1 Making measurements

In this chapter, you will find out:

◆ how to make measurements of length, volume and time

S ◆ how to increase the precision of measurements of length and time
◆ how to determine the densities of solids and liquids.

How measurement improves

Galileo Galilei did a lot to revolutionise how we
think of the world around us, and in particular how
we make measurements. For example, he observed a
lamp swinging. Galileo noticed that the time it took
for each swing was the same, whether the lamp was
swinging through a large or a small angle. He realised
that a swinging weight – a pendulum – could be used
as a timing device. He designed a clock regulated by a
swinging pendulum.
In Galileo’s day, many measurements were based
on the human body – for example, the foot and the
yard (a pace). Units of weight were based on familiar
Figure 1.1 Professor Patrick Gill of the National Physical
objects such as cereal grains. These ‘natural’ units are Laboratory is devising an atomic clock that will be 1000 times
inevitably variable – one person’s foot is longer than more accurate than previous types.
another’s – so efforts were made to standardise them.
Today, there are international agreements on
to find your way around, you rely on ultra-precise
the basic units of measurement. For example, the
time measurements. A ‘satnav’ detects radio signals
metre is defined as the distance travelled by light in from satellites orbiting the Earth, and works out
1 your position to within a fraction of a metre. Light
second in a vacuum. Laboratories around
299792 458 1
travels one metre in about second, or
the world are set up to check that measuring devices 300000000
match this standard. Figure 1.1 shows a new atomic 0.000 000 003 second. So, if you are one metre
clock, undergoing development at the UK’s National further away from the satellite, the signal will
Physical Laboratory. Clocks like this are accurate to arrive this tiny fraction of a second later. Hence
1 part in 1014, or one-billionth of a second in a day. the electronic circuits of the ‘satnav’ device must
You might think that this is far more precise than measure the time at which the signal arrives to this
we could ever need. In fact, if you use a ‘satnav’ device degree of accuracy.

2 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

1.1 Measuring length and volume several thicknesses and then calculate the average.
In physics, we make measurements of many different You can use the same approach when measuring
lengths – for example, the length of a piece of wire, the something very thin, such as a sheet of paper. Take a
height of liquid in a tube, the distance moved by an stack of 500 sheets and measure its thickness with a
object, the diameter of a planet or the radius of its orbit. rule (Figure 1.3). Then divide by 500 to find the
In the laboratory, lengths are often measured using a thickness of one sheet.
rule (such as a metre rule). For some measurements of length, such as curved
Measuring lengths with a rule is a familiar task. lines, it can help to lay a thread along the line. Mark the
But when you use a rule, it is worth thinking about thread at either end of the line and then lay it along a
the task and just how reliable your measurements may rule to find the length. This technique can also be used
be. Consider measuring the length of a piece of wire for measuring the circumference of a cylindrical object
(Figure 1.2). such as a wooden rod or a measuring cylinder.
◆ The wire must be straight, and laid closely alongside
the rule. (This may be tricky with a bent piece of wire.) Measuring volumes
◆ Look at the ends of the wire. Are they cut neatly, There are two approaches to measuring volumes,
or are they ragged? Is it difficult to judge where the depending on whether or not the shape is regular.
wire begins and ends? For a regularly shaped object, such as a rectangular
◆ Look at the markings on the rule. They are probably block, measure the lengths of the three different sides
1 mm apart, but they may be quite wide. Line one and multiply them together. For objects of other regular
end of the wire up against the zero of the scale. shapes, such as spheres or cylinders, you may have to
Because of the width of the mark, this may be make one or two measurements and then look up the
awkward to judge. formula for the volume.
◆ Look at the other end of the wire and read the scale. For liquids, measuring cylinders can be used.
Again, this may be tricky to judge. (Recall that these are designed so that you look at
Now you have a measurement, with an idea of how the scale horizontally, not at an oblique angle, and
precise it is. You can probably determine the length of the read the level of the bottom of the meniscus.) Think
wire to within a millimetre. But there is something else to carefully about the choice of cylinder. A 1 dm3 cylinder
think about – the rule itself. How sure can you be that it is is unlikely to be suitable for measuring a small volume
correctly calibrated? Are the marks at the ends of a metre such as 5 cm3. You will get a more accurate answer using
rule separated by exactly one metre? Any error in this will a 10 cm3 cylinder.
lead to an inaccuracy (probably small) in your result.
The point here is to recognise that it is always 500 sheets
important to think critically about the measurements
13

you make, however straightforward they may seem.

You have to consider the method you use, as well as the
12

instrument (in this case, the rule).

More measurement techniques

11

If you have to measure a small length, such as the

thickness of a wire, it may be better to measure
10
9

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8

Figure 1.2 Simple measurements – for example, finding the

length of a wire – still require careful technique. Figure 1.3 Making multiple measurements.

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Making measurements 3

Measuring volume by displacement and millilitre are not official SI units of volume, and so
Most objects do not have a regular shape, so we cannot are not used in this book. One litre (1 l) is the same as
find their volumes simply by measuring the lengths 1 dm3, and one millilitre (1 ml) is the same as 1 cm3.
of their sides. Here is how to find the volume of an
irregularly shaped object. This technique is known as Studyy tip
p
measuring volume by displacement.
◆ Select a measuring cylinder that is about three or
Remember that the unit is as important as the
four times larger than the object. Partially fill it with numerical value of a quantity. Take care when
water (Figure 1.4), enough to cover the object. Note reading and writing units. For example, if you
the volume of the water. write mm instead of cm, your answer will be
◆ Immerse the object in the water. The level of water in
wrong by a factor of ten.
the cylinder will increase. The increase in its volume
is equal to the volume of the object.

Units of length and volume Activity 1.1

In physics, we generally use SI units (this is short for Measuring lengths and volumes
Le Système International d’Unités or The International
System of Units). The SI unit of length is the metre (m). Skills
Table 1.1 shows some alternative units of length, AO3.1 Using techniques, apparatus and materials
together with some units of volume. Note that the litre AO3.3 Observing, measuring and recording
AO3.4 Interpreting and evaluating observations and data
A03.5 Evaluating methods
cm3 cm3
100 100
Practise measuring lengths and volumes. As you
volume do so, evaluate the method you are using.
of object
1 Measure the length of a toy block.
volume
2 Place ten blocks side-by-side in a row. Measure
object to be
measured of water the length of the row and calculate the average
length of one block.
3 Write a comment about these two methods for
Figure 1.4 Measuring volume by displacement. finding the length of a block. Which is better,
and why?
Quantity Units 4 Repeat steps 1 and 2 to find the average
diameter of a ball-bearing and the average
Length metre (m)
thickness of the wire.
1 decimetre (dm) = 0.1 m 5 Evaluate the methods you have used.
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 m 6 Measure the three sides of a rectangular block
and calculate its volume.
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 m
7 Measure the volume of the same block by
1 micrometre (μm) = 0.000 001 m displacement. Is one method better than the
1 kilometre (km) = 1000 m other? Give a reason for your answer.
8 Look at the pebble and compare it with the
Volume cubic metre (m3) block. Is it bigger or smaller? Estimate its
1 cubic centimetre (cm3) = 0.000 001 m3 volume.
1 cubic decimetre (dm3) = 0.001 m3
9 Measure the volume of the pebble by
displacement. How good was your estimate?
Table
T bl 11.1
1 S
Some units
it off llength
th and
d volume
l iin th
the SI system.
t

4 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

 Questions S
beam main scale

1.1 A rectangular block of wood has dimensions 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10

240 mm × 20.5 cm × 0.040 m. Calculate its 0 10

vernier scale
volume in cm3.
1.2 Ten identical lengths of wire are laid closely
sliding jaw
side-by-side. Their combined width is measured
and found to be 14.2 mm. Calculate:
a the radius of a single wire
b the volume in mm3 of a single wire if its fixed jaw
length is 10.0 cm (volume of a cylinder = main scale
πr2h, where r = radius and h = height).
1.3 The volume of a piece of wood (which floats in vernier scale
3 4
water) can be measured as shown. Write a brief
paragraph to describe the procedure. State the
volume of the wood. 0 10

cm3 cm3
80 80
Figure 1.5 Using vernier calipers.
70 70
60 60
◆ Look at the zero on the vernier scale. Read the main
50 50
scale, just to the left of the zero. This tells you the
40 40
30 30
length in millimetres.
water 20 20 ◆ Now look at the vernier scale. Find the point where

10 10 one of its markings is exactly aligned with one of the

0 0 markings on the main scale. Read the value on the
steel block wood vernier scale. This tells you the fraction of a millimetre
that you must add to the main scale reading.
For the example in Figure 1.5:

thickness of rod
= main scale reading + vernier reading
S 1.2 Improving precision in = 35 mm + 0.7 mm
measurements = 35.7 mm
A rule is a simple measuring instrument, with many
uses. However, there are instruments designed to give Micrometer screw gauge
greater precision in measurements. Here we will look at Again, this has two scales. The main scale is on the
how to use two of these. shaft, and the fractional scale is on the rotating barrel.
The fractional scale has 50 divisions, so that one
Vernier calipers complete turn represents 0.50 mm (Figure 1.6).
The calipers have two scales, the main scale and the The method is as follows:
vernier scale. Together, these scales give a measurement ◆ Turn the barrel until the jaws just tighten on the
of the distance between the two inner faces of the jaws object. Using the friction clutch ensures just the
(Figure 1.5). right pressure.
The method is as follows: ◆ Read the main scale to the nearest 0.5 mm.
◆ Close the calipers so that the jaws touch lightly but ◆ Read the additional fraction of a millimetre from the
firmly on the sides of the object being measured. fractional scale.

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Making measurements 5

S 0 20
to discover that it contains heavy books. A large box
15 of chocolates may have a mass of only 200 g – a great
disappointment!
The mass of an object is the amount of matter it is
made of. Mass is measured in kilograms. But density is
a property of a material. It tells us how concentrated its
0 20 mass is. (There is more about the meaning of mass and
15 how it differs from weight in Chapter 3.)
In everyday speech, we might say that lead is
heavier than wood. We mean that, given equal volumes
Figure 1.6 Using a micrometer screw gauge. of lead and wood, the lead is heavier. In scientific terms,
the density of lead is greater than the density of wood. So
For the example in Figure 1.6: we define density as shown, in words and as an equation.

thickness of rod
= main scale reading + fractional scale reading Key definition
= 2.5 mm + 0.17 mm
= 2.67 mm density – the ratio of mass to volume for a
substance.
mass
density =
volume
Question M
ρ=
V
1.4 State the measurements shown in the diagrams
on the scale of:
a the vernier calipers
The symbol for density is ρ, the Greek letter rho. The
SI unit of density is kg/m3 (kilograms per cubic metre).
0 cm 1 2 3 You may come across other units, as shown in Table 1.2. A
useful value to remember is the density of water (Table 1.3):

density of water = 1000 kg/m3

0 10

Studyy tip
p
b the micrometer screw gauge.
It is important to be able to recall equations such
as density = mass/volume. You may recall this in
0 25
words, or in symbols (ρ = M/V). An alternative is
20 to recall the units of density, such as kg/m3. This
should remind you that density is a mass divided
by a volume.

1.3 Density Values of density

Our eyes can deceive us. When we look at an object, Some values of density are shown in Table 1.3. Here are
we can judge its volume. However, we can only guess its some points to note:
mass. We may guess incorrectly, because we misjudge ◆ Gases have much lower densities than solids or
the density. You may offer to carry someone’s bag, only liquids.

6 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

 Unit of mass Unit of volume Unit of density Density of water
kilogram, kg cubic metre, m3 kilograms per cubic metre 1000 kg/m3
kilogram, kg cubic decimetre, dm3 kilograms per cubic decimetre 1.0 kg/dm3
gram, g cubic centimetre, cm3 grams per cubic centimetre 1.0 g/cm3

Table
T bl 1.2
12 U
Units
it off d
density.
it

◆ Gold is denser than silver. Pure gold is a soft metal,

Material Density / kg / m3
so jewellers add silver to make it harder. The amount
Gases air 1.29 of silver added can be judged by measuring the
hydrogen 0.09 density.
◆ It is useful to remember that the density of water is
helium 0.18
1000 kg/m3, 1 kg/dm3 or 1.0 g/cm3.
carbon dioxide 1.98
Liquids water 1000 Calculating density
alcohol (ethanol) 790 To calculate the density of a material, we need
to know the mass and volume of a sample of
mercury 13 600
the material.
Solids ice 920
wood 400–1200
polythene 910–970 Worked example 1.1
glass 2500–4200 A sample of ethanol has a volume of 240 cm3.
steel 7500–8100 Its mass is found to be 190.0 g. What is the
density of ethanol?
lead 11 340
silver 10 500 Step 1: Write down what you know and what you
gold 19 300 want to know.

Table 1.3 Densities of some substances. For gases, these are mass M = 190.0 g
given at a temperature of 0 °C and a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa. volume V = 240 cm3
density D = ?

Step 2: Write down the equation for density,

◆ Density is the key to floating. Ice is less dense than substitute values and calculate D.
water. This explains why icebergs float in the sea,
rather than sinking to the bottom. M
D=
◆ Many materials have a range of densities. Some V
types of wood, for example, are less dense than 190
=
water and will float. Others (such as mahogany) 240
are more dense and sink. The density depends on = 0.79 g/cm3
the composition.

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Making measurements 7

Measuring density
The easiest way to determine the density of a substance
100 100
is to find the mass and volume of a sample of the
substance.
For a solid with a regular shape, find its volume by
measurement (see section 1.1). Find its mass using a
balance. Then calculate the density.
Figure 1.7 shows one way to find the density of a
liquid. Place a measuring cylinder on a balance. Set the
balance to zero. Now pour liquid into the cylinder. Read
the volume from the scale on the cylinder. The balance
shows the mass. Figure 1.7 Measuring the density of a liquid.

Activity 1.2
Measuring density 1 Start by comparing two blocks of different
materials by hand, as shown. Can you tell
Skills which is the more dense? Can you put them
AO3.1 Using techniques, apparatus and materials all in order, from least dense to most dense?
AO3.3 Observing, measuring and recording
(This will be relatively easy if the blocks are
AO3.4 Interpreting and evaluating observations and data
all the same size, but you will still be able to
make a judgement for blocks of different
In this experiment, you are going to make
sizes.)
measurements to determine the densities of some
2 Use a balance to find the mass of each block.
different materials. Use blocks that have a regular
3 Use a rule to measure the dimensions of the block.
shape.
(If they are cubes, you should check that the sides
are truly equal.)
4 Calculate the volume and density for each block.
For repeated calculations like this, it helps to
record your results and calculations in a table like
the one shown. Alternatively, if you have access
to a computer with a spreadsheet program, devise
a spreadsheet that will perform the calculations
for you.
5 Compare the results of your measurements with
your earlier judgements. Did you put the materials
in the correct order?

Material Mass / g Length / cm Width / cm Height / cm Volume / cm3 Density / g / cm3

cheddar cheese 20.7 2.4 2.5 3.0 18.0 1.15

8 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

 Questions
1.5 Calculate the density of mercury if 500 cm3 has
a mass of 6.60 kg. Give your answer in g/cm3.
1.6 A steel block has mass 40 g. It is in the form of
a cube. Each edge of the cube is 1.74 cm long.
Calculate the density of the steel.
1.7 A student measures the density of a piece of
steel. She uses the method of displacement to
find its volume. Her measurements are shown
in the diagram. Calculate the volume of the steel
and its density.
Figure 1.8 The female athletics coach uses a stopwatch to time
a sprinter, who can then learn whether she has improved.

cm3
200 cm3 In the lab, you might need to record the
200
temperature of a container of water every minute,
steel
block or find the time for which an electric current is
flowing. For measurements like these, stopclocks
and stopwatches can be used. You may come across
100
100 two types of timing device:
◆ An analogue clock is like a traditional clock whose
hands move round the clock’s face. You find the
time by looking at where the hands are pointing on
0 the scale.
0 ◆ A digital clock is one that gives a direct reading
of the time in numerals. For example, a digital
stopwatch might show a time of 23.45 s.
When studying motion, you may need to measure the
time taken for a rapidly moving object to move between
two points. In this case, you might use a device called
a light gate connected to an electronic timer. This is
similar to the way in which runners are timed in major
athletics events. An electronic timer starts when the
marshal’s gun is fired, and stops as the runner crosses
the finishing line.
There is more about how to use electronic timing
instruments in Chapter 2.
1.4 Measuring time
The athletics coach in Figure 1.8 is using her stopwatch Measuring short intervals of time
to time a sprinter. For a sprinter, a fraction of a second Figure 1.9 shows a typical lab pendulum. A weight,
(perhaps just 0.01 s) can make all the difference called a ‘bob’, hangs on the end of a string. The
between winning and coming second or third. It is string is clamped tightly at the top between two
different in a marathon, where the race lasts for more wooden ‘jaws’. If you pull the bob gently to one
than two hours and the runners are timed to the side and release it, the pendulum will swing from side
nearest second. to side.

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Making measurements 9

 The time for one swing of a pendulum (from left
to right and back again) is called its period. A single
period is usually too short a time to measure accurately.
However, because a pendulum swings at a steady rate,
you can use a stopwatch to measure the time for a large
number of swings (perhaps 20 or 50), and calculate the
average time per swing. Any inaccuracy in the time
at which the stopwatch is started and stopped will be
much less significant if you measure the total time for a
large number of swings.

Studyy tip
p
Remember that ‘one complete swing’ of a pendulum
is from one side to the other and back again. When
using a stopwatch, it may be easier to start timing
when the pendulum passes through the midpoint of
its swing. Then one complete swing is to one side, to
the other side, and back to the midpoint.
Figure 1.9 A simple pendulum.

Activity 1.3
The period of a pendulum
Skills
AO3.1 Using techniques, apparatus and materials
AO3.2 Planning
AO3.3 Observing, measuring and recording
AO3.4 Interpreting and evaluating observations and data

In this experiment, you will measure the time for one

complete swing of the pendulum. You will need a
stopwatch to time the swings. You may have a watch
or mobile phone that can act as a digital stopwatch.
One complete swing of a pendulum is from the
centre to the right, to the left, and back to the centre.
The time for this is the period of the pendulum.
3 Repeat step 2. Do your answers differ by much?
1 Set the pendulum swinging. It is easier to start and 4 A student has noticed that, if the pendulum is
stop the watch when the pendulum passes through shorter, it swings more quickly. She has an idea
the middle of its swing, that is, when the string is and says: ‘If we halve the length of the string, the
vertical. Measure the time for a single complete period of the pendulum will also be halved’. Test
swing. Repeat this ten times. How much do your this idea.
values vary? Now calculate the average. 5 Devise a means of testing Galileo’s idea, mentioned
2 Time a sequence of 20 complete swings and find at the start of this chapter, that the period of a
the average time for one swing. pendulum does not depend on the size of its swing.

10 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

 Questions
1.8 Many television sets show 25 images, called ‘frames’, each second. What is the time interval between one
frame and the next?
1.9 A pendulum is timed, first for 20 swings and then for 50 swings:
time for 20 swings = 17.4 s
time for 50 swings = 43.2 s

Calculate the average time per swing in each case. The answers are slightly different. Suggest some possible
experimental reasons for this.

Summary

You should know:

◆ how to measure length, volume, mass and time
◆ how to measure small quantities
S ◆ that special instruments are available to measure with greater precision
◆ all about density.

End-of-chapter questions
1 The table shows four quantities that you may have to measure in physics. Copy the table and complete it by
listing one or more measuring instruments for each of these quantities.

Mass Length Volume Time

2 To find the density of a substance, we need to measure the mass and volume of a sample of the substance.
a Write the equation that links these three quantities.
b The units of density depend on the units we use when measuring mass and volume. Copy and complete the
table to show the correct units for density.

Unit of mass Unit of volume Unit of density

kg m3
g cm3

S 3 a Name two instruments that are used for measuring small lengths, such as the thickness of a wire.
b A tap is dripping. The drops fall at regular intervals of time. Describe how you would find an accurate value
for the time between drops.

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Making measurements 11

4 An ice cube has the following dimensions.

5.5 cm

8.4 cm

8.0 cm

Its mass is 340 g. Calculate:

a its volume [3]
b its density. [3]

5 A student is collecting water as it runs into a measuring cylinder. She uses a clock to measure the time interval
between measurements. The level of the water in the cylinder is shown at two times, together with the clock at
these times.

55 60 5 55 60 5
50 10 50 10
45 15 45 15
40 20 40 20
35 30 25 35 30 25

cm3 cm3
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0

Calculate:
a the volume of water collected between these two times [2]
b the time interval. [2]

12 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

 6 A student is measuring the density of a liquid. He places a measuring cylinder on a balance and records its
mass. He then pours liquid into the cylinder and records the new reading on the balance. He also records the
volume of the liquid.

Mass of empty cylinder = 147 g

Mass of cylinder + liquid = 203 g
Volume of liquid = 59 cm3

Using the results shown, calculate the density of the liquid. [5]

7 The inside of a sports hall measures 80 m long by 40 m wide by 15 m high. The air in it has a density
of 1.3 kg/m3 when it is cool.
a Calculate the volume of the air in the sports hall, in m3. [3]
b Calculate the mass of the air. State the equation you are using. [3]

S 8 A geologist needs to measure the density of an irregularly shaped pebble.

a Describe how she can find its volume by the method of displacement. [4]
b What other measurement must she make if she is to find its density? [1]

9 An IGCSE student thinks it may be possible to identify different rocks (A, B and C) by measuring their
densities. She uses an electronic balance to measure the mass of each sample and uses the ‘displacement
method’ to determine the volume of each sample. The diagram shows her displacement results for sample A.

cm3
cm3
100 100

80 80

60 60
pebble
40 40

20 20

V1 V2

a State the volume shown in each measuring cylinder. [2]

b Calculate the volume V of the rock sample A. [2]
c Sample A has a mass of 102 g. Calculate its density. [3]

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Making measurements 13

S The table shows the student’s readings for samples B and C.

Sample m/g …… / …… …… / …… V / …… Density / ……

B 144 80 44 …… ……
C 166 124 71 …… ……

d Copy and complete the table by inserting the appropriate column headings and units, and calculating
the densities. [12]

10 A flask with a tap has a volume of 200 cm3.

When full of air, the flask has a mass of 30.98 g.
The flask is connected to a vacuum pump, the air is pumped out and then the tap is closed.
The flask now has a mass of 30.72 g.
Calculate:
a the mass of the air in the flask before connecting to the vacuum pump, in g [2]
b the density of the air in the flask. [4]
[Cambridge IGCSE® Physics 0625/23, Question 5, October/November, 2011]

11 The volume of a stone is to be found using the equipment illustrated.

stone measuring water

cylinder

The following five steps are intended to describe how the volume of the stone is found.
Copy and complete the sentences by adding appropriate words.
a Pour some into the measuring cylinder. [1]
b Take the reading of the from the scale on the measuring cylinder. [1]
c Carefully put into the measuring cylinder. [1]
d Take the new reading of the from the scale on the measuring cylinder. [1]
e To calculate the volume of the stone, [2]
[Cambridge IGCSE® Physics 0625/22, Question 1, May/June, 2011]

14 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014