Name : Isro Anita

NPM : 0823 032

Semester: V (lima)

Class : B.V.I

Analysis Syntax
[Link] of Syntax
These pages have information relevant to this discussion of syntax:

• Writing and Perception

• Interpretation
• The Writing Process

Basically, syntax is the rules by which signs are combined to make statements. If you
consider the words of a language to be its signs, then its syntax is the rules which put
signs together to make statements, ask questions, and produce other utterances.

Syntax incorporates the grammar of phrases, clauses, and sentences. Producing and
uttering sentences is an important part of how we make sense of our world. We articulate
the meaning of our experience in words; in the process of articulate, we make (or
discover) the meaning of the experience. This process is similar to the ways in which we
intrepret literature.

The syntax the exact structure of what we write is an essential part of its meaning.
Change the structure and you have changed the meaning, at least slightly.

A few years ago, I was on Miami Beach. Along with the ocean breeze, there was the odor
of exhaust from jet-skiers who were buzzing around just beyond the surf, coming close to
swimmers and small craft. The juxtaposition of the two smells impressed me strongly.
Since I'm inclined to express meaningful experiences in writing, I produced the following
haiku:
sea breeze
carrying the fumes
of jet-ski exhaust

If it is successful, it will convey to the reader something of what I experienced. In any

case, by articulating that experience in those words in that order, I discovered,
formulated, and expressed the meaning of the experience for me.

Any writer does the same, thus the importance of syntax. If you think of syntax as the
description of the living forms of language, rather than as the class room rules of
grammar, you may find it more useful in developing your writing abilities.
Syn·tax
1. a. The study of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence structure
are combined to form grammatical sentences.
b. A publication, such as a book, that presents such rules.
c. The pattern of formation of sentences or phrases in a language.
d. Such a pattern in a particular sentence or discourse.
2. Computer Science The rules governing the formation of statements in a programming
language.
3. A systematic, orderly arrangement.

Syntax
1. (Linguistics) the branch of linguistics that deals with the grammatical arrangement of
words and morphemes in the sentences of a language or of languages in general
2. (Linguistics) the totality of facts about the grammatical arrangement of words in a
language
3. (Linguistics) a systematic statement of the rules governing the grammatical
arrangement of words and morphemes in a language
4. (Philosophy / Logic) Logic a systematic statement of the rules governing the properly
formed formulas of a logical system
5. any orderly arrangement or system

[Link] - the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences

phrase structure, sentence structure
structure - the complex composition of knowledge as elements and their combinations;
"his lectures have no structure"
linguistics - the scientific study of language
[Link] - a systematic orderly arrangement
system, scheme - a group of independent but interrelated elements comprising a unified
whole; "a vast system of production and distribution and consumption keep the country
going"
[Link] - studies of the rules for forming admissible sentences
linguistics - the scientific study of language
grammar - the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and
sometimes also deals with semantics)
generative grammar - (linguistics) a type of grammar that describes syntax in terms of a
set of logical rules that can generate all and only the infinite number of grammatical
sentences in a language and assigns them all the correct structural description

[Link] Syntax
Context-Free Grammar:
A context-free grammar G is a quadruple (V, ∑, R, S), where
V is an alphabet,
∑ (the set of terminals) is a subset of V,
R (the set of rules) is a finite subset of (V-∑) × V*, and
S (the start symbol) is an element of V-∑.
The members of V-∑ are called nonterminals. For any A∈ V-∑ and u ∈ V*, we
write A

u whenever (A, u) ∈ R. For any strings u, v ∈ V*, we write u => v if and only if
there are strings s, y, v’ ∈ V* and A ∈ V-∑ such that u = xAy, v=xv’y, and A v’.
The relation =>* is the reflexive, transitive closure of =>. Finally, L(G), the language
generated by G, is {w ∈ ∑ *: S =>*w}; we also say that G generates each string in L(G).
A language L is said to be a context- free language if it is equal to L(G) for some
contextfree

Grammar G.
Not all context- free languages are regular.
Every regular language is context- free.
A context-free grammar G = (V, ∑, R, S) is regular if and only if R ⊆ (V-∑)
× ∑ *((V-∑)
∪{e}).
That is, the right-hand side of every rule contains at most one non-terminal, which, if
present, must be the last symbol in the string.
A language is regular if and only if it is generated by a regular grammar.
A program that performs syntax analysis is called a parser.
A syntax analyzer takes tokens as input and output error message if the program
Syntax is
wrong.
Top-down Parsing
The parser uses the single-symbol look-ahead method and an approach called top-
down
parsing without backtracking.

Rule 1. For every BNF rule

D = R,
the parser defines a procedure of the same name:
proc D()
begin
a(R);
end;
where a(R) checks if input tokens form a sentence described by expression R.
2
If a valid sentence is found, the parse reads out the whole sentence, otherwise a
syntax error is reported.

Rule 2. A sequence of sentences of the forms F1, F2, …, Fn is recognized by scanning

the individual sentences one at a time in the order written:
a(F1 F2 … Fn) = a(F1); a(F2);…a(Fn);

Rule 3. A single token is recognized by the procedure expect().

Rule 4. To recognize a sentence described by a BNF rule named N the parser calls the
corresponding procedure named N:
a(N) = N
Rule 5. The parser uses the following algorithm to recognize option rule [E]:
a([E]) = if currToken in First(E) then a(E).
Rule 6. The parse uses the following algorithm to recognize repetition rule {E}:
a({E}) = while currToken in First(E) do a(E).
Rule 7. If the Oi’s are non-empty, the following algorithm recognizes a sentence of the
form O1 | O2 | O3 |…| On:
a(O1 | O2 | O3 |…| On ) =
if currToken in First(O1) then a(O1);
else if currToken in First(O2) then a(O2);
…
else if currToken in First(On) then a(On);
else syntaxError();
First Symbols :
1) First(Empty) = Symbols[]
2) First(s) = Symbols[s], given a single token s
3) First(XY) = First(X), given X is non-empty
4) First(XY) = First(X) + First(Y) if X may be empty
5) First(X|Y) = First(X) + First(Y)
6) First([X]) = First({X}) = First(X)

Follow symbols:

The set of symbols that may follow after a non-terminal symbol T is denoted Follow(T).
1) T of the forms
N=STU
N = S [T] U
N = S {T} U
If U is non-empty, Follow(T) includes First(U).
If U may be empty, Follow(T) includes Follow(N).
2) T of the forms
N=ST
N = S [T]
3
N = S {T}
Follow(T) includes Follow(N).
3) If T occurs in the form {T}, Follow(T) includes First(T).
Grammar Restrictions
Restriction 1. Consider the sentences of the forms
N = E | F.
To decide whether the next symbol is the beginning of an E or F sentence, the parse
must
assume that the two kinds of sentences always begin with different symbols. So the
BNF
grammar must satisfy the following condition:
First(E) * First(F) = Symbols[].
Ambiguity
A grammar that produces more than one parse three for some sentence is said to be
ambiguous.
Restriction 2. If some of the sentences described by a BNF rule N may be empty, the
grammar must be constrained as follows:
First(N) * Follow(N) = Symbols[].
Any rule that contains [E] or {E} must be considered.
Recursive-Descent Parsing:
A set of recursive procedures are used to analyze a sentence from the top down in
more
and more detain until individual tokens are recognized.
Elimination of Left Recursion:
The rule A Aa | b can be replace by the non- left recursive productions
A bA’
A’ aA’ | e
without changing the set of strings derivable form A. This will eliminate immediate
leftrecursion
but not the following case:
S Aa | b
A Ac | Sd | e

where S => Aa => Sda is also left-recursive

[Link] Syntax
Place syntax is a term in spatial analysis.

There is great potential in combining geographically oriented accessibility research and

geometrically oriented research in architecture, such as space syntax, as stated by for
example, Jiang et al. [1]. The weak representations of the cognitive environment for
movement space in current accessibility measures, pointed out by for example Kwan et
al.[citation needed], can be reinforced by the concept of the axial line, developed by Hillier et al.
[citation needed]
. The axial line represents how you move and what you can see, which is by
nature directional[citation needed].

An axial map thereby captures not only the movement grid but also, roughly, how it is to
navigate in it. The axial map therefore can put local data on plots or places, as used in
geographical approaches, in defined geometrical relations or configurations. Seen the
other way around, space syntax can be integrated and strengthened with place data, in
ways not done before[citation needed]. This is what we call Place Syntax, which basically means
accessibility with axial lines, i.e. accessibility with visibility.

The research group Spatial analysis & Design (SAD) at the Royal Institute of Technology
in Stockholm, Sweden, has, together with the Department of Numerical Analysis and
Computing Science, developed a new GIS-tool called "The Place Syntax Tool" (PST)
[citation needed]
. The tool uses spatial data on plot regions or address points. The axial map
with unlinks constitute the grid. Address points also work as links between plot and axial
line. Distance (dij) can be constrained as 'turns' (axial steps), walk distance or bird's
distance (meter). There are also possibilities to define a function on the distance
constraints[citation needed].

SAD believe that the 'Place syntax' approach and the new GIS-tool has great potential for
urban analysis and architectural space design for example in better predicting pedestrian
flow and estimating accessibilities based on the experiencing subject, both where the
pedestrian can go and what it can see[citation needed].

[Link] (programming languages)

Syntax highlighting is often used to aid programmers in recognizing elements of source
code. The language above is Python.

In computer science, the syntax of a programming language is the set of rules that define
the combinations of symbols that are considered to be correctly structured programs in
that language. The syntax of a language defines its surface form.[1] Text-based
programming languages are based on sequences of characters, while visual programming
languages are based on the spatial layout and connections between symbols (which may
be textual or graphical).

The lexical grammar of a textual language specifies how characters must be chunked into
tokens. Other syntax rules specify the permissible sequences of these tokens and the
process of assigning meaning to these token sequences is part of semantics.

The syntactic analysis of source code usually entails the transformation of the linear
sequence of tokens into a hierarchical syntax tree (abstract syntax trees are one
convenient form of syntax tree). This process is called parsing, as it is in syntactic
analysis in linguistics. Tools have been written that automatically generate parsers from a
specification of a language grammar written in Backus-Naur form, e.g., Yacc (yet another
compiler compiler).

Syntax versus semantics

The syntax of a language describes the form of a valid program, but does not provide any
information about the meaning of the program or the results of executing that program.
The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either formal or
hard-coded in a reference implementation). Not all syntactically correct programs are
semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per
the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness
of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such
programs may exhibit undefined behavior. Even when a program is well-defined within a
language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.

Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a

grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:

• "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously." is grammatically well-formed but has no

generally accepted meaning.
• "John is a married bachelor." is grammatically well-formed but expresses a
meaning that cannot be true.

The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs an operation

that is not semantically defined (because p is a null pointer, the operations p->real and p-
>im have no meaning):

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Syntax definition
• 2 Syntax versus semantics
• 3 See also

• 4 References

[edit] Syntax definition

Parse tree of Python code with inset tokenization

The syntax of textual programming languages is usually defined using a combination of

regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus-Naur Form (for grammatical
structure) to inductively specify syntactic categories (nonterminals) and terminal
symbols. Syntactic categories are defined by rules called productions, which specify the
values that belong to a particular syntactic category.[1] Terminal symbols are the concrete
characters or strings of characters (for example keywords such as define, if, let, or void)
from which syntactically valid programs are constructed.

Below is a simple grammar, based on Lisp, which defines productions for the syntactic
categories expression, atom, number, symbol, and list:

expression ::= atom | list

atom ::= number | symbol
number ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+
symbol ::= ['A'-'Z''a'-'z'].*
list ::= '(' expression* ')'

This grammar specifies the following:

• an expression is either an atom or a list;

• an atom is either a number or a symbol;
• a number is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally
preceded by a plus or minus sign;
• a symbol is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding
whitespace); and
• a list is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more expressions inside it.

Here the decimal digits, upper- and lower-case characters, and parentheses are terminal
symbols.

The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: '12345', '()',
'(a b c232 (1))'

The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position
in the Chomsky hierarchy. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified
using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are context-free grammars.[2] However, there are
exceptions. In some languages like Perl and Lisp the specification (or implementation) of
the language allows constructs that execute during the parsing phase. Furthermore, these
languages have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser.
This combination effectively blurs the distinction between parsing and execution, and
makes syntax analysis an undecidable problem in these languages, meaning that the
parsing phase may not finish. For example, in Perl it is possible to execute code during
parsing using a BEGIN statement, and Perl function prototypes may alter the syntactic
interpretation, and possibly even the syntactic validity of the remaining code.[3] Similarly,
Lisp macros introduced by the defmacro syntax also execute during parsing, meaning that
a Lisp compiler must have an entire Lisp run-time system present. In contrast C macros
are merely string replacements, and do not require code execution.[4][5]