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PUBLISHED ONLINE: 13 OCTOBER 2013 | DOI: 10.1038/NGEO1920

Giant ore deposits formed by optimal alignments

and combinations of geological processes
Jeremy P. Richards

Giant ore deposits contain anomalously large quantities of metal and are priority targets for mineral exploration companies. It
is debated whether these giant deposits have a unique mode of formation. Alternatively they may simply represent the extreme
end of a spectrum of deposit sizes, formed by an optimum coincidence of common geological processes to build unusually
large accumulations of metal. If formed by unique processes, the occurrence of giant ore deposits may be difficult to predict.
Conversely, if formed by common processes, understanding the mechanisms that lead to optimum circumstances for giant
metal deposits could help with exploration. A review of several giant porphyry copper–molybdenum–gold and epithermal gold–
silver deposits reveals that many have characteristics consistent with formation during the optimization of normal ore-forming
processes. In several cases, the large size of the deposit reflects specific factors, such as distinct tectonic configurations,
reactive host rocks or focused fluid flow, that are not unusual by themselves but have helped to enhance the overall process.
Thus, I suggest that effective exploration for giant deposits should seek distinct conditions within fundamentally prospective
geological settings that might lead to enhanced ore-forming processes.

M
ineral exploration companies seek giant ore deposits cooling magmas emplaced in the upper crust, typically in volcanic
because they contain the most metal and can potentially arc settings above subduction zones. They contain Cu, Mo and Au,
be mined for the greatest profit (Box 1). But there is con- mainly present as the sulphide minerals chalcopyrite and molyb-
siderable debate among economic geologists as to the definition of denite. In contrast, epithermal deposits are formed at lower tem-
and controls on the formation of giant ore deposits. Various cri- peratures (≤300 °C), from fluids that may or may not be related to
teria have been proposed for the classification of deposit size. For magmatism. Epithermal deposits commonly contain Au and Ag
example, gold (Au) and copper (Cu) deposits have been defined as native elements, or within sulphide and other ore minerals (see
as ‘giant’ if they contain >100 t (tonnes) Au or >2 Mt Cu, respec- Supplementary Information for more detailed descriptions of these
tively1; but another definition uses numbers three times these val- deposit types, and supporting references).
ues2. The strongest disagreement, however, relates to whether giant Both deposit types can be further subdivided based on metal
deposits are unique in their mode of formation or simply represent inventory, alteration style (reflecting fluid chemistry), tectonic set-
end-members of normal processes that have operated at maximum ting or chemistry of associated magmas. The boundaries between
levels and efficiency, and/or by optimally cumulative processes, to these subtypes are commonly blurred, and there are also transitional
build unusually large accumulations of metal. relationships between the main deposit types. Thus, the definition of
In every class of mineral deposit there is a range of sizes from sub- an unusual feature in a specific deposit as unique, or just part of the
economic to the largest known examples, some of which may be clas- known spectrum of characteristics, is subjective. Nevertheless, in
sified as giants. Yet every deposit is also unique in detail. Many giant many cases giant members of these groups do exhibit certain char-
ore deposits display certain characteristics that differ from the stand- acteristics that mark their formation as anomalous, if not unique.
ard models for the formation of porphyry copper–molybdenum– These features are discussed on a case-by-case basis below.
gold (Cu±Mo±Au) and epithermal gold–silver (Au–Ag) deposits (see
Supplementary Information). I argue below, using as examples mag- Giant porphyry Cu±Mo±Au deposits
matic-related porphyry and epithermal deposits—formed from high- Several giant examples of ‘standard’ porphyry deposits occur in the
and lower-temperature hydrothermal fluids released from cooling late Mesozoic/early Cenozoic Laramide porphyry belt of the western
magmas, respectively—that the standard models can deliver a typical United States (for example the Butte, Bagdad, Morenci and Sierrita
large deposit. One or more additional or specific processes may, how- deposits) and northern Mexico (for example the Cananea and La
ever, be required to supercharge the system to form a giant deposit. Caridad deposits), and the Eocene–Oligocene porphyry belt of
These processes are not necessarily unusual, and may simply be com- northern Chile (for example the Collahuasi, Chuquicamata and La
ponents or variants of the standard models that have been unusually Escondida deposits) (Fig. 1). It is worth noting, however, that sev-
enhanced. Thus, it is the fortuitous convergence of processes operat- eral of the largest standard porphyries, such as the Chuquicamata
ing at maximum efficiency and in optimal sequence that leads to the and La Escondida deposits, owe their giant status at least in part to
formation of giant deposits from otherwise normal underlying sys- secondary enrichment processes that post-date original ore forma-
tems. Many of these processes are predictable or easily detected. They tion; these processes are not discussed here.
can therefore be used to refine exploration strategies for the discovery Several other giant porphyry deposits exist that only partially
of giant ore deposits within generally prospective regions. fit the standard model. Four examples are discussed below (see
Supplementary Table S1 for reserve estimates).
Porphyry and epithermal deposits
Porphyry Cu±Mo±Au and epithermal Au–Ag deposits are both Bingham Canyon Cu–Au–Mo porphyry deposit, Utah, USA.
formed by precipitation of ore minerals from hydrothermal (that After over a century of mining, the Bingham porphyry deposit
is, hot, aqueous) fluids. Porphyry deposits are formed from high- (Supplementary Fig.  S1) still contains reserves of over 4  Mt Cu.
temperature fluids (300–700  °C). The fluids are exsolved from The deposit lies several hundred kilometres northeast of the main

Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2E3. e-mail: [email protected]

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But the main style of mineralization is disseminated chalcopyrite

Box 1 | In mining, bigger is better in biotitized mafic wallrocks, implying an important local chemical
control on ore deposition (for example sulphidation of Fe oxides in
The purpose of mineral exploration is to find volumes of rock the wallrock12,13). It has been suggested from fluid geochemical stud-
that are sufficiently enriched in a particular element or mineral, ies that the deposit owes its unusually large size to “injection from
and of sufficient size, to be mined economically. The richer the depth of an exceptionally Cu, Mo, Li, and, probably, also S-rich vola-
deposit (grade), and the larger the volume of mineralized rock tile phase into an already actively evolving upper-crustal magmatic-
(tonnage), the greater the profit that can potentially be made, and hydrothermal system”14. Other authors have suggested that a long
the longer the deposit can be mined at a profit. Large deposits duration of magmatic and hydrothermal activity, about 0.7 million
also benefit from economies of scale during mining, centraliza- years, led to the progressive accumulation of Cu in the deposit13,15. Yet
tion of planning and administrative work, and the use of large- others have focused on tectonomagmatic controls on ore formation,
scale equipment, thus lowering costs. Similarly, long mine lives noting that the source magmas formed at the end of a protracted
justify the high capital expenditures required for the construc- period of arc magmatism when the angle of subduction shallowed.
tion of large-scale and long-lived infrastructure. Furthermore, Shallowing of the subducting slab may have caused voluminous
economies of scale typically reduce environmental impact (per fluid release due to breakdown of hydrous minerals16. Extensive
unit of product) through energy efficiencies and isolation of land suprasubduction-zone mantle hydration may have been important
disturbance, while localizing disruption to communities. Hence, for generating hydrous, oxidized, fertile magmas17. Alternatively,
most exploration companies look for large or ‘giant’ deposits that dehydration melting of deep-crustal arc cumulates during crustal
offer maximum returns on investment, the prospect of continued thickening may have been responsible for magma fertility18.
returns over long periods of time, and minimum environmental Clearly El Teniente is unusual in several respects. The key feature
and social impacts. in its giant size, however, is probably the presence of particularly
Mineral reserves for an ore deposit are usually reported in receptive mafic wallrocks that chemically trapped over 80% of the
terms of average grade of ore (in weight per cent for abundant mineralization12. In this respect, El Teniente is similar to the giant
elements, or gram per tonne (g t–1) for rare elements such as gold) Resolution porphyry deposit in Arizona, where high-grade miner-
and the tonnes of rock containing that ore (commonly reported alization (>1% Cu) is also hosted by mafic (doleritic) wallrocks19,20.
in millions or billions of tonnes: Mt or Gt). Total contained metal
is calculated based on these tonnage and grade figures. The most Grasberg Cu–Au–Ag porphyry deposit, Papua, Indonesia. The
profitable deposits typically have both high grades and tonnages, Grasberg porphyry complex contains reserves of over 24  Mt Cu
but individual deposits in reality have a wide range of actual and 2,000 t Au, which even after 40 years of mining still represents
grades. ‘Reserve’ estimates are therefore calculated based on the the largest minable reserve of Cu and Au in the world. Grasberg
optimum mix of ore types that will enable the most efficient and is related to a monzonitic intrusive complex that is about 3 mil-
profitable mine design, and the ultimate extraction of as much lion years old. It was emplaced in uplifted Cretaceous–Paleocene
of the contained metal as possible. A ‘cutoff grade’ is commonly continental-shelf carbonate sequences, following collision of arc
also reported, which indicates the lowest grade of mineralization terranes with the northeastern margin of Australasia21. Grasberg is
that can be mined economically; this cutoff grade, and result- an example of a post-subduction porphyry system, probably gener-
ant reserve figures, may fluctuate with global metal prices. This ated by remobilization of subduction-modified lithosphere during
may make lower-grade ores uneconomic when prices fall, or may post-collisional tectonic readjustments22. Localization of upper-
allow economic mining of materials previously considered to be crustal magma emplacement in a sinistral pull-apart structure was
waste when metal prices rise. Production costs may have similar critical in focusing magmatic and hydrothermal activity23, and steep
effects if, for example, the price of fuel rises or falls. thermal gradients (~500 °C km–1) at shallow emplacement depths
(<1 km) resulted in rapid and focused precipitation of ore minerals24.
The carbonate-rich nature of the country rocks also provided reac-
Laramide arc-related porphyry belt in Arizona, and is hosted by tive chemical traps for high-grade Cu–Au skarn mineralization25.
Eocene-age monzonitic stocks intruded into Late Carboniferous
sandstones and limestones. The giant size of the deposit may be due Oyu Tolgoi Cu–Au porphyry deposit, Mongolia. The Oyu Tolgoi
to a combination of factors, including the large size of an inferred deposit is one of the largest Cu–Au deposits in the world, with
underlying source batholith, the mildly alkaline character of the reserves of 13 Mt Cu and 528 t Au. It is located in a late Palaeozoic
associated magmas, suitable depth of emplacement (2–3 km palae- island-arc terrane, now embedded in central Asia following conti-
odepth) and the focused emplacement of magmas within a dilatant nental collision in the Permian26,27. Oyu Tolgoi is a cluster of eight
structural corridor3. None of these features is unique to Bingham. separate porphyry deposits along a 22-km-long trend, associ-
In contrast, there is some evidence for the existence of anoma- ated with Late Devonian monzodioritic intrusions28,29. Very high-
lously Cu-rich mafic magmas in the Bingham district, which may grade mineralization (>2.5% Cu, 0.5–2 g t–1 Au; ref. 28) occurs in
have injected Cu into the underlying batholith4,5. More recently, it the deeply covered Hugo Dummett deposit. The mineralization
has been suggested that the Bingham magmas were sourced from diverges from the standard porphyry model because it is associ-
ancient metasomatized continental lithosphere and were not related ated largely with advanced argillic alteration and is characterized
to active subduction6. Thus, there do seem to be some unique factors by high-sulphidation mineral assemblages of bornite, chalcopyrite,
that set this giant deposit apart from conventional porphyry sys- covellite and enargite with pyrite (see Supplementary Information
tems. On the other hand, Bingham may instead be an example of a for definition of terms). This relationship has been interpreted to
newly recognized subclass of post-subduction porphyry deposits7–9. reflect downward superimposition of high-sulphidation-style alter-
ation and mineralization on an earlier porphyry-type system28,29.
El Teniente Cu–Mo porphyry deposit, Chile. The late Miocene/ The very high grades of Cu–Au mineralization in part reflect this
early Pliocene El Teniente deposit is one of the world’s largest por- overprinting event. However, the porphyry stage of mineralization
phyry copper deposits, containing over 94 Mt of Cu (ref. 10). There was also very well developed, with intense zones of sheeted veining30
is some debate in the literature as to whether El Teniente should (Supplementary Fig.  S2), suggesting tight structural focusing of
be classified as a porphyry deposit10 or a breccia-hosted deposit11. hydrothermal fluid flow above a large magmatic source.

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Controls on formation of giant porphyry deposits. Each of abundance of moderate-grade veins and veinlets that can be mined
these four examples of giant porphyry deposits is anomalous with economically in bulk, or to spectacularly high (‘bonanza’) grades of
respect to the standard model of porphyry formation. The deposits ore in one or more large vein systems (Table  1). As a generaliza-
differ in terms of their tectonomagmatic setting (post-subduction tion, high-sulphidation (HS) and intermediate-sulphidation (IS)
or collisional), the proposed role of unusually Cu-rich magmas, epithermal Au–Ag deposits more commonly fall into the former
the presence of particularly reactive chemical traps in wallrocks, or category, whereas bonanza ore grades are more commonly found
highly focused, prolonged or multiple fluid-flow events (Table  1). in low-sulphidation (LS) deposits (see Supplementary Information
Without these distinctive attributes, it is possible that only normal- for descriptions of these deposit subtypes). In a review of epither-
sized deposits would have formed, or perhaps no economic miner- mal deposits32, four of the eight giant epithermal gold deposits and
alization at all. Thus, although each deposit is easily recognized as districts described are HS or HS–IS in character, and four are IS or
belonging to the porphyry family, specific conditions or processes IS–LS. Three of the largest HS–IS deposits are Pueblo Viejo in the
have generated exceptional enrichments and tonnages of metals. Dominican Republic, and the Pascua–Lama and Veladero deposits
At the other end of the spectrum, the potential for ore formation in the El Indio belt of Chile, whereas the Porgera deposit in Papua
can be lost or destroyed for any number of reasons, including, from New Guinea is alkalic-type (a subtype of LS) (see Supplementary
the bottom up: insufficient volume or duration of arc magmatism; Table  S1 for reserve estimates). These deposits are discussed
reducing conditions in the mantle or deep lithosphere, resulting in briefly below.
early sulphide fractionation and loss of metals from the magma;
insufficient magmatic water content to generate a large magmatic- Pueblo Viejo HS Au–Ag–Cu deposit, Dominican Republic.
hydrothermal system; magma emplacement at too great a depth or The Pueblo Viejo deposit contains reserves of 717  t Au (ref. 33).
in impermeable country rocks, stifling hydrothermal circulation; The deposit is being mined as an open pit operation, and exploits
voluminous eruption at surface resulting in venting of the hydro- disseminated and vein-hosted mineralization in a large volume
thermal system; or lack of focusing of hydrothermal fluid flow, lead- (3 × 10 km) of intensely acid-altered rock. High-Au grades (up to
ing to diffuse, low-grade mineralization. 21 g t–1) occur in late veins, but the bulk of the ore occurs as lower-
For a magmatic system to generate a large porphyry deposit, it grade (2–3 g t–1 Au), disseminated mineralization in carbonaceous
must therefore sequentially satisfy a number of essential steps and sedimentary rocks34. Pueblo Viejo is unusual in being hosted by an
conditions. Omission of any step may result in loss of ore-forming island-arc sequence, whereas most large HS Au–Ag deposits occur
potential. But the formation of a giant deposit may require addi- in more felsic continental-arc volcanic sequences. The exact rela-
tional or enhanced processes to raise the tonnage and grade of tionship between the deposit and its host rocks is disputed, as are
mineralization beyond the range of standard systems. the main controls on ore formation. The large size of the deposit
may be due to the presence of a thick sequence of Fe-rich and car-
Giant epithermal Au–Ag deposits bonaceous volcano-sedimentary rocks, which provided an efficient
Giant epithermal Au–Ag deposits are less common than giant chemical trap for Au–Ag mineralization35. Alternatively, an imper-
porphyry Cu±Mo±Au deposits (~20 versus ~100 globally, although meable limestone cap may have sealed the hydrothermal system,
this is obviously a function of the criteria used for classification31). leading to high-temperature alteration styles and unusually high
They owe their giant status (>100 t contained Au) either to a high grades of mineralization36.

Galore Creek

Highland Valley Oyu Tolgoi

Pebble Majdanpek
Bingham
Qulong
Sierrita Pueblo Viejo Hishikari
Cananea Sar Cheshmeh Tampakan
Reko Diq Grasberg
Porgera

Yanacocha Lihir
Batu Hijau

Chuquicamata
El Indio
El Teniente

Porphyry deposits Cadia

Epithermal deposits

Figure 1 | Giant ore deposits. Locations of giant ore deposits discussed in this paper and significant arc-related metallogenic belts (purple lines). Base map
modified from World of Maps™ (© Bruce Jones Design, 2010, with permission).

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PROGRESS ARTICLE | FOCUS NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO1920

Table 1 | Characteristics of some giant porphyry Cu±Mo±Au and epithermal Au–Ag deposits compared with ‘standard’ systems
Characteristic ‘Standard’ deposits Giant deposits*
Porphyry Cu±Mo±Au deposits20,43–48
Tectonic setting Volcanic arc above subduction zone Similar, or shallow subduction, back-arc, collisional,
or post-subduction
Magmatic association Calc-alkaline to mildly alkaline Similar
Metal content of magma Typically <100 ppm Cu (ref. 49) Similar; enriched in some cases? (up to 125 ppm
Cu; ref. 4)
Duration of hydrothermal activity Typically ≤0.1 Myr for a single ore-forming event Up to 0.7 Myr in multiple ore-forming events
(ref. 15)
Host rocks Volcanic and clastic sedimentary rocks Similar, ± chemically reactive mafic igneous rocks,
carbonate rocks
Hydrothermal fluids 700–300 °C saline aqueous fluids of Similar; unusually metalliferous in some cases?
magmatic origin
Hydrothermal fluid flow Focused above shallow pluton Highly focused in structural corridors

Epithermal Au–Ag deposits50–55

Tectonic setting HS–IS: Volcanic arc above subduction zone HS–IS: Transitional island arc, shallow subduction
LS/alkalic: Extensional or back-arc settings LS/alkalic: Continental rifting; post-collisional
back-arc transtension
Magmatic association HS–IS: Calc-alkaline Similar
LS: Bimodal (felsic + mafic) or no association
Alkalic: Alkaline
Host rocks Volcanic and clastic sedimentary rocks Similar, ± carbonaceous volcano-sedimentary
rocks, carbonate rocks
Source of hydrothermal fluids HS–IS: Magmatic fluid Similar
LS: Dominantly groundwater
Alkalic: Possibly magmatic fluid
Nature of hydrothermal fluids HS–IS: Highly acidic vapours Similar
LS: Neutral pH dilute water
Alkalic: Neutral pH dilute water + minor CO2
Hydrothermal fluid flow Structurally focused High degree of structural focusing; seismic
triggering of fluid flow
Ore depositional processes HS–IS: Fluid mixing, boiling Similar, but unusual efficiency of processes,
LS: Boiling especially flash-boiling induced by seismicity
Alkalic: H2O–CO2 phase separation
*Not all of these anomalous characteristics are present in any given deposit. See Supplementary Information for additional information on ore-forming processes. HS, high sulphidation; IS, intermediate
sulphidation; LS, low sulphidation.

El Indio HS Au–Ag belt Chile. The El Indio belt contains a number alkalic subset of LS epithermal deposits. In this case, the deposit
of individual Au–Ag HS systems, including the giant Pascua–Lama is associated with a suite of mafic, sodic (hawaiitic to mugearitic)
(508  t Au) and Veladero deposits (301  t Au)33. Mineralization is stocks and dykes emplaced into uplifted Mesozoic shelf sediments
associated with Miocene–Pliocene calc-alkaline volcanism, but on the northeastern margin of Australasia. The timing of magma-
is restricted to a narrow time interval from 9.4 to 6.2 Myr ago37. tism and ore formation 6 Myr ago correlates with collision of part
Hydrothermal alteration occurs throughout the volcanic succession, of the New Britain arc with the continental margin. This collision
but only the late Miocene systems are mineralized. Explanations for resulted in small-volume partial melting of previously subduction-
the restriction of epithermal Au–Ag mineralization to this time modified mantle in a back-arc environment41. Mafic, alkaline partial
period have included: fluid release due to breakdown of hydrous melts were emplaced in the shallow crust along an orogen-oblique,
minerals above a shallowing subduction zone16; landscape incision, back-arc transtensional fault system. The Porgera gold deposit was
resulting in lowering of the regional water table with consequent exceptional in containing a large zone of very high-grade, fault-con-
fluid mixing and boiling37; direct hydration and partial melting of trolled gold mineralization (Supplementary Fig. S3; initial reserves
lower crustal amphibolites during flat subduction38; and a change at the start of mining in 1990 were 51.5 Mt grading 6.5 g t–1, with
from andesitic stratovolcano to dacitic dome formation, associated stope grades locally in excess of 300  g  t–1 Au). High-grade gold
with a change in lithospheric stress state39. This wide range of expla- deposition was caused by efficient channelling of fluids up the fault
nations for the formation of several large ore deposits in a spatially zone, combined with flash-boiling during seismic fault movement
and temporally restricted region of the Central Andes highlights over an extended vertical range (enhanced by elevated CO2 contents
the difficulties in pinning down a single causative process within an in the ore-forming fluids)40,42.
otherwise generally favourable ore-forming environment.
Controls on formation of giant epithermal deposits As with the
Porgera alkalic-type Au deposit, Papua New Guinea. The Porgera four examples of giant porphyry deposits discussed above, these
Au deposit (600 t Au past production plus reserves40) belongs to the three giant epithermal deposits are all recognizable members of the

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NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO1920 FOCUS | PROGRESS ARTICLE
Volcanic-arc setting Back-arc or rift setting

HS–IS epithermal Au deposits

Alkalic-type
Structural focusing epithermal LS epithermal
Au deposit Au deposit
Porphyry Cu deposit
Reactive host rocks
Reactive host rocks
5–10 km

Multiple ore-forming events

1–2 km
Flash-boiling, mixing

Source upper-crustal batholith Cu-rich magmas and/or fluids? Structural focusing

Alkalic intrusion 

Ore body
Tectonic change Tectonic change
Groundwater
Sche
mat
ic s ubd Magmatic
uct fluid
ing
pla
te Fault

Figure 2 | Key features of giant ore deposits. The figure schematically illustrates the general modes of formation of porphyry Cu and epithermal Au
deposits. LS, low sulphidation. Purple boxes highlight features or processes that may result in supercharging these systems to form giant deposits.

established epithermal family. The controls on ore formation, for to a common rule of thumb, only 1 in 1,000 exploration targets will
example wallrock reaction, structurally focused fluid flow or fluid prove economic.
boiling, are not unique and the associated igneous rocks are not par- Prediction of the location of exceptional ore deposits is difficult,
ticularly unusual (except for the alkalic group). Transient or distinct but not impossible. Distinct conditions that seem to have helped to
tectonic settings, such as a transitional island arc, shallow subduc- enhance the overall depositional processes during formation of sev-
tion or post-collisional back-arc transtension, are, however, evident eral porphyry and epithermal deposits can be identified. Therefore,
for all three deposits. These tectonic settings may have given rise by focusing on generally promising geological settings that also
either to the release of unusually large volumes of ore-forming fluid, show evidence for these distinct conditions, exploration for giant
or to exceptionally tight focusing of fluid flow up a single exten- deposits could be made more efficient.
sional structure. Hydrothermal sealing and reactive wall-rocks are
also locally important controls on ore formation. Received 8 February 2013; accepted 17 July 2013; published online
13 October 2013.
The optimization of normal ore-forming processes
Several of the world’s largest porphyry Cu±Mo±Au and epithermal References
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33. Barick Gold Corporation; http://www.barrick.com. Reprints and permissions information is available online at www.nature.com/reprints.
34. Mueller, A. G., Hall, G. C., Nemchin, A. A. & O’Brien, D. Chronology of the Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to J.P.R.
Pueblo Viejo epithermal gold–silver deposit, Dominican Republic: Formation
in an Early Cretaceous intra-oceanic island arc and burial under ophiolite. Competing financial interests
Mineral. Depos. 43, 873–889 (2008). The author declares no competing financial interests.

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