Sources of radiation
Most important type of radiation is blackbody radiation.
This is radiation that is in thermal equilibrium with matter
at some temperature T.
Lab source of blackbody radiation: hot oven with a small
hole which does not disturb thermal equilibrium inside:
Blackbody
radiation
Important because:
• Interiors of stars (for example) are like this
• Emission from many objects is roughly of this form.
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
A general principle in physics is that energy cannot flow
spontaneously from a cold body to a hot one (a statement
of the second law of thermodynamics). Implies that the
intensity of blackbody radiation can only depend on T:
T T
In I n’
Imagine two blackbody cavities at the same temperature T,
separated by a filter that transmits only radiation with
frequency close to n. If:
In ≠ In¢
…there would be a net energy flow, in violation of the 2nd law.
Hence In can only depend on T. ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
†
Spectrum of blackbody radiation
The frequency dependence of blackbody radiation is given
by the Planck function:
2hn 3 /c 2
Bn (T) =
exp(hn /kT) -1
• h = 6.63 x 10-27 erg s is Planck’s constant
• k = 1.38 x 10-16 erg K-1 is Boltzmann’s constant
†
Same units as specific intensity: erg s-1 cm-2 steradian-1 Hz-1
Derivation in Harwit, or see different derivation on the web
page.
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
Properties of blackbody radiation
Plot Bn(T):
• Continuous spectrum
• Increasing T increases
Bn at all frequencies
• Higher temperature
shifts the peak to higher
frequency / shorter
wavelength.
Thermal radiation:
Sn = B n
Blackbody radiation:
In = Bn
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
Differentiate Bn(T) with respect to frequency and set resulting
expression to zero to find where the Planck function peaks.
hn max = 2.82kT
n max = 5.88 ¥1010 T Hz K -1
Wien displacement law - peak shifts linearly with increasing
temperature to higher frequency.
†
Rayleigh-Jeans law: for low frequencies hn << kT:
2
2n
BnRJ (T) = 2 kT
c
Often valid in the radio part of the spectrum, at frequencies
far below the peak of the Planck function.
†
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
The energy density of blackbody radiation:
u(T) = aT 4
…where a = 7.56 x 10-15 erg cm-3 K-4 is the radiation constant.
The emergent flux from a surface emitting blackbody
radiation is:†
F = sT 4
…where s = 5.67 x 10-5 erg cm-2 K-4 s-1 is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant.
†
e.g. star, radius R, temperature T, emitting as a blackbody,
has a luminosity:
L = 4pR 2sT 4
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
†
Emission from most astronomical sources is only roughly
described by the Planck function (if at all).
Source has emergent flux F (integrated over all frequencies),
define the effective temperature Te via:
F ≡ sTe4
Effective temperature is the temperature of a blackbody that
emits same flux. e.g. for the Sun:
2
† Lsun = 4 pRsun sTe4
…find Te = 5770 K.
Note: effective
† temperature is well-defined even if the
spectrum is nothing like a blackbody.
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
Which objects have blackbody spectra?
Radiation will be blackbody radiation wherever we have
matter in thermal equilibrium with radiation - i.e. at large
optical depth. To show this, consider transfer equation with
Sn = Bn(T), and assume T is constant:
dIn
= -In + Bn (T)
dt n
Can integrate this equation, with solution:
In (t ) = Bn + e-t [ I0 - Bn ]
†
-> 0 as t becomes large
where I0 is the value of In at t = 0. Conclude In = Bn at high
†
optical depth, e.g. in the center of a star.
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
Recall interpretation of optical depth: at t = 1 there is (very
roughly speaking) a 50% chance that a photon headed toward
us will suffer an absorption or scattering along the way.
By definition, photons we can
observe from an optically thick
source come from near the
t = 1 surface.
Since t = 1 is not `high optical depth’, observed radiation from
an optically thick source is not necessarily blackbody spectrum.
Deviations will depend upon the frequency dependence of
the opacity around the t = 1 surface (the photosphere).
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
Solar spectrum - approximately of blackbody form. Very cool
stars show larger departures from thermal spectra.
flux
wavelength ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
Giant planets
Two sources of radiation:
• Directly reflected Sun light
• Absorbed Solar radiation, reradiated as a cool blackbody
e.g. Jupiter: Lsun = 3.86 ¥10 33 erg s-1
aJ = 7.8 ¥1013 cm Jupiter orbital radius
R J = 7.1¥10 9 cm Jupiter radius
Solar radiation incident on the planet is:
† pRJ2 -9
LJ = 2
¥ L sun ª 2 ¥10 Lsun
4paJ
Suppose planet directly reflects 10% - in the optical Jupiter
is ~1010 times fainter than the Sun as seen from another
star -†about 25 magnitudes.
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
Absorb and reradiate as a blackbody:
2 4
LJ = 4pR ¥ sT
J J
If all Sun light absorbed, estimate T = 120 K. Use:
hn max = 2.82kT
Find nmax†
= 7 x 1012 Hz, which corresponds to a wavelength
of around 40 microns.
†
ASTR 3730: Fall 2003
