-based
i. If the content is about itself, the responses should be about agreement (strongly
agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree).
Guidelines in Using Test for Data Collection
ii. If the questionnaire is about behaviour and how it manifests the response
1. Choose the test appropriate
should be about for theextent
variable yougreat
(very wantextent,
to measure.
great extent, moderate extent, small
2. Decide on the method of administering
extent, not at all). the test.
3. Pilot-test [Link].
If the questions are about frequency, the responses should also about frequency
4. Contact the participant (always,before administering
frequently, the test.
sometimes, seldom, never).
5. Attach a cover letter to the test when doing the test.
iv. If the content is about quality, the responses should also denote quality
6. In experimental or quasi-experimental
(excellent, very good, study,
good, administer
fair, poor). the pre-test before the intervention and
administer
h. Avoid using highly technical terms inintervention.
the post-test immediately after the your questionnaire.
7. [Link] the pre-test –and-post-test
Avoid using negative statements. design, make sure that these two tests are in parallel
form. j. Avoid including leading and biased questions.
8. Make k. sure that the
Avoid participants are
double-barrelled comfortable during the test.
questions.
9. Encode l. and
Avoidarchive
overlythe data upon
sensitive collecting them for easier documentation.
questions.
m. Use a reader-friendly layout.
INTERVIEW n. Do not split the questions over two pages.
A 3.
Quantitative interview
Before actually is a method
administering theofquestionnaire,
collecting data about
it may be an individual’s
useful behavior
to pilot-test it first. , opinions,
values, emotions,
4. Contact and demographic
the participants characteristics
before distributing using numerical [Link] involves the oral and
the questionnaire.
interactive
5. Attach exchange
a cover letterof information between the
to the questionnaire researcher
when conducting and the
theactual
subject either
data face-to-face or
collection.
not.
6. Follow up the participants who fail to complete their questionnaire by the set deadline.
7. Immediately encode the data once you have collected them and archive them digitally.
Characteristics of Quantitative Interview:
TEST
- Tend to be highly closed-ended although a few open-ended questions can be asked.
Tests
- Mustare quantitative
be accompanied researchby a instrument
rating scaleused mainlyand
or rubrics for the
assessing various
responses mustskills and typesinof
be numerical
nature.
behaviors as well as for describing certain characteristics.
- Aims to gather data from a larger sample size.
- Tend
Types to minimize the interviewer effect.
of Test
- Standardized Tests are scored uniformly across different areas and groups. They are
Guidelines in Conducting
used Quantitative
by official institutions Interview
to assess the wide range of groups.
- Non-standardized Tests administeredINTERVIEW
BEFORE to specific set of people.
1. Decide on the interview method you will use.
2. Types
Choose a comfortable
of Test Questions venue with the least amount of distractions.
3. Decide
- Recall Questionsofrequire
on the duration the interview.
the participants to retrieve information from memory. There are
4. Prepare and master your interview guide.
no clues or options that the participants can choose from.
5. Test yourorecording device
Cloze Test
6. Pilot-test o
yourIdentification
interview guide and practice how you will conduct interview.
7. Make sure that you obtain consent from the participants before conducting and recording the
interview.
 DURING INTERVIEW
1. Be in control of the flow of the interview.
2. Help the participants respond as easily and as naturally as possible.
3. Demonstrate respect, professionalism, and a positive attitude towards the participants
throughout the interview.

AFTER INTERVIEW
1. Check your recording device worked well throughout the interview.
2. Transcribe or encode the data as soon as you have finished your interview.
3. Write some of your observations regarding the interview.

OBSERVATION
Although observation is more frequently used in a qualitative research, it is also used in a
quantitative research particularly when the characteristics being observed are quantitative in
nature. In such instances, the observer uses a rubric or rating scale in the data collection.

Utilizing observation can be advantageous over other instrument as it allows the researcher to
examine an actual phenomenon or behavior of the subject (plants or animals) or participant
(humans). Nonetheless, there are disadvantages in using the observation method. It may be prone
to the Hawthorne Effect (also known as observer effect) when human participants are involved.
The Hawthorne Effect is a phenomenon in which the participants alter their behavior due to their
awareness that they are being observed.

Forms of Observations:
 Controlled Observation – the researcher selects the time, place (usually laboratory),
participants, and circumstances where the data collection will take place. This selection is
usually done under a standard procedure.
 Natural Observation – carried out in non-controlled setting. To a certain extent, the
researcher does not control the circumstances but allow the natural flow of events to
happen.
 Participant Observation – allow the observer to become a member of the group or
community that the participants belong to. Thus type of observation can be covert or overt.
When participant observation is done overtly, the participants know the research-related
motives of observation. When the participant observation is done covertly, the participants
are not aware of the intention behind the observation.
o Researchers Role in Participant Observation
 Complete Observer – observer is neither seen nor noticed by the
participants.
 Observer as Participant – observer in known and recognized by the
participants as a part of their group or community but has a limited
interaction with them.
 Participant as Observer – observer is fully engaged with the participant but
the participants are aware that they are being observed.
 Complete participant – observer is fully engaged with the participants who
are unaware that they are being observed.
Guidelines in Conducting Observation
Before the Observation
1. Clarify your research objectives as these shall guide you what data to observe and what type
of observation to use.
2. Prepare an observation checklist or norm.
3. Decide on the type of observation and collection technique that you will use.
4. Decide on the duration of observation, the behaviour or variables you like to observe, and the
time and location of the observation.
5. Record only the data that will address your research questions or objectives.
6. If your observation involves human participants, inform them of your study prior to your
scheduled observation.

During Observation
1. Write the date, time, and place where the observation will be conducted.
2. If possible, there should be more than one person conducting the observation.
3. Explain the purpose of the observation to your participants.
4. Make sure that the participants are guaranteed as much anonymity as possible.
5. Be accurate and objective in recording your observation.
6. Make sure that the participants are aware of the purpose of your study
7. Use multiple recording schemes as possible.

After the Observation

1. Compile and tabulate all data you have obtained and save them in your computer.
2. Maintain the confidentiality of the data you have gathered.
3. Review your data to determine if there is anything you missed so that you can address the gap
immediately.

INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
Validity refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed or intended to
measure.

 An instrument has face validity when it ‘appears’ to measure the variables being studied.
Hence, checking for face validity is subjective process. It does not ensure that the instrument
has actual validity.
 Content Validity refers to the degree to which an instrument covers the representative sample
(or specific elements) of the variable to be measures. Similar to face validity, assessing content
validity is subjective process which is done with the help of a list of specifications.
 Construct validity refers to the degree to which an instrument measures the variables being
studied as a whole. Thus, the instrument is able to detect what should exist theoretically. A
construct is often intangible or abstract variables such as personality, intelligence, or moods. If
your instrument cannot detect this intangible construct, it is considered invalid.
 Criterion Validity refers to the degree that an instrument predicts the characteristics of a
variable in a certain way. Criterion validity can be concurrent of predictive. Concurrent validity
is the ability of an instrument to predict results similar to those of a test already validated in the
past. Predictive validity is the ability of an instrument to produce similar results to those
another instrument that will be employed in the future.
 INSTRUMENT RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to the consistency of the measures or scores of an instrument.

 Test – retest reliability is achieved by administering an instrument twice to the same group of
participants and then computing the consistency of scores.
 Equivalent form reliability is measured by administering two tests identical in all aspects
except for the actual wording of items. In short, the two tests have the same coverage, difficulty
level, test type, and format.
 Internal consistency reliability is a measure of how well the items in a single instrument
measure the same construct. Split-half coefficient is obtained by administering a single
instrument aimed at measuring only one construct. This is done by dividing the items into two
sets and then comparing the results of the two sets. Cronbach’s Alpha measures the
reliability with respect to each item and construct being examined by the instrument. Kuder-
Richardson Formula test the reliability in terms of instruments of a dichotomous nature.
 Inter-rater reliability measures the consistency of scores assigned by two or more raters on a
certain result. The Kappa coefficient is one of the most popular statistical tools in measuring
inter-rater reliability. The higher the value of kappa coefficient, the more reliable the instrument
is. A coefficient value of at least 0.70 indicates that the instrument is reliable.

DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

Explain the specific steps that you will undertake to complete the data gathering phase.

DATA ANALYSIS
Describe the statistical test that you will use to analyze your data. Justify your choice.
Designing Data Analysis Procedure
This is done after planning the data collection. Data analysis involves the use of statistical tests to
address your research questions or objectives. These statistical tests shall examine the
relationship between the variables in your study. One of the important considerations in data
gathering is identifying which statistical information is the most important in your analysis. This can
be done by determining whether you will use a parametric or non-parametric test.
Parameters – numerical characteristics of a population.
Parametric tests – makes an assumption about the population parameters and the distinctions
that the data came from.
Non-parametric tests – does not assume anything about the underlying distribution.

Points to consider when choosing statistical tests:

1. Use parametric tests if you are using interval or ratio scales. Use non-parametric tests if your
measurement scale is ordinal or nominal.
2. Use parametric tests if the distribution of your data is normal. Use non-parametric tests if the
distribution of your data deviates markedly from normality or normal distribution.
 PARAMETRIC TESTS
To use parametric test, 3 parameters of the data must be true or assumed. The data needs to be
normally distributed, which means all data points must follow a bell-shaped curve without any data
skewed above or below the mean.

COMMONLY USED PARAMETRIC TESTS

Pearson’s r Correlation
A statistical measure of the strength of a linear relationship between paired data. It was
developed by English mathematician and biostatistician, Karl Pearson.
N ∑ xy−( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
2 2
√ [ N ∑ x −(∑ x) ][ N ∑ y −(∑ y ) ]
2 2

Where:
r = Pearson’s Coefficient
N = number of pairs of scores
x = first set of scores
y = second set of scores

The value of r is ranging from −1 to 1.

 The positive values denote positive linear correlation.
 The negative values denote inverse linear correlation.
 A value of 0 denotes no linear correlation.
 The closer the value is to 1 or −1, the stronger the linear correlation.

Pearson’s coefficient Interpretation

0.00 – 0.19 Very weak (Negligible)
0,20 – 0.39 Weak
0.40 – 0.59 Moderate
0.60 – 0.79 Strong
0.80 – 1.00 Very strong

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

The ANOVA (analysis of variance) is a statistical technique specifically designed to test
whether the means of more than two quantitative populations are equal. It was developed by Sir
Ronald A. Fisher in 1920’s.
 One Way ANOVA - Determine if the means of less than three independent groups are
significantly different from one another.
 Two Way ANOVA – determine if two independent variables have an effect on one
dependent variable.
 Multivariate ANOVA – used to test the significance of the effects of one or more
independent variables on two or more dependent variables.
STUDENT’S T-TEST
Develop by Prof. William Sealy Gossett in 1908, who published statistical papers under the
pen name of ‘student’. Thus the test is known as Student’s ‘t’ test. A t-test compares the difference
between two means to determine whether that difference is statistically significant.
ASSUMPTIONS:
 Samples are randomly selected.
 Variables follow normal distribution
 Samples are small, mostly lower than 30.

1. One-sample t-test: compare the sample means to population mean.

t=( x́−μs ) √n
df =n−1
2. Two-sample t-test: compare the means of two samples.
a. n1 ≠ n2 with unequal variance.
x´1− x´2
t=
s 21 s22
√ +
n1 n2
df =n1 +n2−2
b. n1 =n2=n with unequal variance.
x́ − x́
t= 1 2
s21 + s22
√
df =2 n−2
n

c. Samples with unequal variance

x́ 1− x´2
t=
( n1−1 ) s 21+ ( n2−1 ) s22 1 1
√[
df =n1 +n2−2
n1 +n2 −2 ](
+
n1 n 2 )
3. T-test for paired samples: compare the mean of two events given to a sample.
( ∑ D ) /N
t=
2

√ ∑D − 2
[ N
N ( N−1 )
(∑ D )
]
x́ – Sample mean s - sample standard deviation μ – population mean
n or N – sample size s2 – variance D – difference of scores
Z – TEST
Use to investigate the larger sample size (greater than 30) and assess whether two means
or proportions differ significantly.
ASSUMPTIONS:
 Variance is known
 Variables follow normal distribution
 Samples are greater than 30.

1. For one sample group: standard score of the sample mean using the population mean.

z= ( x́−μ
σ )
√n
2. For two sample groups:
a. Two sample means
i. n1 ≠ n2
x́ 1− x´2
z=
s 21 s22
√ +
n1 n2
ii. n1 =n2=n
x´1− x́ 2
z=
s21 + s22
√ n
b. Two sample means with n1 ≠ n2:
x´1− x́ 2
z=
( n1−1 ) s 21 + ( n2−1 ) s22 1 1
√[ n1 +n 2−2
3. Two sample proportions
](
+
n1 n 2 )
P1 −P 2
z=
1 1
√ P (1−P)
( +
n1 n2 )
x́ – Sample mean
σ - population standard deviation
μ – population mean

NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
A non-parametric test is a statistical procedure whereby the data does not match a normal
distribution. The data used in non-parametric test is frequently of ordinal data type, thus implying it
does not depend on arithmetic properties.
 COMMONLY USED NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
CHI-SQUARE TEST
The Chi-square test is used as a test of significance for data expressed in frequencies and
not on the parameters.
For a non 2 ×2 table or if df >1, we use the chi-square formula:
2 ( O−E )2
χ =∑
E

For a 2 ×2 or if df =1, we use the chi-square formula with Yate’s correction factor:
2 (|O−E|−0.5 )2
χ =∑
E
In the two formulas stated above,
O – observable frequency
E – expected frequency
Application of Chi-square:
1. Test of goodness of fit - perform in order to determine if a set of observed data
corresponds to some theoretical distribution.
2. Test of homogeneity – used to evaluate whether frequency counts are equally distributed
among populations.
3. Test of independence of attributes – determine if there is a significant relationship
between two nominal (categorical) variables.

FISHER’S EXACT TEST

When the total sample size is small (n<30) or when there are cells with frequencies less
than or equal to five, Fisher’s exact test should be used to test the significance of difference in
proportions.
Assumptions:
 Samples are drawn by random sampling.
 Directional hypothesis was formulated.
 Observations are mutually exclusive
 Dichotomous level of measurement was used.

Formula:
( a+ b ) ! ( c+ d ) ! ( a+c ) ! ( b +d ) !
P=
a!b! c!d ! N !
Where:
a , b , c ,∧d are the individual frequencies of 2 ×2 table
N is the total frequency.
SIGN TEST – Compare the sizes of two groups.
WILCOXON SIGNED-RANK TEST – used to compare two related samples, matched samples, or
repeated measurements on a single sample to assess whether their population mean ranks differ.
This is the counterpart of paired t-test in parametric test.
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST – the non-parametric test counterpart of t-test and gives the most
accurate estimates of significance specifically when sample sizes are small and/or when the data
do not approximate normal distribution.
Formula:
U A =R A ¿¿
U B=R B ¿¿
KRUSKAL WALLIS TEST – used when the assumptions of one-way ANOVA are not met. Both
the Kruskal Wallis Test and One –Way ANOVA assess for significant difference on a continuous
dependent variable (with two or more groups)
Formula:
2
(T i )
H= [ 12
n (n+1)
∙∑
ni
−3(n+ 1) ]
FRIEDMAN TEST – a version of the repeated-measures ANOVA that can be performed on ordinal
data.
Formula:
12
χ 2= ∙ ∑ R 2−3 n(k + 1)
nk (k +1)

SPEARMAN RANK ORDER CORRELATION – used to assess the relationship between two
ordinal variables or two skewed continuous variables. This is the non-parametric equivalent of
Pearson’s correlation.
Formula:
6 ∑ d2
ρ=1−
n(n2 −1)

COCHRAN’S Q TEST – way to find difference in matched sets of three or more frequencies or
proportions.
Formula:
2
N
T =k (k−1) ∙
∑ ( k
X i− )
∑ X i ( k− X i)
 PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF TABLES AND GRAPH

Non-prose materials are graphic or visual representations of sets of data or information. The
information in these materials is outlined in a way that others can easily understand the
relationship between the variables being examined in the study. Two of the non-prose materials
that are commonly used in quantitative research are graphs and tables.

TABLES
Tables are non-prose materials that help condense and classify information using
columns and rows. Tables contain at least two columns with headings that indicate the important
information being examined. The headings on the top are called boxheads while the headings on
the far left column are called stubs. The boxhead describe the items in each column while the
stubs describe the items in each row.
To interpret the tables effectively, take note of the headings and analyze the relationship
among the details under each one. You also need to identify the items that have significantly
high or low values. Check for any unusual patterns or data in the table. Determine the possible
reasons behind these tendencies in your data as this will further aid your analysis later.
When writing your interpretation, begin with table number and its title. Then, present
significant data and discuss their relationship with another. If applicable, end the interpretation
with a generalization summarizing the finding presented in the table.

GRAPHS
Unlike tables, graphs do not merely list down the collected data with respect to a certain
category. Instead, graphs focus on immediately representing how a change in one variable
relates to another.
 Bar graph – contains vertical and horizontal bars and comparisons of amounts and
quantities.
 Line graph – shows trends and changes in the data.
 Circle graph (also known as pie graph) – shows the relationship of parts to a whole,
usually in percentages or proportions.
There are several factors that you need to consider in interpreting graphs. First, you need to
carefully read the title, caption, source note, labels, and legend of the graph. These details are
important in helping you keep track if the variables you are analyzing. Keep in mind the purpose
of the graph that you are interpreting. Similar to interpreting a table, start your graph
interpretation by naming the figure you are attempting to explain. Then, present the significant
data and relationship among them.
When writing your interpretation, begin with explaining what the graph is about and
mentioning the figure number you assigned to it. Then, present the significant data and their
relationship with one another.
 CHAPTER IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

RESULTS PORTION
The result portion presents the data that you have collected. This portion limits itself to
the presentation of facts and key findings as they are. The result portion is presented in textual
and tabular or graphical forms.

Guidelines for Writing the Results of Your Paper:

1. The result section must be anchored in your research questions or objectives. These
questions and objectives shall be restated at the beginning of your result section. The
finding that you will cite must be limited to those that will address the research questions.
They shall also be the basis of the sequence of the parts of your result section.
2. Take caution in using non-prose materials in the result section. Make sure that your non-
prose material is aligned with the purpose of presenting the data. Describe the finding
suggested by your graphical representation and include basic details such as its title,
legend used, and labels for the values.
3. Make sure that your results section can be distinguished from the discussion section
which will subsequently follow. Avoid explaining the possible reasons behind your
results. Refrain as well from connecting your findings to the previous studies related to
your research. These details shall instead be found in the discussion portion of your
paper.
4. Observe accuracy, conciseness, and comprehensiveness in writing your result section.
For instance, when stating the mean of the data set, you also need to mention the standard
deviation, as well as other statistical values pertinent to explaining your research findings.
Accuracy also entails practicing objectivity. This means that you have to make sure that
your result section is founded only on facts. This also means that you are required to cite
negative results as a way of showing honesty in your findings. In addition, it is
imperative that you use the past tense in stating your findings. Through doing this, you
acknowledge that the findings apply exclusively to your paper, and are not considered as
facts.
5. Keep in mind that the result section needs to be a reader-friendly. One way of doing this
is by using subheadings, which will make the results section more organized and easier to
understand. Another way of doing this is through two-dimensional graphical
representation instead of three dimensional ones; the latter can make the visual
representation of the results highly complicated.

DISCUSSION PORTION
The discussion portion provides the explanation for the results that you have reported. At
this juncture, you link your findings to the other studies related to your own, as well as your
research questions or objectives. This portion of research paper is important because it tests your
skills in thinking critically, solving problems, as well as in understanding and explaining
phenomenon with enough depth.

Factors to Consider in Writing the Discussion Portion:

1. Your discussion must be anchored on your research objectives or questions. Remember
that your research objectives or questions are the foundation of your study. Thus your
discussion must attempt to explain the findings in a way that these questions or objectives
will be addressed. It may help to restate your research objectives or questions and to
mention the major findings corresponding to each one of them.
2. You need to establish the connection between your findings and the studies related to
your own, as well as the theories and practices in your field of research. In fact, it is
important to reread your literature review, and to restate the studies whose findings
support or deviate from your own. Also, avoid showing negative bias towards other
researchers in your discussion, even if their findings differ highly from your own. You
may state how your findings contradict those of other researchers, but make sure to do
this objectively.
3. Even though your discussion should be anchored on other related studies, write it as your
own take on the findings. Your alternative explanation of findings will serve as your
contribution to your own field of study. Take note that this explanation should not repeat
the report of your results section; cites the possible reasons behind the findings you have
obtained. Moreover, make sure that your claims are supported by your data; refrain from
making unwarranted speculations which go beyond them.
4. The general content of your discussion must have a specific flow. Start your discussion
with your general findings; afterwards, proceed to more specific aspects. Finally, you
may end your discussion with a brief overview of the practical and theoretical
implications of your findings. Note, however, that a detailed discussion of the
implications of your findings is typically written in the conclusion section.
5. Exercise clarity and consistency in your discussion. You need to be specific and direct to
the point in explaining your results. Your readers should be aware of what finding is
being explained in a certain point in the discussion. Finally, you need to practice
consistency in what key terms to use throughout the discussion to avoid confusing your
readers.
6. Observe other conventions in writing your discussion section. For instance, you have to
present the potential limitations of the explanation of your result but you must refrain
from being apologetic in explaining these aspects. You can also utilize subheadings to
organize the ideas in your discussion more easily. Moreover, you need to be careful in
your stage of verb tenses throughout the discussion; use the present tense for established
facts and the past tense for claims and findings of prior studies. Finally, make sure to cite
sources you will use throughout the discussion.
 CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
The conclusion section discusses the generalizations deductions, and inferences that can
be obtained from your findings. The conclusion section does not follow a one-to-one
correspondence relative to your research questions or objectives. Instead, each generalization or
deduction that you write should be applicable to all of your findings. Therefore, you need to have
one conclusion that directly addresses your genera research problem. Another way of writing
your conclusion is to explain how your findings address the gap you have identified in the
introduction if your paper.
Aside from making generalizations from your findings, the conclusions state the
implications of your findings in terms of different aspects. This means that you need to identify
what areas of concern or issues in your field of study can be examined and addressed based on
your findings. Note that the implications of your findings differ from significance of your study.
The implications of your findings relates to the different issues which can be looked into in
accordance with your findings. On the other hand, the significance of your study focuses more
on listing the people or entities that will benefit from your research.
The implications that you need to discuss can be classified as practical, theoretical, and
methodological.
 Practical implications relate to the issues in real-life contexts that can be addressed
through the findings.
 Theoretical implications relate to the issues concerning the support, refutation, and
supplementation of existing models and concepts in your field of study. It can also point
out how your findings can pave the way for new studies in the field.
 Methodological implications relate to the issues concerning materials and processes in
research.

Points to Consider When Writing the Conclusion Section:

1. Among merely summarizing your findings, use your findings in making inferences.
2. Ensure that each conclusion is supported by the evidence or data that you have gathered.
Refrain from making speculations not backed by your data.
3. State your conclusion briefly and clearly, as these shall already apply to your study as a
whole and not on a particular piece of evidence.
4. Limit your conclusion to your participants, and refrain from claiming that it applies to
other populations or contexts.
5. Refrain from using numerals and figures in your conclusion. Remember that this portion
of paper in not focused on introducing data or explaining your findings.
6. Avoid using terms in your conclusions that imply doubts. Instead, you may use the phrase
“the evidence suggest…” in stating your conclusions.
Limitations of the Study
Another important component found at the end of your paper is the limitation of the
study. This refers to the factors that the researcher fails to control or use and can be addressed by
subsequent studies. In short, it puts boundaries on the extensiveness of your findings and the
strength of your conclusion. Some of the possible limitations include sampling problems,
uncontrolled variables, errors in tests administration, generalizability of data, representativeness
of samples, and reliability and validity of research instruments.
The limitation of the study should not be confused with the scope and delimitation. The
later refers to the coverage, parameters, or boundaries which the researcher consciously sets as
he/she conduct the study. To put it simply, the scope and delimitation pertains to what you have
focused on your study as you started it. On the other hand, the limitation of the study pertains to
the conditions that emerged in your research as it progressed, thus affecting the applicability of
your findings. Thus unlike the scope and delimitations, the limitations of the study are not
consciously set by the researcher.
All studies have their limitations, no matter how sophisticated they are. Therefore, it is
your obligation as a responsible researcher to present the limitations of your study. By presenting
the limitations of your study, you will show that you really understand your paper. If you fail to
present these limitations, the reader will assume that you are not aware of them and this will lead
them to believe that you lack credibility as a researcher.

Recommendations
After drawing the conclusions and underlying limitations encountered in your study, you
can now write your recommendations. The recommendation subsection of your paper has two
functions. The first function relates to implication of your findings. While the implications
identify the areas of concern that can be addressed based on the findings, the recommendation
provide an actual course of action through which these areas of concern can be addressed. The
second function is considered with stating how future studies can address the limitations of your
study encountered in your research.
Take note the following guidelines:
1. Make sure that your recommendations are in accordance with the conclusions and
limitations of your study. Furthermore, align your recommendations with the purpose and
scope of your research.
2. Make your recommendation as specific as possible for them to become workable as
practical.
3. Write your recommendations concisely and clearly. This will help the readers,
immediately recognized the impact of your study.
4. As much as possible, refrain from offering recommendations that could have been easily
addressed as you were conducting your study. Otherwise, these might be construed only
as an after-thought.
 RUBRIC FOR FINAL PAPER

VGE GE SE LE N
CRITERIA
(4) (3) (2) (1) (0)
CONTENT (35%)
The background of the study is well established.
The research questions or objectives are clear and specific
The significance of the study is presented.
The current state of the field of study is explained.
The literature review presents a sufficient number of related
studies.
The related literatures and studies are synthesized.
The participants in the study are properly selected.
The instruments are well defined and appropriate for the study.
The procedures for data gathering and analysis were well
described.
The research design used is well discussed.
The results are objectively and completely presented
The discussion of the results has depth and is linked to literature
review and other related studies.
The findings are summarized accurately.
The conclusions presented are valid.
The limitations and recommendations are relevant and well
described.
The overall content is comprehensive.
TOTAL
ORGANIZATION (25%)
The work uses an organizational pattern and structure appropriate
for the genre.
Cohesive devices are effectively used.
Ideas are correctly outlined, thus improving the paper’s
organization.
The flow of ideas is smooth and the work is easy to read.
TOTAL
STYLE (20%)
The work showcases the writer’s voice.
The work uses a variety of sentence structures.
The work eliminates negative bias in language usage.
The work eliminates wordiness.
TOTAL
GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS (10%)
The grammatical conventions in standard English are observed.
Correct spellings and proper capitalization and punctuations are
observed.
Word choice is appropriate.
Sentences are well structured.
TOTAL
DOCUMENTATION AND SOURCES (10%)
The work uses an appropriate citation and reference format.
The sources used are reliable.
The sources used are relevant to the topic.
TOTAL

CONTENT
ORGANIZATION
STYLE
GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS
DOCUMENTATION AND SOURCES
TOTAL GRADE