Manuel Bustillo Revuelta

Mineral
Resources
From Exploration to
Sustainability Assessment
Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography
and Environment
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Manuel Bustillo Revuelta

Mineral
Resources
From Exploration to Sustainability Assessment
Manuel Bustillo Revuelta
Faculty of Geology
Complutense University
Madrid, Spain

ISSN 2510-1307     ISSN 2510-1315 (electronic)

Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment
ISBN 978-3-319-58758-5    ISBN 978-3-319-58760-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-58760-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017950670

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

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This book is especially dedicated to my family:
Marian, Carolina, and Manuel Jorge.
They have been and are the castle and the keep.
Preface

This book represents an invaluable review from the ores produced. Numerous case
of the whole subject of mineral exploita- histories further enhance these descrip-
tion and provides the reader with a com- tions. The penultimate chapter consid-
prehensive list of up-to-date references to ers the environmental impact of these
which he/she can gain more specific infor- operations and the methods that could
mation and guidance on the application of be employed to minimize this impact and
some of the methods and techniques finally site reclamation. The final chapter
described in the book. The author has describes some of the computer software
clearly researched the subject matter of packages available for the production and
the book thoroughly. In particular, it pro- analysis of assay databases and grade and
vides excellent reviews of classification tonnage models in 2-D or 3-D and the
systems and philosophies for ore deposits design of mining operations and associ-
and of international reporting codes and ated infrastructure.
guidelines for mineral resources and
reserves. I believe that this book will prove invalu-
able not only for undergraduates and post-
A well-illustrated chapter describing the graduates studying geology and mining
main types of ore deposits provides an geology but also those following courses in
excellent basis for the following chapters mining engineering and mineral process-
which lead us systematically through the ing who would benefit enormously from
methods that could be used for their explo- a solid background in exploration and
ration, their modeling and evaluation, and mining geology and mineral economics. It
their exploitation. The latter include the will also provide a superb reference book
mining methods employed in open-pit for those intending to follow a career in,
and underground operations and then the or are currently working in, the mineral
recovery of the valuable minerals/metals economics or mining finance industry.

Alwyn E. Annels
Retired Principal Mining Consultant
Stratford upon Avon, UK
 VII

Acknowledgments

It is very clear to me that this project Candice Sgroi – Energy Resources of

would not have been possible without the Australia
assistance of my editor, Alexis Vizcaíno; he Juan Antonio Cejalvo and José Luis
trusted me from the very beginning. And Corbacho – SAMCA
I cannot forget the help of my friend and Pedro Rodríguez – Magnesitas de
colleague José Pedro Calvo reviewing my Rubián, S.A.
imperfect English. I also take this oppor- Octavio de Lera – Grupo Cementos
tunity to thank my students in the Faculty Portland Valderrivas
of Geology (Geologists and Engineering Anna Osadczuk – KGHM
Geologists); they have, without a doubt, Itziar Rojo – Datamine
been and are my guide in the last 35 years. Ryabinnikov Andrey – Alrosa
Needless to say, I accept full responsibility Molly Mayfield – RockWare
for all errors that might still remain in the María Bocarando – Cobre Las Cruces,
book. Finally, I wish to express my grateful First Quantum Minerals Ltd.
thanks to Alwyn Annels, my master in the Eric Kinneberg and Marisa Esquer –
1990s, for the preface. FreePort-­McMoRan
Louie Diaz and Astrid-Maria Ciarallo –
On the other hand, I would like to Kinross Gold Corporation
acknowledge the help given by many min- Javier Ruiz – Enusa Industrias Avanza-
ing and non-mining companies who have das, S.A.
kindly provided case history material and Vittoria Jooste – Rockwell Diamonds Inc.
images. However, it is essential to remem- Douglas Tobler – Lydian International
ber that many persons were behind these Tim Bechtel – Enviroscan, Inc.
corporations. In particular, I would like to Julie Lee – Anfield Gold Corporation
thank the following people and companies Dan Bruno – Arena Minerals
(I hope I have not left anyone out!): Salisha Ilyas and Victor Mkhaliphi – Petra
Laura Dunne – Anglo American plc Diamonds
Macarena Valdes – Matsa A Mubadala & Daria Goncharova – Polymetal Interna-
Trafigura Company tional PLC
Marlaine Botha and Lynette Gould – Miguel Santos – Metso
De Beers Chiara Albertini – Vedanta
Jesús Martín, Alicia Bermejo, and Carlos Matt Turner – Rockhaven Resources Ltd.
García – Daytal Resources Spain, S.L. Jordan Trimble – Skyharbour Resources
Yvette Rennie and Chris Nthite – Anglo- Ltd.
Gold Ashanti Martina Kostovska – Euromax Resources
Christine Bean – Tronox Sandy Milne – North American Palla-
Ángel Granda and Teresa Granda – Inter- dium Ltd.
national Geophysical Technology Ralph Fitch and Matias Herrero – TriMet-
Laura Worsley-Brown, Jon Carlson, and als Mining
Lukas Novy – Dominion Diamond Victoria Bamford – BHP Billiton
Corporation Jean M. Legault – Geotech
Eric Desaulniers and Joël Dube – Nou- Bret Leisemann – Coal Augering Services
veau Monde Mining Enterprises Inc. Susana Martínez – Marcelino Martínez
Scott Tabachnick – Sherritt International Brigitte Mattenberger and Charles
Corporation Watenphul – Glencore
Louise Burgess – Eldorado Gold Corpora- Steve Parry – Robertson Geologging
tion Arnoud Sanz – TEFSA
Bárbara Palencia – Atlas Copco Rosa Vilajosana – Iberpotash
 Acknowledgments
VIII

Stevi Glendinning – Gold One Interna- Dev Saini – Sepro Mineral Systems Corp.
tional Limited Sara Pybus – Compositech Filters
Stefan Debruyne y María Bizama – SQM Sander De Leeuw – Berzelius Metall
Erin O′Toole – NovaGold GmbH
Christine Marks – Goldcorp Inc. Joyce A. Saltzman and Joanne Ball –
Michel Crevier and Marie Claude Alcoa
Nicole – Semafo Robert Jewson – Geonomics
Russel Puno – Dove Simon Campbell – Getech
Miguel Cabal – Geomatec Stephen Sadler – Durridge Company Inc.
Antonio Durán – Benito Arnó e Hijos, Mariola San José and Celia Casuso – Can-
S.A.U. tur (Santander)
Luis Fueyo – Fueyo Editores Ann-Marie M. Pamplin – Alabama
Martin Pittuck – SRK Consulting Graphite Corp.
Jesús Orive and Stefan Ebert – ThyssenK- María Ángeles Bustillo – CSIC
rupp CODELCO; Sumitomo Metal Mining Co.,
Miguel Ángel Mejías – AGQ Labs Ltd.; Vale; Cemex; Rio Tinto; and
Edward Bardo – Modular Mining Systems Lundin Mining Corporation
Inc. Eduardo Revuelta, Pedro Cámara, Andrea
Roldán Sanz – Tecso Castaño, and Roland Oberhänsli
Chris Marshall – IMD Mari Luz García Lorenzo (you are the
Omar Jabara – Newmont Mining Corpo- best), Pilar Andonaegui, César
ration Casquet, Javier Fernández, Carlos
Nancy Argyle – Sonic Drilling Ltd. Villaseca, and Miguel Ángel Sanz –
Carmela Burns – Geosoft UCM
Grace Hanratty – Petropavlovsk PLC
Tyler Dunn – PotashCorp
 The Author
 IX

Contents

1 Introduction and General Concepts................................................................................... 1

1.1 Definitions.............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Mineral Resources/Reserves Classification: «McKelvey Box»........................................... 4
1.3 A Brief History of Mining.................................................................................................................. 6
1.3.1 Pre-5000 BC............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.3.2 Egyptians.................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3.3 Roman Empire........................................................................................................................................ 9
1.3.4 China.......................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.5 Middle Ages............................................................................................................................................. 11
1.3.6 Industrial Revolution............................................................................................................................ 12
1.3.7 Last Two Centuries................................................................................................................................. 12
1.4 The Mining Cycle................................................................................................................................. 13
1.4.1 Exploration............................................................................................................................................... 14
1.4.2 Evaluation................................................................................................................................................ 16
1.4.3 Exploitation............................................................................................................................................. 17
1.4.4 Mineral Processing................................................................................................................................ 18
1.4.5 Closure and Reclamation.................................................................................................................... 20
1.5 International Reporting Standards............................................................................................. 21
1.5.1 CRIRSCO International Reporting Template.................................................................................. 22
1.5.2 United Nations Framework Classification...................................................................................... 24
1.5.3 National Codes....................................................................................................................................... 25
1.6 Distribution of Mineral Resources in the Earth...................................................................... 26
1.7 Mineral Resources Consumption.................................................................................................. 30
1.8 Sustainable Development............................................................................................................... 33
1.9 Critical Raw Materials........................................................................................................................ 34
1.10 Mineral Resource Recycling............................................................................................................ 37
1.10.1 Construction and Demolition Waste............................................................................................... 39
1.10.2 Industrial Minerals................................................................................................................................. 39
1.10.3 Metals........................................................................................................................................................ 40
1.11 Trade and Markets.............................................................................................................................. 42
1.12 Mining as a Business.......................................................................................................................... 44
1.13 Questions................................................................................................................................................ 46
References................................................................................................................................................ 46

2 Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology............................................................................... 49

2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 50
2.2 Basic Vocabulary.................................................................................................................................. 51
2.3 Evolutionary Concepts About the Origin of Mineral Deposits........................................ 53
2.4 Mineral Deposits and Plate Tectonics......................................................................................... 55
2.5 Criteria for the Classification of Mineral Deposits................................................................ 58
2.6 Ore-Forming Processes..................................................................................................................... 61
2.6.1 Magmatic Processes.............................................................................................................................. 62
2.6.2 Metamorphic Processes....................................................................................................................... 63
2.6.3 Sedimentary Processes........................................................................................................................ 64
2.6.4 Hydrothermal Processes...................................................................................................................... 66
2.7 Mineral Resources Commodities.................................................................................................. 68
2.7.1 Energy........................................................................................................................................................ 68
2.7.2 Metals........................................................................................................................................................ 76
 Contents
X

2.7.3 Industrial Minerals................................................................................................................................. 79

2.7.4 Industrial Rocks...................................................................................................................................... 84
2.8 Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits............................................................................... 89
2.8.1 Magmatic Ore Deposits....................................................................................................................... 89
2.8.2 Hydrothermal Ore Deposits............................................................................................................... 97
2.8.3 Sedimentary Ore Deposits.................................................................................................................. 106
2.8.4 Metamorphic and Metamorphosed Mineral Deposits.............................................................. 116
2.9 Questions................................................................................................................................................ 117
References................................................................................................................................................ 117

3 Mineral Resource Exploration................................................................................................ 121

3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 122
3.2 Mineral Resource Exploration Stages......................................................................................... 125
3.2.1 Program Design...................................................................................................................................... 125
3.2.2 Reconnaissance Exploration.............................................................................................................. 126
3.2.3 Detailed Exploration............................................................................................................................. 127
3.2.4 Pre-feasibility/Feasibility Study......................................................................................................... 129
3.3 Mineral Deposit Models................................................................................................................... 130
3.3.1 Types of Models..................................................................................................................................... 131
3.3.2 Maturity of Descriptive-­Genetic Models........................................................................................ 136
3.4 Exploration Methods......................................................................................................................... 137
3.4.1 Remote Sensing..................................................................................................................................... 137
3.4.2 Photogeology......................................................................................................................................... 139
3.4.3 Geological Mapping............................................................................................................................. 141
3.4.4 Geophysical Exploration...................................................................................................................... 144
3.4.5 Geochemical Exploration.................................................................................................................... 161
3.4.6 Drilling....................................................................................................................................................... 182
3.5 Case Studies........................................................................................................................................... 197
3.6 Questions................................................................................................................................................ 219
References................................................................................................................................................ 220

4 Mineral Resource Evaluation................................................................................................... 223

4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 224
4.2 Sampling................................................................................................................................................. 224
4.2.1 Significance of the Sampling Process.............................................................................................. 225
4.2.2 Definition of Sample............................................................................................................................. 228
4.2.3 Steps in Sampling.................................................................................................................................. 231
4.2.4 Sampling Methods................................................................................................................................ 231
4.2.5 Sampling Pattern and Spacing.......................................................................................................... 239
4.2.6 Sample Weight........................................................................................................................................ 240
4.2.7 Sample Reduction and Errors............................................................................................................ 241
4.3 Determination of Grades................................................................................................................. 245
4.3.1 Weighting Techniques.......................................................................................................................... 245
4.3.2 Statistical Estimation of Grades......................................................................................................... 248
4.3.3 Outliers...................................................................................................................................................... 251
4.3.4 Coproduct and By-Product................................................................................................................. 253
4.4 Cutoff Grade and Grade-­Tonnage Curves................................................................................. 254
4.4.1 Cutoff Grade............................................................................................................................................ 254
4.4.2 Grade-Tonnage Curves......................................................................................................................... 257
4.5 Estimation Methods........................................................................................................................... 258
4.5.1 Drillhole Information and Geological Data................................................................................... 259
4.5.2 General Procedure................................................................................................................................. 259
 XI
Contents

4.5.3 Bulk Density............................................................................................................................................. 260

4.5.4 Estimation Procedures......................................................................................................................... 262
4.5.5 Classical Methods.................................................................................................................................. 262
4.5.6 Geostatistical Methods........................................................................................................................ 272
4.6 Mining Project Evaluation............................................................................................................... 288
4.6.1 Types of Studies..................................................................................................................................... 289
4.6.2 Economic Analysis................................................................................................................................. 295
4.7 Questions................................................................................................................................................ 307
References................................................................................................................................................ 307

5 Mineral Resource Extraction................................................................................................... 311

5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 312
5.2 Surface Mining vs Underground Mining................................................................................... 313
5.2.1 Stripping Ratio........................................................................................................................................ 316
5.2.2 Dilution..................................................................................................................................................... 317
5.3 Surface Mining...................................................................................................................................... 319
5.3.1 Geotechnical Considerations in Surface Mining.......................................................................... 320
5.3.2 Surface Production Cycle.................................................................................................................... 325
5.3.3 Surface Mining Methods..................................................................................................................... 336
5.4 Surface Mining to Underground Mining................................................................................... 356
5.5 Underground Mining......................................................................................................................... 359
5.5.1 Geotechnical Considerations in Underground Mining.............................................................. 360
5.5.2 Underground Infrastructure............................................................................................................... 363
5.5.3 Underground Load and Transportation......................................................................................... 367
5.5.4 Rock Support........................................................................................................................................... 368
5.5.5 Underground Methods........................................................................................................................ 372
5.5.6 Underground Mining Optimization................................................................................................. 392
5.6 Drilling and Blasting.......................................................................................................................... 392
5.6.1 Blasthole Drilling.................................................................................................................................... 394
5.6.2 Explosives................................................................................................................................................. 397
5.6.3 Surface Blasting...................................................................................................................................... 406
5.6.4 Underground Blasting.......................................................................................................................... 412
5.6.5 Dangers of Blasting............................................................................................................................... 413
5.7 Grade Control........................................................................................................................................ 413
5.7.1 Open-Pit Grade Control....................................................................................................................... 415
5.7.2 Underground Grade Control.............................................................................................................. 416
5.7.3 Grade Control and Reconciliation.................................................................................................... 417
5.8 Questions................................................................................................................................................ 419
References................................................................................................................................................ 419

6 Mineral Processing......................................................................................................................... 423

6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 425
6.2 Basic Concepts...................................................................................................................................... 427
6.2.1 Concentrates and Penalties................................................................................................................ 427
6.2.2 Grade and Recovery.............................................................................................................................. 429
6.2.3 Net Smelter Return................................................................................................................................ 430
6.3 Steps in Mineral Processing............................................................................................................ 431
6.3.1 Size Reduction........................................................................................................................................ 432
6.3.2 Size Separation....................................................................................................................................... 432
6.3.3 Concentration of Valuable Components........................................................................................ 434
6.3.4 Dewatering.............................................................................................................................................. 436
 Contents
XII

6.4 Particle Size and Size Distribution............................................................................................... 436

6.5 Ore Handling......................................................................................................................................... 439
6.6 Comminution........................................................................................................................................ 440
6.6.1 Mechanisms of Fracture...................................................................................................................... 440
6.6.2 Energy for Size Reduction................................................................................................................... 441
6.6.3 Comminution Stages............................................................................................................................ 443
6.6.4 Comminution Equipment................................................................................................................... 446
6.6.5 Size Reduction Circuits......................................................................................................................... 456
6.7 Size Separation..................................................................................................................................... 458
6.7.1 Screening.................................................................................................................................................. 459
6.7.2 Classification........................................................................................................................................... 463
6.8 Mineral Beneficiation......................................................................................................................... 466
6.8.1 Ore Sorting............................................................................................................................................... 467
6.8.2 Gravity Concentration.......................................................................................................................... 473
6.8.3 Dense Medium Separation................................................................................................................. 481
6.8.4 Flotation.................................................................................................................................................... 483
6.8.5 Magnetic Separation............................................................................................................................ 496
6.8.6 Electrostatic Separation....................................................................................................................... 498
6.8.7 Pyrometallurgy/Hydrometallurgy.................................................................................................... 501
6.9 Dewatering............................................................................................................................................. 512
6.9.1 Sedimentation........................................................................................................................................ 513
6.9.2 Filtration................................................................................................................................................... 515
6.9.3 Thermal Dewatering (Drying)............................................................................................................ 518
6.10 Waste/Tailings Disposal.................................................................................................................... 519
6.10.1 Methods of Tailings Disposal............................................................................................................. 521
6.11 Questions................................................................................................................................................ 527
References................................................................................................................................................ 527

7 Environment and Sustainability........................................................................................... 531

7.1 Mining and the Environment......................................................................................................... 533
7.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 533
7.1.2 Closure and Reclamation: The Final Stage..................................................................................... 534
7.1.3 Environmental Management System.............................................................................................. 541
7.2 Mining and Sustainable ­Development...................................................................................... 542
7.3 Social License to Operate................................................................................................................. 545
7.3.1 Phases of Earning a Social License................................................................................................... 547
7.4 Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management............................................... 548
7.4.1 Mining Project Phases and Environmental Impacts................................................................... 548
7.4.2 Waste Impacts and Their Management.......................................................................................... 551
7.4.3 Water Management.............................................................................................................................. 556
7.4.4 Hazardous Materials Management.................................................................................................. 565
7.4.5 Mining and Biodiversity....................................................................................................................... 567
7.4.6 Airborne Contaminants, Noise, and Vibration Management................................................... 569
7.4.7 Other Potential Environmental Impacts......................................................................................... 571
7.4.8 Revegetation........................................................................................................................................... 574
7.5 Potential Social Impacts................................................................................................................... 579
7.6 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).................................................................................. 581
7.6.1 Origin of EIA............................................................................................................................................. 581
7.6.2 EIA Phases................................................................................................................................................ 582
7.6.3 Impact Analysis and Prediction......................................................................................................... 582
7.6.4 Methods for Identification of Effects and Impacts...................................................................... 582
7.6.5 EIA for Mining Projects......................................................................................................................... 583
 XIII
Contents

7.7 Social Impact Assessment (SIA)..................................................................................................... 587

7.7.1 General Overview of SIA...................................................................................................................... 587
7.7.2 SIA for Mining Projects......................................................................................................................... 588
7.8 Reclamation Case Studies................................................................................................................ 589
7.9 Question.................................................................................................................................................. 611
References................................................................................................................................................ 612

8 Mining Software.............................................................................................................................. 615

8.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 616
8.2 Types of Mining Software................................................................................................................ 616
8.2.1 Inexpensive Software........................................................................................................................... 616
8.2.2 Commercial Software........................................................................................................................... 618
8.3 RockWorks.............................................................................................................................................. 619
8.3.1 Borehole Manager................................................................................................................................. 619
8.3.2 Utilities...................................................................................................................................................... 622
8.4 Datamine................................................................................................................................................. 623
8.4.1 Fusion/Geological Database Management System.................................................................... 624
8.4.2 Studio RM................................................................................................................................................. 625
8.4.3 Datamine Studio OP............................................................................................................................. 631
8.4.4 NPV Scheduler........................................................................................................................................ 634
8.5 Questions................................................................................................................................................ 637
Reference.................................................................................................................................................. 638

Supplementary Information
Index.......................................................................................................................................................... 641
 1 1

Introduction and General
Concepts
1.1 Definitions – 3

1.2 Mineral Resources/Reserves Classification:

«McKelvey Box» – 4

1.3 A Brief History of Mining – 6

1.3.1 Pre-5000 BC – 7
1.3.2 Egyptians – 9
1.3.3 Roman Empire – 9
1.3.4 China – 11
1.3.5 Middle Ages – 11
1.3.6 Industrial Revolution – 12
1.3.7 Last Two Centuries – 12

1.4 The Mining Cycle – 13

1.4.1 Exploration – 14
1.4.2 Evaluation – 16
1.4.3 Exploitation – 17
1.4.4 Mineral Processing – 18
1.4.5 Closure and Reclamation – 20

1.5 International Reporting Standards – 21

1.5.1 CRIRSCO International Reporting Template – 22
1.5.2 United Nations Framework Classification – 24
1.5.3 National Codes – 25

1.6 Distribution of Mineral Resources

in the Earth – 26

1.7 Mineral Resources Consumption – 30

1.8 Sustainable Development – 33

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

M. Bustillo Revuelta, Mineral Resources, Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and
Environment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-58760-8_1
1.9 Critical Raw Materials – 34

1.10 Mineral Resource Recycling – 37

1.10.1 Construction and Demolition Waste – 39
1.10.2 Industrial Minerals – 39
1.10.3 Metals – 40

1.11 Trade and Markets – 42

1.12 Mining as a Business – 44

1.13 Questions – 46

References – 46
1.1 · Definitions
3 1
A mineral is «an element or chemical compound
Summary that is normally crystalline and that has been formed
This chapter explains the concepts and as a result of geological processes» (International
terminology important to mineral resources Mineralogical Association). A mineral deposit can
studies, from exploration to environment and be defined in different ways, all of them very similar:
sustainability. Important concepts include a concentration of mineral of possible economic
mineral resources/reserves classification interest, a concentration of mineral resources profit-
systems, mining cycle and its main stages, able to extract (always in or on the Earth’s crust), and
international reporting standards, distribution many others. It is also necessary to bear in mind that
of mineral resources in the Earth, mineral a rock is a naturally formed aggregate of different
resources consumption, sustainable develop- types of crystals or mineral particles (. Fig.  1.1).
 

ment, critical raw materials, mineral resource Sometimes, the rocks can be profitable to extract,
recycling, trade and markets, and mining as a usually as industrial rocks (e.g., limestone for
business, introducing the London Metal cement or granite for ornamental rock). In these
Exchange market. A brief history of mining is cases, the term mineral deposit is usually applied.
also described as a starting point for this book. Another essential term used in mining is ore
(. Fig. 1.2). This word is applied solely to describe
 

the material that is extracted for treatment. By defi-

1.1 Definitions nition, mines extract ore (Lane 1988) or solid sub-
stances currently recoverable at a profit. It applies to
It is necessary to define some fundamental terms explored and developed deposits of metallic miner-
that will provide indispensable background for als, but the use in other nonmetallic minerals has
the entire book. The first term to be explained long been discussed (e.g., Brown 1956). Whatever
deals with the title of the book: mineral resources. the case, the economic implication is always pres-
A mineral resource can be defined broadly as the ent. This economic implication was already estab-
concentration of material of economic interest in lished long ago: «technically, it (ore) is an aggregation
or on the Earth’s crust. In this book, it includes of ore minerals and gangue from which one or more
solid earth materials such as metals (i.e., copper, metals may be extracted at a profit» (Bateman
gold, iron), industrial minerals (e.g., fluorite, 1950). Alternatively, ore is defined only as a concen-
quartz), and rocks (e.g., limestone, sand, gravel). tration of mineralization, without the economic
The reason to introduce the word solid is that background, but this concept is not so common. On
some fuel resources, mainly oil and gas, are not the contrary, gangue means the valueless mineral
solid materials, and their mining cycle (see 7 Sect.
  particles or crystals within an ore, while waste is the
1.3) is completely different from other raw materi- material that must be mined to obtain the ore.
als cited. This restriction is not valid for fuel Regarding the ore concept, it should be con-
resources that are solid ones (e.g., coal, tar sands, sidered that the ore (or mineralization) has a spe-
and bituminous shales) and whose exploration, cific grade, namely, the average concentration of
evaluation, exploitation, mineral processing, and the valuable substance (e.g., gold or tin) in a sam-
reclamation stages present similar guidelines that ple or in a mineral deposit. In general, the grade in
those involved for metals or industrial minerals metallic ores is expressed as a percentage or as
and rocks. This more restricted view of the term, grams per ton, which is equal to ppm (parts per
excluding nonsolid fuel resources, is the most million). The minimum grade in an ore needed to
commonly used in the field of mineral resources. become a profitable extraction is called «cut-off
World mining also includes many other common grade» or simply «cutoff» (see 7 Chap. 4). This
 

terms such as mineral, mineral deposit, ore, concept is essential in all mining projects.
gangue, waste, prospect, commodity (fairly simi- A prospect is a term mainly used in mining
lar to mineral raw material), and much more. exploration. It can be broadly defined as a limited
Some, but not all, used terms are defined because area of ground with a possibility to include a min-
the list cannot be obviously exhaustive, and this eral deposit. It commonly receives the name of a
book is not a mining dictionary. In this sense, geographical location. Finally, there are some terms
many mining dictionaries can be downloaded that are also frequently used in mining, but they are
from Internet web pages. combining words such as mineral ­occurrence, ore
 4 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

..      Fig. 1.1  Rock formed

1 by crystals (Image courtesy
of Pilar Andonaegui)

..      Fig. 1.2 Musselwhite
ore formed by abundant
pyrrhotite, quartz flooding
and, rarely, visible gold
(Image courtesy of Gold-
Corp Inc.)

deposit (more or less similar to mineral deposit), systems can be grouped into three main catego-
ore reserves, mineral prospect, etc. ries, which are the most accepted by the industry
(resource companies), the financial community,
and the regulatory bodies: (a) classifications devel-
1.2 Mineral Resources/Reserves oped by government agencies (e.g., Geological
Classification: «McKelvey Box» Surveys): these classifications use a combination
of both enterprise data and geological studies and
A mineral resource classification is used to orga- are based on the «McKelvey Box» (. Box 1.1: 

nize information about raw materials or com- McKelvey Box); (b) classifications based on gov-
modities of economic value. The classification ernment and industry reporting: this group aims
1.2 · Mineral Resources/Reserves Classification: «McKelvey Box»
5 1
at capturing the full resource base in order to proj- minology and definitions; the most notable are the
ect future production potential for the country; International Reporting Template of CRIRSCO
this category includes classifications developed by and the United Nations Classification (UNFC).
ad hoc committees (e.g., the NI 43-101 for Canada, The first group is explained in detail in this sec-
the SAMREC Code in South Africa, or the JORC tion, while the groups (b) and (c) will be described
Code – Australia and New Zealand); and (c) inter- in 7 Sect. 1.5. A fourth class can also be consid-
 

national classifications: these are developed at an ered, based on Security Disclosure (Edens and
international level to promote consistency of ter- DiMatteo 2007).

Box 1.1

McKelvey Box to distinguish between identified the McKelvey Box are identified
The most famous and widely cited deposits that are recoverable with resources known to be economi-
resource classification scheme existing technology and at cur- cally feasible for extraction. This
developed by Geological Surveys rent prices from those that are yet is the portion of a resource that
is the classification published at undiscovered or, if known, are not meets specified minimum physi-
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin yet within economic research. Thus, cal and chemical criteria related
(1450-A) entitled «Definitions of the term «reserves» is applied only to current mining and produc-
Mineral Resource Classification for identified deposits that could tion practices, including those
Terms used by the U.S. Bureau of be produced commercially at the for grade, quality, thickness, and
Mines and U.S. Geological Survey». It time the estimate is made. Before depth. It is important to note that,
was a joint report by the U.S. Bureau the McKelvey Box, a similar scheme in general, «reserves» represents
of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey that established the relations among just a tiny fraction of the resources
in 1976. It includes the commonly economics, technology, and degree of any mineral or metal.
known as «McKelvey Box» of mineral of knowledge to categorize the Obviously, the edges of this
resources and reserves (. Fig. 1.3).
 
resources was outlined (Schurr and classification system are dynamic
In 1980, the Geological Survey Cir- Netschert 1960). because the degree of geological
cular No. 831 entitled «Principles of In the most classical version of assurance of a resource/reserve
a Resource/Reserve Classification for the McKelvey Box, known resources (increasing form right to left) and
Minerals» revised and extended the are classified from two standpoints: the degree of feasibility of recovery
previous classification system. The (1) purely geological or physical/ (increasing from bottom to top) can
descriptions of both the documents chemical characteristics such as change (. Fig. 1.4). For instance,
 

are derived from a seminal work grade, quality, tonnage, thickness, an increase in exploration effort
by V.E. McKelvey, director of the and depth of the material in place; switches the geological background
U.S. Geological Survey at that time, and (2) profitability analyses based of a region; an improvement of the
entitled «Mineral Resource Esti- on costs of extracting and market- technological recovery of a metal or
mates and Public Policy» (1972). In ing the material in a given economy a decrease in its price may change
the document, McKelvey declared «I at a given time, including technol- the economic characterization from
have been developing over the last ogy, factor prices, and product subeconomic to economic. There-
several years a system of resource price, among others. The former fore, what today is a noneconomic
classification and terminology that standpoint provides important resource may be an economic
brings out the classes of resources objective scientific information resource 5 years later. This can result
that need to be taken into account of the resource and a relatively from increased demand and higher
in appraising future supplies». unchanging foundation upon which prices, cheapening of the real cost
Other systems of classification were the latter more variable economic of labor and capital for a given
developed by the same time (Harris delineation can be based. According technology, the adoption of newly
and Skinner 1982; United Nations to these two main edges of classifi- conceived technology, of all of the
Secretariat 1979), but the McKelvey cation, a resource is a concentration foregoing. In this sense, resources
Box was quickly converted in the of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or can be created by man’s economic
main guide for many governments gaseous material in or on the Earth’s activities and his scientific and
and markets, and its principles were crust in such form and amount that engineering genius. Similarly, they
widely accepted. This system of clas- economic extraction of a commod- can be destroyed by unfavorable
sification can be applied to a specific ity from the concentration is cur- economics, which includes the
mine site, in a region, in a country, or rently or potentially feasible. availability of low-cost foreign sup-
in the world at large. The other essential topic in plies and policies of taxation, trade,
One of the most important the McKelvey Box is the concept environmental protection, mineral
features of this classification was of reserves. Mineral reserves in leasing, among others (Harris 1984).
 6
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

1
IDENTIFIED UNDISCOVERED

Demonstrated HYPOTHETICAL SPECULATIVE

Inferred
(In known (In undiscovered
Measured Indicated districts) districts)

Increasing degree of economic feasibility

ECONOMIC

RESERVES

RESOURCES
SUBECONOMIC

Increasing degree of geological assurance

..      Fig. 1.3  McKelvey Box for classification of mineral resources

..      Fig. 1.4 Dynamic
edges of McKelvey Box and
some changing factors EXPLORATION EFFORT
RESERVES

RESOURCES

RISE IN FALL IN TECHNOLOGICAL

PRICES PRICES IMPROVEMENT

1.3 A Brief History of Mining nomic progress of nations worldwide improving

the quality of life of people. A proof of the impor-
Alongside agriculture, mining represents one of tance of mineral resources obtained in mines is
humankind’s earliest activities and has played a the denomination of ancient times in the history
major role in the development of civilization. of civilization such as Stone Age (prior to
Moreover, little has changed in the importance of 4000  BC), Copper Age or Chalcolithic (consid-
these industries, and agriculture (including fish- ered a part of the Bronze Age), Bronze Age
ing) and mining (including extraction of any (4000–5000 BC), and Iron Age (1500–1780 BC),
natural substances  – solid, liquid, and gas) con- which means a sequence of ages linked to the
tinue to supply all the basic resources used by complexity of mining. This also reflects the rele-
modern civilization. Mining contributes to eco- vance of nonfuel minerals, metals, and materials
 1.3 · A Brief History of Mining
7 1
technology and applications (e.g., the method to 1.3.1 Pre-5000 BC
obtain an alloy). Over time, each metal discov-
ered led to a range of innovations and applica- Humans mined hematite in Swaziland (Africa)
tions that provided a marked advantage until they about 43,000  years ago presumably to prepare
were adopted by competing civilizations or over- the red pigment ochre, which was utilized as a
taken by other innovations. In fact, most known cosmetic for personal adornment and cave
metals and metalloids were discovered in the last paintings. This African mine is probably the old-
centuries. est underground mine yet discovered. Coeval
The use of minerals has increased over the cen- mines in Europe are believed to be sites where
turies in both volume and variety to respond to Neanderthals probably extracted flint to obtain
the demands of the society. Thus, present-day weapons and tools. They had learned that certain
society is more dependent on the minerals indus- stone (e.g., flint or obsidian) provided better
try than it was in the past. However, it is necessary workability and sharper cutting edges. Many
to bear in mind that mining is a business, and, as Neolithic flint mines located in France, England,
such, it relies on the capital markets to operate. and Spain were developed for these purposes
Without the stock market, there would be no (. Box 1.2: Neolithic Flint Mines). Some of the
 

exploration industry and without the larger finan- early flint mines consisted of vertical shafts 2 m
cial institutions that support mine development, in diameter and 20  m deep. It is apparent that
there would be no mining industry (Stevens 2010). miners got sufficient geological knowledge to

 Box 1.2

 eolithic Flint Mine

N flint mining in Europe was not a was discovered in 2003 while per-
of Casa Montero uniform phenomenon, at least forming the Archaeological Impact
Flint has been a preferred raw not in terms of labor organization. Assessment of Madrid’s M-50
material for tool making since There was considerable variability highway belt. The site, located on
the Paleolithic because when in labor intensity, the degree of a river bluff south-east of Madrid,
struck it splits or fractures in a elaboration of percussion tools, covers an area of at least 4 ha. The
reasonably predictable manner. tool standardization, the scale of position dominates one of the main
This kind of fracture (conchoidal) mining events, and the size of the regional river basins, the Jarama val-
generates strong, sharp cutting workforce involved (Capote 2011). ley, where some scattered Neolithic
edges and allows the production Neolithic miners were clearly able sites have been known to exist.
of a wide variety of desired tool to adapt to the physical conditions The Neolithic flint works contain
forms. Although seemingly of imposed by the geological settings over 4000 documented vertical
little relevance to the Neolithic, they encountered. shafts, 1 m wide on average, and
this fact is critical when assessing The Neolithic flint mine of Casa of up to 9 m deep, dependent on
Neolithic flint mining. Neolithic Montero (Madrid, Spain) (. Fig. 1.5)
  the variable depth and quality of

..      Fig. 1.5  Neolithic flint works in

Casa Montero (Madrid, Spain) (Illustra-
tion courtesy of Proyecto Casa Mon-
tero, Spanish Research Council—CSIC)
 8 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

1 the flint seams. The lithic record is shafts are deeper in the central area its position inside the shaft, nodules
exceptional, both in quantity and of the excavation. Neolithic miners would have been extracted whole
quality, and includes all phases certainly had good knowledge of or quartered and extracted in large
of the operative chain. A small the geological structure of the area flakes. Those nodules small enough
percentage of these shafts contain (. Fig. 1.6). They stopped excavat-
  to be manipulated would have been
chronologically diagnostic items, ing the shallow pits whenever they directly removed from flint seams,
mainly impressed pottery and bone found green clay levels that are while the bigger ones would have
rings that suggest an Early Neolithic stratigraphically located under the been fractured (Capote et al. 2006).
date. This has been confirmed by opaline episodes. Furthermore, The soil extracted during the
two radiocarbon datings. the depth of the shafts adapts excavation of shafts was either
The petrological characteristics to deformations resulting from dumped into other nearby shafts
and the features of the outcrops, siliceous episodes. This geological along with the remaining waste
formed by interlayered claystones know-how would have been the from flaking, or left aside and finally
and flints, may help to understand result of a transmission of local min- dumped back in. This of course
why intensive Neolithic mining ing knowledge from generation to depends on whether miners opened
was practiced at Casa Montero: generation. more than one shaft at a time. In
the mine is unique in terms of Mining shafts offer little size any case, it seems that shafts were
its compact flint layers and their and shape variability. They are filled almost immediately after being
accessibility. Silica rocks from Casa mainly simple cylinder-like struc- excavated. The mine seems to have
Montero form nodules arranged in tures on average 1 m wide and up developed as the result of reiterative,
discontinuous beds that may have to 9 or 10 m deep. Their infillings short-term, seasonal mining expedi-
some lateral continuity. They appear show little differentiation, and tions. The shafts rarely cut into any
deformed as a result of collapses few archaeological remains other previous extraction pits, suggesting
of the underneath evaporitic epi- than an impressive amount of flint. that these more than 4000 Neolithic
sodes. This deformation produced Shafts were dug close together, shafts are probably the result of
a depression in which most of the none superimposed on another, several centuries of mining. The total
shafts are concentrated, and may be and with just enough distance so mining intensity would have been
particularly related to the horizontal as to walk between them while about 13 shafts per year, consider-
depth variability of shafts through- avoiding wall collapses. Depending ing a time-span of 300 years for the
out the site: as a general pattern, on the size of the flint nodule, and whole period of activity.

..      Fig. 1.6  Shaft cutting a silica level

(Image courtesy of María Ángeles
Bustillo)

prospect the presence of flint nodules overlain it and then doused it with cold water to contract
by sand and gravel. The raw materials were and break it.
hauled from the bottom of vertical shafts to sur- However, the first mineral used by the humans
face by one or two men loading in leather bags or was probably sodium chloride (salt or common
wicker baskets. The first problem for early min- salt), used to preserve foods since many microor-
ers was probably to break the rock because their ganisms cannot live in a salty environment. An
crude tools were made of bone, wood, and stone. example of the relevance of salt is that the exploi-
They soon devised a revolutionary technique tation of this mineral was a privilege of the kings
called fire setting, heating first the rock to expand during many centuries. The Salt March of Gandhi
1.3 · A Brief History of Mining
9 1
in 1930 against the British monopoly of salt testi- their iron implements … These are young men,
fies the importance of the mineral even in very under 30 years of age, strong and vigorous, who
recent times. It is outstanding to note that part of pound the broken fragments in iron mortars … and
the dating of this basic mining goes back beyond women, three on each side, work at it until it is
the time where the modern man appeared, prob- reduced to a fine powder. These poor women are
ably between 50,000 and 100,000  years ago. It is entirely naked … the excavations are of great extent,
thought that some of the mining activity was car- and reach down to the sea cost».
ried out by Neanderthal man. Such people were Gold was among the first metals mined in the
generally considered to be prehuman and thus antiquity. The reason is that it commonly occurs in
incapable of any sort of sophisticated labor such as its native form, not combined with other elements.
mining, as it was suspected that they would have Particularly noteworthy are the gold items in the
been unable to instigate the planning necessary to tomb of Tutankhamun, a young pharaoh who
develop a mine successfully (Coulson 2012). ruled Egypt in the fourteenth century BC. Examples
Regarding the evolution of technology, cruci- of the utilization of gold in jewelry can be located
ble, which is a procedure essential in metallurgy, worldwide, being the metal par excellence of the
was probably discovered in Anatolia (actually human civilization. From Egypt and Mesopotamia,
Turkey) where tin deposits permitted alloying of the knowledge of metals spread across Europe, and
this metal with copper to obtain bronze. the copper-based cultures were replaced by cul-
Presumably, the crucible technology spread later tures using bronze, about 1500  BC.  This change
to Middle East, Egypt, Persia, etc., providing the produced improvement in weapons quality. Both
material for the metalworkers. Learning more on production and trade in copper and bronze were
this subject is problematic because dating of important features of the Near East and
ancient mining sites is often difficult due to rela- Mediterranean societies during the third to first
tive lack of pottery and other datable material. millennia BC (Jones 2007).
The use of similar tools and techniques through With the coming of Iron Age, mining took a
long periods of history is an additional factor step forward. In earlier mining stages, stone
against easy dating of mining sites. implements were the main tools for digging and
breaking rock, but they were not robust enough,
thus prone to become quickly unusable. Bronze
1.3.2 Egyptians was too valuable and too soft to be a realistic sub-
stitute in the making of such heavy-duty tools, but
The earliest records of organized mining are those of the emergence of iron introduced an altogether
the Egyptians. They mined different minerals (i.e., tougher and more durable metal, ideal for tool
malachite or turquoise) and gold in northern Sudan making. These developments proved of material
and Israel; Nubian gold mines about 4000 years old help in the advancement of civilization, particu-
were famous at that time. Moreover, Egyptian mili- larly in the hands of Romans (Coulson 2012).
tary expeditions, with mining and quarrying teams,
looking for stone and copper in Sinai and in the
Egypt’s Eastern Desert were constant over the years. 1.3.3 Roman Empire
Mining in the Egyptian and early Roman periods
was carried out by prisoners of war and criminals, The Romans followed the Greeks as leaders of the
being working conditions terrible. In a fragment of then known world and were undoubtedly the best
the book «Agatharchides’s on the Erythraean Sea» miners in the ancient times. They used hydraulic
(Agatharchides was a Greek historian and geogra- mining methods on a large scale in their gold mines,
pher who lived about 100–150  BC), this author being the «ruina montium» method the most com-
describes the ancient mode of working the Egyptian mon system to obtain the gold included in alluvial
gold mines: «The Kings of Egypt compelled many deposits, as described by Pliny the Elder in 77 AD.
poor people, together with their wives and children, (. Box 1.3: Las Médulas Roman Gold Mine).
 

to labor in the gold mines, wherein they underwent The Romans produced large quantities of other
more suffering than can well be imagined. The hard metals distinct than gold, especially lead, copper,
rocks of the gold mountains being cleft by heating zinc, and mercury. An example is the large-scale,
them with burning wood, the workers then apply industrial mining, and production of the copper
 10
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

 Box 1.3
1

L as Médulas Roman Gold Roma, capital of the Roman Empire. by reaching only once the levels
Mine Present-day studies indicate that containing most gold. Water in Las
Spain was the most important min- the number of workers probably Médulas was supplied by interbasin
ing region for the Roman Empire, fluctuated between 10,000 and transfer (at least seven long chan-
especially because of the gold 20,000. Now, Las Médulas Cultural nels coming from the mountains
metal. The largest site of Roman Landscape was listed at 1997 by of La Cabrera district where rainfall
gold mines was Las Médulas (León, the UNESCO as one of the World was relatively high). The mining
Spain), nowadays showing a spec- Heritage Sites. method, which involved undermin-
tacular landscape that resulted Las Médulas is an alluvium or ing a mountain with huge volume of
from the cited «ruina montium» secondary deposit made of alternate water, used the strength of torrents
mining method (. Fig. 1.7). Pliny
 
layers of boulders with clayey matrix, of water to wash enormous portions
the Elder, who was a procurator in gravel, sand, and mud. These are all of alluvial sediments. The largest
the region about 74 AD, described red deposits formed in the Miocene water reservoir (stagnum) had a
this technique of hydraulic min- era and come from the erosion of capacity of 16,000/18,000 m3. Thus,
ing that may be based on direct rock or primary materials, located the bench collapsed, previously
observation at Las Médulas: «What mainly towards the east near the building a raft for retaining water
happens is far beyond the work of Aquiliano mountains and constitut- that communicated with several
giants. The mountains are bored ing the mother rock in which the galleries excavated inside the
with corridors and galleries made gold associated with quartz seams mountain.
by lamplight with a duration that was to be found. Las Médulas mine The extraction activity ended
is used to measure the shifts. For was exploited from approximately with the mineral processing, prob-
months, the miners cannot see 30/40 AD until the end of the ably by panning the sediments.
the sunlight and many of them second or beginning of the third Water was also important here, as
die inside the tunnels. This type of century AD. It seems that the after being used as extraction and
mine has been given the name of volume of Earth moved was about dragging force for the conglomer-
ruina montium. The cracks made 93,550,000 m3. ate, the resulting flow was chan-
in the entrails of the stone are so Regarding the «ruina montium» neled towards wooden gutters in
dangerous that it would be easier mining method, once prospecting which gold particles were depos-
to find purpurine or pearls at the had uncovered and valued the ited by gravity. The last phase of
bottom of the sea than make scars richness of the mine deposits, the the gold mining process was the
in the rock. How dangerous we exploitation consisted of cutting evacuation of the waste material.
have made the Earth!» Newly, Pliny down the gold-bearing conglomer- The thickest material (the largest
stated that: «about 20,000 roman ate. Thus, the conglomerate was boulders) was stacked by hand in
pounds of gold were extracted mined using a set of galleries and large piles. The finest wastes were
each year and 60,000 free workers shafts through which the water was evacuated out of the mine. The
generated 5,000,000 roman pounds released so as to cause their total magnitude of these materials was
in 250 years», mostly travelling to collapse. This technique was applied such that they filled old valleys.

..      Fig. 1.7  Las Médulas Cultural

Landscape (UNESCO World Heritage
Site − 1997–)
1.3 · A Brief History of Mining
11 1
Roman mines of Rio Tinto. Moreover, the Romans Tonglüshan consists of shafts which descend from
created the concept of cement, probably first by the surface outcrop, and tunnels which extend from
accident, and lime for mortar was developed by the shaft to follow the ore body. Through time, shaft
burning limestone. Even the volcanic ash from and tunnel show enlargement in both cross section
Pozzuoli was used to solve the problem of an and depth as well as improvement in design.
excessive free lime in the mixture. During the The ancient Chinese bronze ritual vessels of
Egyptian and early Roman Empire, the miners the Shang and Zhou Dynasties (2200–770 BC) are
were generally slaves, criminals, and prisoners of exquisite works of art which have survived more
war. Because slaves were plentiful, conditions in than three and a half thousand years to the pres-
the mines were terrible. Some Roman shafts ent day and are now artifacts that bear witness to
reached up to 200 m in depth, which tells about the the importance of bronze in China’s first and sec-
painful and dangerous work in the mines. ond millennia B.C. (Reinhardt 1997). Bronze
played a crucial roIe in the acquisition and main-
tenance of political power in ancient China.
1.3.4 China

Commercial relations between Europe and China 1.3.5 Middle Ages

have existed since prehistoric times. Probably the
Silk Road was not only determined by the trans- The fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century
port of this famous textile product, but also mining was followed by widespread political and eco-
areas, minerals, metals, and many derivative prod- nomic chaos (the Dark Ages). The rebirth of learn-
ucts configured the Silk Road. More than 5000 years ing was under way by AD 1300 and three metals,
ago, it is documented that Chinese workers knew antimony, bismuth, and platinum, were added to
the principle of heat expand and cold contract for the six already in use (Wolfe 1984). Previously,
breaking the rocks to extract minerals or metals. In another important discovery was made, first in
the Erligang period (1500–1300 BC), Erligang was China and then in Damascus. This technological
the first archaeological culture in China to show progress was comparable to that resulting from
widespread use of bronze vessel castings, being this alloying tin with copper many years before. Iron
culture centered in the Yellow River valley. It is was alloyed with carbon and tempered to produce
important to bear in mind that the ternary alloy of steel, earning for the Arabs the reputation of being
copper, tin, and lead for manufacturing bronze is invincible due to their steel swords.
unique to China. Since all three constituents were Mining as an industry changed in the Middle
deliberate and independent additions, and since all Ages. Copper and iron were usually extracted by
three have different properties, metallurgical surface mining from shallow depths, rather than
knowledge was developed at a deeper level than deep mines. In that period, the need of weapons,
with a binary alloy alone, typical in the rest of the amour, and horseshoes (military purposes) manu-
world (Reinhardt 1997). factures with iron increased dramatically the
Located on the southern bank of the Yangtze demand of this metal. By the same time, in the early
River, Tonglüshan is the largest known ancient colonial history of the Americas, native gold and
mining site in China, with shafts extending over an silver were sent back to Spain in fleets of gold and
area 2 km long and 1 km wide; there was a rather silver galleons, being the metals mainly used to pay
long period of open-pit mining prior to under- Monarchy wars. Aztec and Inca treasuries of the
ground mining. Evidence of smelting at the site Mexico and Peru civilizations, respectively, were
suggests that local population initially processed plundered by the Conquistadors of the New World.
the raw material before refined copper was trans- Towards the second half of the sixteenth cen-
ported elsewhere, possibly in the form of ingots. tury, many mines were developed from central
This site had also the longest period of activity, Europe to England to extract different metals such
from 1100  BC to 200  AD, and the mined area as iron, zinc, copper, lead, and tin. The use of water
exhibits more than 400,000 tons or ancient slags power in the form of water mills was extensive.
and hundreds of shafts and drifts in various struc- Black powder was first used for mining in Hungary
tures, ranging in age from 1100  BC to 200  AD at 1627, allowing blast the rock and look for the
(Shelach-Lavi 2015). The underground mine at mineral veins. The use of explosives e­liminated
 12 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

much of the arduous work needed to break the rock.

1 In 1762, the first mining academy of the world was
founded in Hungary. The book entitled De Re
Metallica (Agricola 1556) is a classical text for medi-
eval mining techniques. Agricola detailed many dif-
ferent mining methods, including the types of
support used in the shafts during that period: «Now
shafts, of whatever kind they may be, are supported
in various ways. If the vein is hard, and also the
hanging and footwall rock, the shaft does not
require much timbering, but timbers are placed at
intervals, one end of which is fixed in a hitch cut
into the rock of the hanging wall and the other fixed
into a hitch cut in the footwall … If the vein is soft
and the rock of the hanging and foot walls is weak, a
closer structure is necessary; for this purpose tim-
bers are joined together in rectangular shapes and
placed one after the other without a break». ..      Fig. 1.8  Illustration of child labor in coal mines in the
sixteenth century at Great Britain

1.3.6 Industrial Revolution Commissioners’ Report was graphically illustrated

with images of women and children at their work),
Industrial Revolution begins in Britain at the end of and it deeply shocked the public. Consequently, in
the eighteenth century. It produces an exponentially 1842, the Mines Act prohibited all underground
growth in the demand of metals, being coal the work for women and girls, and for boys under ten.
heart of the Industrial Revolution. Thus, one of the The minerals economy was also affected by
most important economic effects of the Industrial demand to fertilizer, and big sulfur deposits were
Revolution was the dramatic increase in the exploi- opened to produce the acid to make phosphatic
tation of mineral resources. For instance, pig iron fertilizer from rock phosphate. Thus, potash
production increased in England from 25 tons in mines were opened in Europe and North America
1720 to 2,000,000 in 1860, being this raw material to supply another ingredient to fertilizer. On the
essential to make steel through the Bessemer pro- other hand, asbestos became an important indus-
cess. Some years before, as early as 1705, coal miners trial mineral and light metals were produced (e.g.,
were using steam-­powered pumps to remove water aluminum and magnesium). The period from
from deep mine shafts in coal mines in England; 1760 to 1900 was more dynamic than any previ-
thus, pumps were the first modern machines used in ous time in the history of man and minerals.
mines. It is important to note that, at a certain depth
in an underground mine, the water table is reached
and drainage becomes priority. Later, the railroad 1.3.7 Last Two Centuries
locomotive changed the world industry, including
the mining sector. One of the most famous mining activity in the last
Unfortunately, the working conditions at the two centuries, immortalized by numerous motion
factories were, in general, terrible. In order to pictures such as Paint your Wagon at 1969, was the
increase production, the average worker spent 14 h gold rush in California, which started in 1849.
a day at the job, 6 days a week. Many women and About two-thirds of the forty-niners (someone who
children were employed in the mining ­industry went to California to find gold) were Americans,
because they were the cheapest source of labor; but also foreign miners came from Europe, South
child labor, especially in coal mines, is one of the America, Australia, and China. To obtain the gold,
most important topics in this period (. Fig. 1.8). In
 
miners used tools especially designed to separate
1840, Lord Shaftesbury persuaded the Parliament the gold from the sediment around it since the gold
to set up a Royal Commission to investigate condi- in origin was washed by flood waters and concen-
tions in the mines. Its report, published in 1842, trated into stream beds. The gold rush in California
was the first government report to use pictures (the suddenly started and suddenly finished: by 1852, it
1.4 · The Mining Cycle
13 1
was over. Meanwhile, Australia also suffered gold medicine or pharmaceuticals (many excipients
rushes; in 1850s, this area produced 40% of the are minerals). The communications equipment
world’s production of gold. incorporates numerous minerals, for example,
According to ICMM (2012), «tracing the center quartz or silica for the silicon chips in PC or
of gravity of global mining over the past two centu- coltan used in many digital products, including
ries demonstrates its role as a foundation of society the cell phones. Finally, high-level technological
throughout history; the observation of the percent- products can incorporate more than 70 different
age of world mining by region from 1850 to the metals.
present day allows to conclude that: (1) by the late Therefore, exploitation of minerals provides
nineteenth century, the role of mining in Europe the necessary raw materials for manufacturing,
declined as the economic and political power passed construction, and chemical industries. To obtain
to North America; the US in the late nineteenth and mineral raw materials, the mining companies
early twentieth centuries then saw a dramatic have to develop a complex, time-consuming, and
increase to be followed after Second World War by high-risk process. However, the consumption
the same dramatic decline experienced previously generates sometimes harmful consequences,
in Europe, and (2) the shift of mining locations being an example the everyday violence in Congo.
from developed to developing countries has been a This is because the control of coltan production,
trend from the mid-twentieth century». essential when making the new generation of cell
During the last two centuries, there was great phones, since demand of coltan is growing expo-
progress in mining technology in many different nentially in the last years. The so-called three T’s,
areas. In the nineteenth century, the invention of Tin, tungsten, and tantalum, which can be found
dynamite by Nobel and its application to mining in coltan, are the best known conflict resources
was probably the most important advance. After produced in the Congo. In this sense, the OECD
the Second World War, the era of mechanized promoted at 2011 a Due Diligence Guidance. The
mining started. The intense mechanization of Guidance aims to help companies respect human
mines, including big trucks and shovels, permit- rights, observe applicable rules of international
ted to develop very large exploitations, especially humanitarian law in situations of armed conflict,
open-pit mines, many times in response to the avoid contributing to conflict, and cultivate trans-
introduction of economy of scale theory. Finally, parent mineral supply chains and sustainable cor-
as the twenty-first century begins, a globalized porate engagement in the mineral sector.
mining industry of multinational corporations The distinct phases in successful mine devel-
has arisen and environmental impacts have opment and production involves finding, outlin-
become a continuous concern. On the other hand, ing, and evaluating a mineral prospect, mine
a variety of raw materials, particularly minerals construction and exploitation, processing of run-­
with rare earth elements (REEs), are increasing in of-­
mine (material obtained in the mine), and
demand because of the use of new technologies. post-mining closure and reclamation. All these
activities jointly form what is called the mining
cycle or mining life sequence (. Fig.  1.9). Each
 

1.4 The Mining Cycle step in the sequence is unique and most mining
projects proceed progressively from one step to
Human societies need natural resources for their the next. It is important to bear in mind that the
existence, including wood, water, and minerals, timescale from discovery of a mineral deposit to
which are essential in the growth and prosperity mine production is generally a very long one
of the modern way of life. It is necessary to con- (. Fig. 1.10). For example, small mining projects
 

struct roads with aggregates and bituminous may pass from exploration to mine production
materials, to build houses with concrete (formed within a few years, followed by closure of the mine
principally by aggregates and cement, both 10 years after the start of operation. On the con-
obtained from minerals), or to manufacture cars trary, large and complex mining projects may
with aluminum and steel. In the day-to-day, min- spend 20 years for exploration and several decades
erals are present everywhere, since the carpet for for mining. Regarding expenditures of the mining
our feet very early in the morning (made with projects, overall expenditures can range from
calcium carbonate, among others) or the coffee USD 100 million for small projects to several USD
pot (made of either glass or ceramics), until the billions for large projects.
 14 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

..      Fig. 1.9  The mining

1 cycle

Evaluation

Exploration

Reclamation

Mineral
processing Exploitation

Exploration Site design and Operation Final closure and Post-closure

1 1-10 years 2 construction 3 4 decommisioning 5
2-100 years A decade to perpetuity
or more 1-5 years 1-5 years
High
Labour/activity level

Low 1 2 3 4 5
Time

..      Fig. 1.10  The mine project life cycle (ICMM 2012)

1.4.1 Exploration Earth. Economic mineral resources are even rarer.

Since mineral deposits are rare, finding one is
The search for mineral resources, usually called challenging and the odds of success of any explo-
exploration or prospection, is the first step in the ration program are relatively low. «Even where a
mine cycle and includes a complete sequence of mineral deposit has been defined, the probability
multidisciplinary activities. Mineral resources are of it becoming an operating mine is, at best, one in
rare and they are buried beneath the surface of the a thousand» (Stevens 2010).
1.4 · The Mining Cycle
15 1
At a preliminary exploration stage, large areas utilized to describe the l­ithology and morphology
of possible economic interest (prospects) are eval- of rock bodies as well as age relationships between
uated by airborne or ground-based geophysical rock units and improves the utility of geophysical
methods. From the obtained maps and existing data for refinement of subsurface targets.
data, specific areas are singled out for more Traditional paper-recorded geological mapping
detailed studies. A second stage involves specific data are now commonly converted to digital for-
surveys, including additional mapping, sampling mat in the office and analyzed with GIS software.
(take a small representative portion of a larger Geochemical exploration, also known as geo-
mass), and drilling. Preliminary understanding of chemical prospecting and exploration geochemis-
the deposit type facilitates the design of appropri- try, as defined by Hawkes (1957) «… includes any
ate and effective exploration program. In this method of mineral exploration based on system-
regard, mineral deposit models play an active role atic measurement of one or more chemical prop-
because these models provide a framework for erties of a naturally occurring material». The
research in economic geology as well as back- purpose of the measurements is the discovery of a
ground for mineral exploration. geochemical «anomaly» or area where the chemi-
Prior to geological mapping, satellite imagery cal pattern indicates the presence of ore in the
(science of acquiring, processing, and interpret- vicinity. The database obtained in geochemical
ing images obtained mainly from satellites) and prospecting (the sets of data often contain thou-
aerial photography have proven to be important sands of observations with as many as 50 or more
tools to define mineral exploration projects, pro- elements) provides an opportunity to discover a
viding reflection data and absorption properties wide range of geochemical processes that are asso-
of soils, rocks, and vegetation. This makes it easier ciated with underlying geology, alteration, or
to map terrain elevation, large-scale geological weathering and mineralization. The interpreta-
structures, like faults or geological contacts, and tion of database obtained in geochemical pros-
also to plan regional mapping or soil/stream sam- pecting, commonly including thousands of data,
pling campaigns. In some regions such as deserts, requires special handling using univariate analysis
color changes may denote variations in rock type combined to bivariate and multivariate analysis.
or show places of rock alteration. Another classic method used in mineral pros-
Used extensively for exploration for more than pecting is geophysical exploration, working on
100 years, geological mapping provides many types principles of physics to study Earth. Interpretation
of information essential in exploration for new highlights «signal» of mineral-related features
mineral resources. The map scales can range from under investigation or nongeological «noise». The
1:100,000 to 1:25,000 or even 1:10,000, depending geophysical anomalies must be explained geologi-
on the stage of exploration, from regional-scale cally and can indicate possible occurrences of
geological mapping to district-­ scale exploration mineral resources. First, airborne geophysical
targeting. Geological mapping of outcrops is also surveys (. Fig.  1.11) provide the quickest and
 

..      Fig. 1.11 Airborne
geophysical survey (Image
courtesy of Geotech)
 16 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

..      Fig. 1.12 Technical
1 evaluation using mining
software (Illustration
courtesy of Datamine)

often the most cost-effective ways of obtaining 1.4.2 Evaluation

geological information about large and unex-
plored areas. A more detailed ground survey is The mineral resource evaluation process com-
carried out, once a target area is identified, using monly involves a technical and an economic stage,
techniques such as seismic surveys, direct sam- plus a socioeconomic one. Technical evaluation
pling, and drilling. (. Fig.  1.12) leads to the estimation of tonnage
 

Finally, exploration drilling is performed (quantity) and mineral or metal content (quality)
mainly from the surface with holes laid out on a from analytical data calculated in samples assays,
prescribed grid or pattern. There are two main either globally or for parts of the deposit. The esti-
methods of drilling in mineral resources explora- mation is obtained through classical or geoestatis-
tion: core drilling and reverse circulation drilling. tical methods. The first methods are old style but
Core drilling is the most commonly used method easy to understand methods. Some of them were
of getting information about the subsurface pres- developed before the twentieth century, and
ence of minerals. This technique yields solid examples of these methods are panel/section,
cylinder-­shaped samples of the ground at an exact polygons, inverse distance weighted, triangula-
depth. The other method is reverse circulation tion, and contour methods. The selection of the
drilling, which produces samples called chips, specific classical method can be modified based
formed by small particles of sediment or rock. In on the type and form of the material contained
reverse circulation drilling, the cuttings from the (Annels 1991). The uncertainties in determining
hole are transported to the surface where they are the level of significance and confidence of tradi-
collected in plastic bags. This method offers higher tional estimations with classical methods are over-
productivity than diamond core drilling, but the come by application of geostatistical procedures
quality of the samples is obviously lower. For this (Matheron 1962), being this modeling method
reason, diamond core drilling has long been the paramount in modern mineral resource estima-
preferred choice of many exploration companies. tion. The most important step in geostatistical
Nevertheless, a combination of these two methods procedure is the spatial correlation among samples
can often provide the optimum solution, offering (regionalized variables). It is expressed by the
the most cost-effective way of working. On the semivariogram, and the kriging technique, using
other hand, underground drilling, often drilling the obtained semivariogram, let to interpolates the
the holes at any angle, is essential to explore and needed values (e.g., grades) for mineral resource
define new mineral resources to mine in the future. estimation.
1.4 · The Mining Cycle
17 1
After technical evaluation, the selection of the number of methods to evaluate the risk, being the
most adequate economic evaluation method is of Monte Carlo method probably the most used and
crucial importance. To carry out this economic well known, especially since the introduction of
evaluation, many other variables of the project the computing equipment. The Monte Carlo
such as production cost, capital cost, royalties, method is based on the simulation of the various
taxes, among many others, are also needed. It sources of uncertainty affecting the studied value
must be taken into account that mining industry and subsequent determination of the average
presents different characteristics than other value over the range of resultant outcomes.
industries. For instance, mining industry needs
many years of production before a positive cash
flow and requires longer project life. Moreover, 1.4.3 Exploitation
the overall process is extremely capital intensive.
The most significant feature, which sets mining If the economic evaluation of a mining project offers
projects apart from other commercial activities, positive results, pointing to high probability that the
lies in the nature of the main asset, the mineral exploitation of the mineral deposit will produce
deposit. This asset is imperfectly defined, it is not benefits, mining will be the next step. Exploitation
possible to move, it is depleted and exhausted in or mining is the process of excavation and recovery
several years, and it cannot be replaced. of ore and associated waste rock from Earth’s crust.
The predominant economic evaluation tech- Mine method selection criteria is based on rock
nique for a mineral project is the discounted cash competency, distance to surface, characteristics of
flow method, using net present value (NPV), the mineral, and economics. Conditioned by the
internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period distance to surface, the mining methods are broadly
(PP) calculations. This methodology is easy to grouped into surface (. Fig. 1.13) and underground
 

understand and accepted by the industry and the (. Fig.  1.14). About 85% of the global tonnage is
 

financial community. For this reason, all the min- produced in open-pit mines, including placer oper-
ing project evaluation processes for investment ations, while the rest 15% from underground mines
decision worldwide are based on these indexes. (Ericsson 2012). Operating mines range from small
Because many of the items included in the calcu- size underground operations to large open pit, some
lation of NPV, IRR, and PP are almost impossible of them moving tens of thousands of rock per day.
to be predicted, the process must be adjusted to Surface mining is a form of operation led to
risk. From a financial viewpoint, the risk is the extract minerals lying near the surface. In the last
possibility that shareholders will lose money decades, surface production spreads out since open-
where they invest in a company. There are quite a pit mining is less expensive than underground

..      Fig. 1.13  Surface min-

ing at Los Filos (Mexico)
(Image courtesy of Gold-
corp Inc.)
 18 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

..      Fig. 1.14 Underground
1 mining at Mponeng (South
Africa) (Image courtesy of
AngloGold Ashanti)

­ ining, due to the higher cost of underground

m not recovered. If the mineral body extends from
extraction methods. The depletion of richer mineral surface to great depth, mining sometimes starts
bodies combined with the development of new near the surface from an open pit and later con-
technologies makes necessary to work in open-pit tinues the exploitation with underground mining
mines with lower mineral contents. The present-day for the deeper parts of the mineral body; this
tendency is large-scale surface mining using the method is usually called combined mining.
economy of scale, that is, the saving in cost of pro- The use of explosives is often indispensable in
duction that is due to mass production. In mining mineral resources exploitation. Therefore, blast-
language, a big mine will produce significantly more ing is usually a part of the mining cycle. Blasting
output per unit of input than will a small mine. is the process of fracturing material by the utili-
Thus, large-scale equipment are used to make oper- zation of an amount of explosive loaded in spe-
ations efficient and economical. For example, today cial holes. There are many different types of
trucks are huge, carrying up to 500 tons per load. explosives used today such as ANFO (ammo-
If the depth of an ore deposit is such that nium nitrate plus fuel oil), slurries, and emul-
removal of overburden makes surface mining sions. The holes drilled for blasting are loaded so
unprofitable, underground methods must be con- that each one is fired in a designed sequence to
sidered. Underground mining refers to extraction obtain the desired break of the rocks. The explo-
of raw materials from below the surface of the sives are then detonated in the drill holes
ground. One logical procedure to categorize (. Fig. 1.15).
 

underground mining methods is to divide them

into the following three groups: (a) methods pro-
ducing openings naturally supporting or requir- 1.4.4 Mineral Processing
ing minimum artificial support (e.g., room and
pillar); (b) methods requiring substantial artificial After exploitation, mineral processing separates
support (e.g., cut and fill), and (c) caving methods useful minerals from waste rock or gangue, pro-
where collapse of the rock is integral to the extrac- ducing a more concentrated material for further
tion process (e.g., block caving). For instance, in processing. The concentration of valuable miner-
the room-and-pillar method, very common in als in the run-on-mine material is also known as
underground mining, the minerals are obtained beneficiation or concentration process. The objec-
from large voids (rooms) and pillars are left tive is to reduce the bulk of the material using
between the rooms to support the overlying rocks. cheap and low-energy physical methods to sort
In general, the mineral body included in the out the valuable minerals from the waste rock. In
­pillars remains upon completion of mining and is general, the heavier the material, the more costly
1.4 · The Mining Cycle
19 1
..      Fig. 1.15  Blasting in
an open-pit mine (Image
courtesy of Anglo American
plc)

..      Fig. 1.16 Particle
size reduction using mills
(Image courtesy of North
American Palladium Ltd.)

it is to transport. Therefore, metal ores become beneficiation methods, there are many types since
much lighter once upgraded to concentrates or metal content and physicochemical properties of
processed into semi-finished products, making minerals are quite different. It is necessary to pro-
them more economical to transport long dis- duce concentrates of every category with maximum
tances. Thus, metal ores are commonly processed, efficiency. The three main groups of concentration
at least partly, close to their extraction site. systems methods are magnetic, gravity, and froth
The material obtained in the mine is concen- flotation methods, the last one being the most used
trated using particle size reduction (. Fig.  1.16),
  to concentrate metallic minerals. Magnetic meth-
liberation, and concentration with mainly physical ods use the difference in magnetic properties of the
methods. To begin, the rock is crushed, grinded, mineral particles. They are implemented in four
and classified utilizing a very broad variety of equip- different ways, being the devices distinguished
ment. The primary crushing can be carried out dur- firstly on the basis of dry or wet material, and, sec-
ing the mining, especially where an underground ondly, on the basis of magnetic field intensity (high
method is selected. Regarding concentration or or low).
 20 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

Gravity concentration separates grains of essentially solid free and a thickened slurry.
1 minerals depending on their density. The separa- Afterwards, vacuum or pressure filtration is
­
tion process is also determined by the size of the applied to remove water from the slurry using a
particles. Minerals with value can be removed porous filter medium, which prevents the passage
along with the material despite differences in den- of the solid particles. The product obtained, usu-
sity if the particle sizes change. For this reason, ally named cake, can be already sent to metallurgy
particle sizes must be uniform and the use of as process. Two different types of equipment are
screens and hydrocyclones is essential. However, commonly used in vacuum filtration: drum and
most of profitably minerals (e.g., sulfides of Cu, disk filters. On the other hand, pressure filtration
Zn, or Pb, PGE minerals, and many others) are is carried out with plate filter.
best suited to froth flotation method. This con-
centration method is a technique where particles,
in a mineral/water slurry, are adhered to air bub- 1.4.5 Closure and Reclamation
bles using chemical reagents, which preferentially
react with the desired mineral. Then, the particles Mine closure is the last phase in the mining cycle
are carried to the surface and removed. In general, since mining is a temporary activity, with the oper-
it is very useful for processing fine-grained ores ating life ranging from some years to several
and can be applied to many types of mineral sepa- decades. Closure starts when the mineral resource
rations (e.g., separating sulfide minerals from sil- is exhausted or operations are no longer profitable.
ica gangue, removing coal from ash-forming Mine closure plans are required by most regulatory
minerals, or separating different industrial miner- agencies worldwide before a mining permit is
als, among others). The nonvalue minerals granted. Financial assurance is required in many
obtained in froth flotation or any concentration countries as a guarantee that the funds needed for
process are disposed to tailing pond or void filling mine closure will be available if the responsible
stabilization of underground mines. company is unable to complete the process as it
Since water is usually involved in the concen- was planned. Reclamation, which occurs at all
tration process, the last stage in mineral process- stages of the mine life (environmental analysis
ing is to remove water in the slurry. This process is begins at the earliest stages of the exploration of the
called dewatering and commonly starts with mineral resource), involves earthwork and site res-
thickening, utilized if the liquid-to-solids ratio is toration including revegetation of disposal areas
high. The mechanism employed is based on sedi- (. Fig. 1.17). The aim of reclamation must always
 

mentation where the solids are allowed to settle be to return the site to a condition that match the
through the liquid phase, resulting in a liquid premining condition. Other possibilities include to

..      Fig. 1.17 Revegeta-
tion in mining reclamation
(Image courtesy Newmont
Mining Corporation)
1.5 · International Reporting Standards
21 1
use the mine sites recreational areas, gardens, uncertainty such as geological estimation and diffi-
parks, etc. Previously, an environmental impact culties to predict the future commodity price
assessment (EIA) is requested and presented. An (Dimitrakopoulos and Abdel Sabour 2007). Since a
EIA can easily be defined as a study of the effects of reserve is only a small portion of the total ore body,
a proposed mining project on the environment. variations in price obviously alter reserve estima-
The environmental impact assessment process is tions. For this reason, regulatory guidelines for
an interdisciplinary and multistep procedure to reserve estimation must take in consideration the
ensure that environmental aspects are included in potential economic variability in the complete life-
decisions regarding mining projects. time of the mining project (Evatt et al. 2012).
Potential environmental impacts linked to Mining is historically important in many
mining activities include impacts such as hazard- regions around the world, being the major mining
ous materials, land use, biodiversity, visual impacts, centers countries such as Australia, South Africa,
and air and water quality, among others. In general, the USA, and Canada. Thus, these countries,
underground mines are much less apparent than together with Europe (especially the United
surface mines, and they disturb a relatively small ­Kingdom), are the main sources of capital for min-
area of the land surface close to the principal shaft. ing projects. For this reason, these countries have
Where underground mining activities finish, the promoted the reporting standards most used
shafts can be sealed and the area returns to previ- worldwide. After its initiation in the USA, Australia
ous condition, especially in which respects to visual got ahead in providing codes and guidelines for
impact. In relation to the impact of waste disposal reporting and classifying mineral resources and
(tailings dam), which usually incorporate small reserves; omitting the McKelvey Box, really the
amounts of harmful elements, it can contaminate precursor to mining codes, the first International
surface and groundwaters. Occasionally, tailings Reporting Code was the JORC Code (Australia). It
dam failures cause huge environmental disasters, was published in 1989 and later updated.
as occurred in Alnazcóllar (Spain) in 1998, where Afterwards, a rapid increase in the creation of
Los Frailes Mine tailings dam failed and released these codes and standards in other countries was
five million cubic meters of acidic tailings. The produced. This process of creating new standards
fine-grained material contained dangerous levels of began in the late 1990s and continues today.
several heavy metals that travelled about 40  km These standards/codes derived from the glo-
before it stopped, just near a UNESCO World balization of the mining industry and their objec-
Heritage Site (Doñana National Park), which is one tives are to give a certain level of comfort to
of the largest National Parks in Europe. investors and other stakeholders regarding quality
and usefulness of valuation of mineral deposits
(see Bre-X Affair in . Box 1.4). The increasing
 

1.5 International Reporting investment by foreign countries in developing

Standards countries of Asia, Africa, and South America,
among other reasons, needs to an international
Although the definition and classification of method to define the assets of mining companies
Mineral Resources and Reserves shown in and also the mineral wealth of the countries. Major
7 Sect.  1.2 are widely accepted and used in many
  mining companies commonly finance new proj-
countries, the main guidelines to apply these terms ects internally and develop many times their own
are undoubtedly the International Reporting systems of control. Although these are usually
Standards, also known as Mineral Reporting Codes. similar to common codes and standards, a relevant
They are essential nowadays to any project evalua- exception is that the responsibility for determining
tion process of mineral resources, especially if the and certifying ore reserves lies on a qualified team
financial world is involved. It is important to note of professionals, rather than an individual expert.
that mineral resources and reserves are the most Broadly, International Reporting Codes can be
important economic asset for a mining company classified into two groups: (a) International
since the financial strength of the enterprise depends Systems (CRIRSCO and UNFC) and (b) National
mainly on the size and quality of its resources and Codes (e.g., 43-101, JORC, or SMA). There are dif-
reserves. However, reported mineral reserve data ferences between them, but certainly many terms
for mining projects include numerous types of and definitions are similar in all documents.
 22
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

Box 1.4
1

The Bre-X Affair total market capitalization equal to its own due-diligence core samples
Bre-X Minerals Ltd., a member of approximately US$5 billion (Cana- showed «insignificant amounts of
the Bre-X group of companies, was dian dollars) on the open market. gold». As a result, Suharto post-
involved in one of the major scandals Near the maximum Bre-X share price, poned signing the mining deal. A
of the entire history of mining. David major banks and media were buying. third-party independent company,
Walsh founded Bre-X Minerals Ltd., In December 1996, Lehman Brothers Strathcona Mineral Services Ltd., was
a small Canadian exploration firm, Inc. strongly recommended a buy on brought in to make its own analysis.
in 1989 as a subsidiary of Bresea «the gold discovery of the century». They published their results on May
Resources Ltd. Initially, the focus of Obviously, major mining companies 4, 1997: the Busang ore samples
the company was to explore looking and top producers fought a battle to had been salted with gold dust.
for diamonds in the Northwest Ter- get a piece of Bre-X’s Busang deposit. A year later, David Walsh dies of a
ritories. The company did not make a This was because the gold amount brain aneurysm at his home in the
significant profit before 1993, when in the deposit was changing over Bahamas.
Walsh followed the advice of geolo- the years from 30 million ounces Consequently, Bre-X Minerals
gist prospector John Felderhof and (900 tons) in 1995 to 200 million collapsed in 1997 after the gold
bought a property in March 1993 in ounces (6200 tons) in 1997 (or up samples were demonstrated to be a
the middle of a jungle near Busang to 8% of the entire world’s gold). As fraud and its shares became worth-
River in Borneo, Indonesia, for US$ the estimated size of the deposit less, in one of the biggest stock
80,000. In August 1993, Bre-X began grew, so did the stock price and the scandals in Canadian history. Trad-
to explore in Kalimantan (Borneo), hysteria. ing in Bre-X was soon suspended
and it soon reported significant drill- At that moment, the Indonesian on the TSX and the NASDAQ, and
ing results at Busang. Assays of the government of President Suharto the company filed for bankruptcy
drill samples indicated consistent also got involved. It claimed that protection. Among the major losers
gold mineralization, extending from Bre-X was not playing by the were several Canadian public sector
the surface to a depth of hundreds «rules» of the country, and Bre-X’s organizations such as The Ontario
of meters, and estimates of the size exploration permits were revoked. Municipal Employees Retirement
of the resource steadily grew. The Stating that a small company like Board, the Quebec Public Sector
evaluation of geologist Michael Bre-X could not exploit the site by Pension fund, and the Ontario
de Guzman, Project Manager, was itself, the Indonesian government Teachers’ Pension Plan. The funda-
impressive: the first estimate was 17 suggested that Bre-X share the site mental problem was the lack of con-
million ounces of gold, which would with the large Canadian mining trol in the gold assays data because
have made it the richest gold deposit firm Barrick Gold in association with the results were clearly manipulated
ever. Thus, the company reported Suharto’s daughter Siti Rukmana. and falsified using a salt process;
in October 1995 an enormous gold Finally, a joint venture is reached in salt process in mineral exploration
deposit located in Indonesia. The 1997 that gives Indonesia 40% share, means to add metal (typically gold
company moves to the Toronto Stock Bre-X 45%, and Freeport-McMoRan or silver) to an ore sample to change
Exchange in April 1996 and splits its Copper and Gold Inc. at 15% share the value of the ore with an aim to
shares ten to one in May. The new of interests. The fraud began to deceive. Bre-X salt process can be
shares trade at $28.65 (Canadian unravel on March 19, 1997, when considered as the most elaborated
dollars). Bre-X geologist Michael de Guzman fraud in the history of mining and
Therefore, the stock’s price of jumped to his death on a suicide one of the biggest stock scandals
the company grew logarithmically (or was pushed) from a helicopter in Canadian history. This scandal
in the Toronto Stock Exchange. From in Indonesia. Meanwhile (January accelerated the development and
initial private offerings at 30 cents a 1997), a mysterious fire destroys at publication of standards worldwide
share, Bre-X stock climbed to $286.50 Busang the administration office and and particularly the publication
(Canadian dollars) per share by 1997 geology records. On March 26, 1997, of NI 43-101 in Canada to protect
(split adjusted). In its peak, it had a Freeport-McMoRan announced that investors.

1.5.1 CRIRSCO International to the reporting of economic and potentially eco-

Reporting Template nomic mineralization as defined in the reporting
standards. Thus, it does not consider the reporting
CRIRSCO Template is targeted to the international of subeconomic or yet undiscovered mineraliza-
minerals industry, including mining and explora- tion. As the scope of the document explains, the
tion companies, professional institutions, regula- main principles governing the operation and
tors, financial institutions, and others. One application of the Template are transparency,
important aspect is that this document only relates materiality, and competence. Transparency means
1.5 · International Reporting Standards
23 1
that sufficient information is provided to the applying to an Indicated Mineral Resource. Since
reader of a Public Report; materiality indicates confidence in the estimate is usually not sufficient
that a Public Report contains all the significant to allow the results of the application of technical
information that investors would rationally and economic parameters to be used for detailed
require; and competence means that the Public planning, there is no direct link from an Inferred
Report is based on work carried out by appropriate Resource to any category of Mineral Reserves.
qualified persons. Thus, the author of the Public In turn, an Indicated Mineral Resource in the
Report is a Competent Person or Persons. A Template is «that part of a Mineral Resource for
Competent Person is defined in the Template «as a which quantity, grade or quality, densities, shape
minerals industry professional with a minimum of and physical characteristics are estimated with
5 years relevant experience in the style of mineral- sufficient confidence to allow the application of
ization or type of deposit under consideration and Modifying Factors in sufficient detail to support
in the activity that the person is undertaking». mine planning and evaluation of the economic
The Template, as well as all Standards, is very viability of the deposit. Geological evidence is
long to summarize here, but the most important derived from adequately detailed and reliable
terms must be incorporated, especially those exploration, sampling and testing and is sufficient
devoted to concepts of Exploration Results, to assume geological and grade or quality conti-
Mineral Resources, or Mineral Reserves. nuity between points of observation». Concerning
Regarding Exploration Results, an Exploration Modifying Factors, they are «considerations used
Target is «a statement or estimate of the explora- to convert Mineral Resources to Mineral Reserves;
tion potential of a mineral deposit in a defined these include, but are not restricted to, mining,
geological setting where the statement or esti- processing, metallurgical, infrastructure, eco-
mate, quoted as a range of tons and a range of nomic, marketing, legal, environmental, social
grade or quality, relates to mineralization for and governmental factors» (. Fig. 1.18).
 

which there has been insufficient exploration to Obviously, an Indicated Mineral Resource has a
estimate mineral resources. Exploration Results lower level of confidence than that applying to a
include data and information generated by min- Measured Mineral Resource and can only be trans-
eral exploration programs that might be of use to lated to a Probable Mineral Reserve, but has a
investors but do not form part of a declaration of higher level of confidence than that applying to an
Mineral Resources or Mineral Reserves». Inferred Mineral Resource. Finally, a Measured
The second main topic of the Template is the Mineral Resource in the Template is «that part of a
concept and the different categories of Mineral Mineral Resource for which quantity, grade or
Resources. A Mineral Resource is «a concentration quality, densities, shape, and physical characteris-
or occurrence of solid material of economic inter- tics are estimated with confidence sufficient to
est in or on the Earth’s crust in such form, grade or allow the application of Modifying Factors to sup-
quality and quantity that there are reasonable pros- port detailed mine planning and final evaluation of
pects for eventual economic extraction. The loca- the economic viability of the deposit; geological
tion, quantity, grade or quality, continuity and evidence is derived from detailed and reliable
other geological characteristics of a Mineral exploration, sampling and testing and is sufficient
Resource are known, estimated or interpreted from to confirm geological and grade or quality continu-
specific geological evidence and knowledge, ity between points of observation». Of course, a
including sampling». There are three categories of Measured Mineral Resource has a higher level of
Mineral Resources: Inferred, Indicated, and confidence than that applying to either an Indicated
Measured. Their definitions are somewhat different Mineral Resource or an Inferred Mineral Resource
from those shown in the McKelvey Box. An and it may be converted to a Proved Mineral
Inferred Mineral Resource is «that part of a Mineral Reserve or to a Probable Mineral Reserve.
Resource for which quantity and grade or quality According to the Template, this category «requires
are estimated on the basis of limited geological evi- a high level of confidence in, and understanding of,
dence and sampling. Geological evidence is suffi- the geology and the controls of the mineral deposit;
cient to imply but not verify geological and grade the choice of the appropriate category of Mineral
or quality continuity». An Inferred Mineral Resource depends upon the quantity, distribution
Resource has a lower level of confidence than that and quality of data available and the level of confi-
 24 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

..      Fig. 1.18 Modifying
1 factors and the conversion
of mineral resources to
EXPLORATION
RESULTS

Increasing level of geological

mineral reserves

knowledge and confidence

MINERAL MINERAL
RESOURCES RESERVES

INFERRED

INDICATED PROBABLE

MEASURED PROVED

Consideration of mining, metallurgical,

economic, marketing, legal,
environmental, social and
governmental factors
(the “Modifying Factors”)

dence that attaches to those data». A Competent Mineral Resources can be estimated mainly
Person or Persons, as defined above, must deter- based on geological information. However, Mineral
mine the appropriate Mineral Resource category. Reserves need consideration of the Modifying
The third topic of the Template includes the Factors affecting extraction. Thus, Mineral reserves
concept and categories of Mineral Reserves. Thus, should be estimated mainly with input from a dif-
a Mineral Reserve is «the economically mineable ferent discipline. It is also very important the type
part of a Measured and/or Indicated Mineral and characteristics of the technical studies. Scoping,
Resource; the term economically mineable implies prefeasibility, and feasibility studies are carried out
that extraction of the Mineral Reserve has been to establish the overall characteristics of the mining
demonstrated to be viable under reasonable finan- project in each stage of its development. The
cial assumptions». Therefore, Mineral Reserves descriptions of each type of study are detailed in
«are those portions of Mineral Resources that, 7 Sect. 4.5.1.
 

after the application of all mining factors, result in

an estimated tonnage and grade which, in the
opinion of the Competent Person making the esti- 1.5.2  nited Nations Framework
U
mates, can be the basis of a viable project, after Classification
taking account of all relevant Modifying Factors».
Mineral Reserves are classified in the Template This standard is entitled «United Nations
as Probable and Proved. A Probable Mineral Framework Classification for Fossil Energy and
Reserve is «the economically mineable part of an Mineral Reserves and Resources». The last update
Indicated, and in some circumstances, a Measured was made in 2009 (UNFC-2009) (. Fig. 1.19). The
 

Mineral Resource; the confidence in the Modifying document is a complex combination of categories,
Factors applying to a Probable Mineral Reserve is subcategories, classes, and subclasses, and it is still
lower than that applying to a Proved Mineral not completely accepted in the mining world.
Reserve». Therefore, a Probable Mineral Reserve UNFC-2009 is a generic principle-based system
has a lower level of confidence than a Proved in which quantities are classified based on three
Mineral Reserve, but it is of sufficient quality to fundamental criteria: economic and social viabil-
serve as a basis for decision on the development of ity (E), field project status and feasibility (F), and
the deposit. Related to Proved Mineral Reserve, «it geological knowledge (G). Combinations of these
implies a high degree of confidence in the criteria and using a numerical coding system, a
Modifying Factors and represents the highest con- three-dimensional system is created. Categories
fidence category of reserve estimate». (e.g., E1, E2, E3) and, in some cases, subcategories
1.5 · International Reporting Standards
25 1

Sales
3 114 Commercial projects
Production 112 11 4
111 123 12
121 122 3 134 Potentially commercial
2 13
Socio-economic viability
E1 131 13 projects
Non-commercial projects

4
212 213 21 Exploration projects
211 2 2 3 224
221 222 234
2 233 Additional quantities in place
E2 231 23
Other combinations
Non-sales
3 314
Production 12 31
311 3 3 324 Extracted quantities
22 32
321 3 333 3
34
E3 3 1 3 3 2 344
3 3
42 34 123 Codification (E1; F2; G3)
F1 341 3
F
Project 2 F
3
G3 G4
Feasibility F4 G2
G1
Geological Knowledge

..      Fig. 1.19  UNFC-2009 categories and examples of classes

(e.g., E1.1) are defined for each of the three crite- accepted classifications as the CRIRSCO men-
ria. According to this classification, the first set of tioned above or the following 43-101 from Canada.
categories (the E axis) indicates «the degree of
favorability of social and economic conditions in
establishing the commercial viability of the proj- 1.5.3 National Codes
ect, including consideration of market prices and
relevant legal, regulatory, environmental and con- A National Code is a standard whose utilization is
tractual conditions». The second set (the F axis) obligatory in the proper country that promotes its
«points to the maturity of studies and commit- development. There are many national codes, but
ments necessary to implement mining plans or only some of them are accepted worldwide. This is
development projects». The third set of categories the case of NI 43-101, created in Canada but con-
(the G axis) «designates the level of confidence in sidered essential in many countries. Because many
the geological knowledge and potential recover- mines around the world are property of companies
ability of the quantities». which report their results on stock exchanges
This classification system is quite complicated within Canada, NI 43-101 is thoroughly used in
regarding definitions of the different concepts and the mining world. Other National or Regional
types of Mineral Resources and Reserves, always Codes more or less similar to NI 43-101 include
related to letters and numbers. Moreover, some the JORC Code (the first code in time, as stated
terms are misleading on purpose, since the before) and the VALMIN Code in Australia, the
Standard states that «reserves is a concept with dif- SME Guide in the USA, the SAMVAL Code and
ferent meanings and usage; even the extractive SAMREC Code in South Africa, the PERC
industries, where the term is carefully defined and Standard in Europe, the NAEN Code in Russia, the
applied, there are some material differences MRC Code in Mongolia, and the CCEP in Chile.
between the specific definitions that are used in The development of NI 43-101  in Canada is
different sectors. It indicates that it is not ideal as a partly related to the Bre-X Affair, which is consid-
basis for global communication of such an impor- ered the most elaborated fraud in the history of
tant quantity». Obviously, this remark is probably mining (. Box 1.4: The Bre-X Affair). In broad
 

true, but the solution is not to create an intricate terms, NI 43-101 is very similar to CRIRSCO
network of letters and numbers to explain con- Template and the rest of National Codes. It is clear
cepts already delimited in other classical and that most of the national codes are derived or
 26 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

extracted from the JORC Code, since it was estab-

1 lished earlier and has been relatively reliable as
..      Table 1.1  Items in the Ni 43-101 technical
report
compared to the rest of codes. The Standard
includes definitions of Qualified Person (the Item 1 Title Page
author of the Public Report), Mineral Resources,
Item 2 Table of Contents
Reserves, different categories, etc., in a same way
to that of CRIRSCO or JORC Code. In general, Item 3 Summary
public reporting of these topics in the diverse Item 4 Introduction
National Codes benefits from considerable inter-
national conformity, due to the efforts of national Item 5 Reliance on Other Experts
reserves committees and CRIRSCO. Interestingly, Item 6 Property Description and Location
the person responsible for the preparation of the
Item 7 Accessibility, Climate, Local Resources,
report in the Certification Code of Chile is called Infrastructure, and Physiography
«Qualified Competent Person», which is a mix-
ture of «Qualified Person» (NI 43-101) and Item 8 History
«Competent Person» (JORC Code). Item 9 Geological Setting
NI 43-101 includes a long table of items in the
Item 10 Deposit Types
content of the technical report (. Table  1.1). NI
 

43-101 and JORC Code technical reports are com- Item 11 Mineralization
monly regarded interchangeable, since their con- Item 12 Exploration
tents and scientific rigors are often very similar. As
Item 13 Drilling
a result, both codes are accepted as industry
reporting standards by numerous professional Item 14 Sampling Method and Approach
institutions. The difference lies in how the different Item 15 Sample Preparation, Analyses, and
classes of resources are used in economic studies, Security
especially the inferred resources, since the required
Item 16 Data Verification
levels of confidence can be change for every cate-
gory. For instance, inferred resources can be used Item 17 Adjacent Properties
with some cautions in economic studies in the Item 18 Mineral Processing and Metallurgical
SME Guide (USA) and the SAMREC (South Testing
Africa), but not in the NI 43-101 (Canada), because
Item 19 Mineral Resource and Mineral Reserve
of the low confidence and insufficient data. It Estimates
clearly states that inferred mineral resources may
be only utilized for internal planning. Item 20 Other Relevant Data and Information

Item 21 Interpretation and Conclusions

Item 22 Recommendations
1.6 Distribution of Mineral
Resources in the Earth Item 23 References

Item 24 Date and Signature Page

Mineral resources are present in the Earth’s crust,
Item 25 Additional Requirements for Technical
a thin outer shell about 10–100 km thick, which Reports on Development Properties
comprises no more than 0.4% of the Earth’s mass, and Production Properties
being assigned the rest of the mass to the core and
Item 26 Illustrations
mantle. The oceans are underlain by a thin
(10 km) homogeneous crust that covers approxi-
mately 70% of the surface, and the continents
have a much thicker crust (30–100 km) covering
the remaining 30%. The continental crust is quite exploitation of mineral resources. The average
more inhomogeneous, since magmatic, sedimen- concentration of elements in the Earth’s crust
tary, and metamorphic processes have led to seg- controls the occurrence of mineral deposits. Nine
regation and local concentration of elements. It elements, called major elements, make up over
represents the main focus of exploration and 99.5% of the continental crust, while the rest of
1.6 · Distribution of Mineral Resources in the Earth
27 1

..      Table 1.2  Element abundance in the Earth’s

Metal in common rock minerals
crust

Element Crustal abundance (%) Metal concentrated by

mineralizing processes

Amount
Oxygen 46 CURRENT
Silicon 27 MINING

Aluminum 8.1 Grade (%)

Iron 6.3

Calcium 5 ..      Fig. 1.20  Enrichment of the metals to produce an

exploitable mineral deposit
Magnesium 2.9

Sodium 2.3 at geological time scales, so that most economic

Potassium 1.5
mineral resources are basically nonrenewable. In
other words, new deposits are impossible to be
Titanium 0.66 generated in human timescales.
Carbon 0.18 The distribution of mineral resources in the
Earth’s crust is irregular, from not only a com-
Hydrogen 0.15
modities point of view but also considering the
Manganese 0.11 geographical position of the mineral deposits
Phosphorus 0.099 across the different continents; the major reserves
of metal ores are geographically concentrated in a
Fluorine 0.054
handful of countries. Even the distribution of the
Sulfur 0.042 valuable mineral in each deposit is varied accord-
Strontium 0.036
ing to the grade and the tonnage of the mineral-
ization. Geographically, the global distribution of
Barium 0.034 mineral resources depends on the type of mineral
Vanadium 0.019 or metal. Thus, gold deposits are present in more
than 100 countries, but the largest reserves are
Chlorine 0.017
concentrated in South Africa (27–28% of world’s
Chromium 0.014 reserves). On the contrary, platinum metal group
Zirconium 0.013 deposits are known only in 16 countries, and the
share of two largest countries (South Africa and
Russia) covers 97% of world’s reserves. In general,
the global distribution of mineral resources is
the elements, called minor and trace elements, very conservative and it was not changed over a
account for less than 0.5% (. Table 1.2).
  long time. For instance, today world’s reserves of
Major elements are abundant enough to form tin are distributed in the same countries and
the most usual minerals and rocks, but minor and regions as they were 30 years ago, although the
trace elements, including most of the metals, need contribution of each country or region has
to be enriched under exceptional geological con- changed. These variations of the contribution are
ditions to form exploitable mineral deposits, related to the world economic development and
­usually combined with other elements like oxygen the situation of the raw material markets.
(oxide), sulfur (sulfide and sulfate), and carbon For every substance, it is possible to calculate
(carbonate). Thus, although any piece of rock in a value called concentration or enrichment factor,
the Earth’s crust contains small amounts of metal- dividing the economical concentration, that is,
lic and nonmetallic elements, a specific natural the necessary concentration in a mineral deposit
process is necessary to produce sufficient enrich- for profitable mining, by the average crustal abun-
ment of the element to form an exploitable min- dance for that substance. Concentration factors
eral deposit (. Fig.  1.20). An additional point is
  and average crustal abundances for some of the
that processes forming mineral deposits operate most important metals are listed in . Table  1.3  

28 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

1 ..      Table 1.3  Average crustal abundances and concentration factors for some of the most important metals

Element Chemical Average Quantity/km3 Typical ore Enrichment

symbol concentration % (000 mt) grades % factor

Aluminum Al 8.1 250,000 30 4

Iron Fe 5.4 150,000 53 10

Titanium Ti 0.5 15,000 0.7–15 2–40

Manganese Mn 0.10 3000 31 310

Chromium Cr 0.01 300 30 3000

Nickel Ni 0.008 200 1 130

Zinc Zn 0.007 190 4 570

Copper Cu 0.005 135 0.5–4 100–800

Cobalt Co 0.002 60 0.4–2 200–1000

Lead Pb 0.001 35 5 3850

Uranium U 0.0003 7 0.3 1100

Tin Sn 0.0003 7 0.3 1200

Molybdenum Mo 0.0002 4 0.2 1300

Tungsten W 0.0001 3 0.7 5800

Silver Ag 0.00001 0.2 0.01 1400

Gold Au 0.0000003 0.01 0.001–0.0001 300–3000

(Gocht et al. 1988). For example, aluminum (aver- crustal abundance, cumulative tonnage versus
age crustal abundance of about 8%) has a concen- grade, geometric probability, and discriminant
tration factor of 3–4 because a mineral deposit of analysis, among many others. The selection of the
aluminum (e.g., gibbsite mineral) can contain method to be employed in an assessment must be
between three and four times the average crustal based on different factors such as adequacy of the
abundance to be economical (between 24% and material to the problem, constraints in resources
32% aluminum). Obviously, this enrichment or (e.g., information or time forthcoming for the
concentration factor is very different for each ele- assessing), the level of uncertainty and acceptance
ment, ranging from low values (3–4 for alumi- of errors in the evaluation, and finally the require-
num) to very high values (4000–5000 for gold). ment for checking outcomes and approval of the
It is essential to estimate the amount of a given technique (Singer and Mosier 1981).
mineral resource in the world from its abundance McKelvey (1960) was one of the first authors to
in the Earth’s crust. The reason is that strategic analyze the distribution of mineral resources in the
planning for future supply of a mineral or a metal is Earth. He pointed out that «the tonnage of mine-
controlled by the estimates of prognostic resources, able reserves in short tons (R) for many elements in
although the predictions of undiscovered resources the United States was equal to crustal abundance in
quantifications are obviously very difficult. The percent (A) times 109 to 1010, and that the linear
methods proposed are usually based on extrapola- relation that appears to prevail between reserves
tion of resources in well-known regions to less and abundance is useful in forecasting reserves in
known, but geologically similar, parts of the Earth large segments of the Earth’s crust or over the
(e.g., Singer and Menzie 2010). However, the topic world at large». Even for purposes of estimating
of mineral resource assessment is quite complex. world reserves of unexplored elements, McKelvey
Assessment methods considered were time rate, affirmed that «a figure of A × 1010 to 1011 probably
1.6 · Distribution of Mineral Resources in the Earth
29 1
will give the right order of magnitude». In other applying mathematical laws to predict reserves of
words, reserves for some elements exhibit a con- ore deposits and to study how the recoverable
stant ratio to their average crustal abundance and reserves of porphyry copper deposits (a copper
for less explored commodities the reserves can be deposit type, see 7 Chap. 2) varied as a function
 

estimated from well-­explored ones. With regard to of the usual selection criterion, the grade in Cu
the question as to whether or not the USA is a rep- percentage (. Box 1.5: Lasky’s Law).
 

resentative sample of the Earth’s crust, it does have The relationship between ore grade and tonnage
all the major kinds of geological terranes found in a mineral deposit can be analyzed in terms of
anywhere and may be accepted as a reasonably fractals (Turcotte 1986) because grade relations and
representative sample of the Earth’s crust. tonnage for economic ore deposits show a fractal
The total amount of different metals in the behavior if the tonnage of ore with a specific mean
Earth’s crust can be calculated combining crustal grade is proportional to this mean grade raised to a
abundance data and the McKelvey reserve-­ power. If it is assumed that the concentration of ele-
abundance relationship. Thus, the potential recov- ments in ores is statistically scale invariant, the
erable resource in metric tons for most elements renormalization group approach can be used to
should approach 2.45A × 106, where A is abundance derive a fractal relationship between mean grade
expressed in parts per million (Erickson 1973). If and tonnage. Moreover, the obtained results are
the abundance-reserve relationship is accepted, the independent of the mechanism of mineral concen-
amount expressed is a minimum total resource esti- tration as long as the concentration mechanism is
mate because the relationship is based upon cur- scale invariant. This approach would not be expected
rently recoverable resources and does not include to be valid if different concentration mechanisms
resources whose feasibility of economic recovery is are operative at different scales. Thus, in terms of
not established. The abundance-­ reserve relation fractals, the relationship between ore grade and ton-
should become more closely defined as analytical nage in a mineral deposit can be defined by using
techniques progress, as the understanding of geo- the following equation (Turcotte 1997):
chemical processes enhances, and as exploration
Core / Cmin = ( M min / M ore )
D /3
techniques advance and it was possible to explore
and examine the crust until a reasonable depth.
Estimating contemporary reserves is very use- where Core is the average grade of the tonnage More,
ful, but it is only a starting point because the focus Cmin is the minimal grade included of the mass
of the question is not on the short-term, but on Mmin, and D is the fractal dimension. Mmin may be
long-sighted availability (e.g., Graedel et al. 2011). the mass of ore exploited at the lowest grade mine
These authors tried to estimate the extractable or even source rock from which the ore in a dis-
global resource (EGR), that is, «the quantity of a trict is thought to be derived. Based on this corre-
given resource that is judged to be worthy of lation, undiscovered resources can be estimated.
extraction over the long term given anticipated Tonnage versus cut-off and average grade versus
improvements in exploration and technology», cut-off models can be outlined according to the
for most metals, considering that information fractal distribution of element concentrations,
available on the potentially extractable geological considering that the cut-off grade has great influ-
resources of metals is negligible. The main con- ence on the reserve and resource calculation in a
clusion of this study was that it is not possible at single deposit (Wang et al. 2010).
the moment reliably to estimate the extractable Another possibility is to combine the fractal
global resource (EGR) for any metal. modeling and geostatistics for mineral resource
The aforementioned aspects deal with the dis- classification to look for a clear separation, identi-
tribution of mineral resources in big areas or fication, and assessment of high-grade ore zones
regions, even in the Earth as a whole. However, a from low-grade ones in a deposit, which are
crucial point is to know how the resources/ extremely important in mining of metalliferous
reserves (grades and tonnage) are distributed in a deposits (e.g., Sadeghi et al. 2014). Compared to
mineral deposit with a gradation from relatively existing methods of mineral resource classifica-
rich to relatively poor mineralization, that is to tion, the technique that combines geostatistics
say, the relation between grades and tonnages in and fractal modeling can address the complexity
an ore deposit. Lasky (1950) was the pioneer in of the data for different parts of a mineral deposit.
 30 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

Box 1.5
1

Lasky’s Law is always preceded by a minus sign material in the resource analysis
Samuel G. Lasky, Chief Mineral to indicate the inverse relationship of groups of deposits as well as to
Resources Section of the U.S. Geo- between tonnage and grade. A individual deposits. However, it is
logical Survey, was a pioneer in typical curve for such a relation- also possible that a linear relation
applying mathematical laws to ship will be plotted as a straight is obtained if the logarithm of the
predict reserves of ore deposits downsloping line on a semiloga- tonnage is plotted against the
and to study how the recover- rithmic paper, with the grade on logarithm of the grade (Cargill et al.
able reserves of porphyry copper the logarithmic horizontal axis and 1981). One of the issues of this
deposits (a copper deposit type) tons of ore on the arithmetically relationship is that the projection
varied as a function of the usual spaced vertical axis. The cumulative of Lasky’s analysis to lower grades
selection criterion, the grade in Cu contained copper curves become is limited because the mathemati-
percentage. For the average U.S. flat at a point that Lasky called the cal formulation predicts physically
porphyry copper deposit, he found zero cut-off grade, at which the impossible situations below some
that a decrease in grade of 0.1% Cu copper grade tends to approach limiting grade: as average grade (G)
was associated with an increase in average abundance of copper in approaches zero, the derivative of
tonnage of about 18%. Thus, the the Earth’s crust. tonnage (T) with respect to average
famous Lasky’s equation (Lasky The most common mistake grade produces «astronomical»
1950), also known as Lasky’s law made in quoting Lasky’s law is to increases in tonnage. As a rule,
(Matheron 1959) or the arithmetic- assume that it states that the quan- Lasky’s law is only true for specific
geometric (A/G) ratio was derived tity of metal increases geometrically deposits, but it cannot be used as a
from production records of several as the ore grade declines arithmeti- general tool because Lasky’s tech-
porphyry copper deposits. The cally. In fact, Lasky’s results show a nique had geological limitations in
equation states that if ore grades definite limit to the cumulative addition to the empirical limitations
are distributed log-normally, the quantity of metal in a deposit. The of the equation at high or low
increase of reserves is exponential. aim in reporting the relationship was grade. Lasky’s relationship should
Therefore, the tonnage of ore to enable mining engineers to fore- be found notoriously ineffective for
that has been produced plus the cast the recoverable reserves from a the majority of mercury, gold, silver,
estimated reserves (T) and the given deposit. Therefore, his results tungsten, lead, zinc, antimony,
weighted average grade of this say nothing about the distribution beryllium, tantalum, niobium, and
tonnage (G) distribution follow the of different deposits, only about the rare earth deposits. Singer (2013)
equation: distribution of ore within a given affirmed that significant deviation
deposit (Chapman and Roberts from lognormal distributions of
G = K1 - K 2 ´ ln (T ) 1983). most metals when ignoring deposit

Lasky’s relationship is consis- types demonstrates that there is
where K1 and K2 are constants to be
tent with studies of the correlation not a global lognormal or power
determined for each ore deposit.
between average grades and cumu- law equation for these metals.
They usually have to be determined
lative ore tonnage of mineralized
empirically, using historical data. K2

1.7 Mineral Resources duction of specific high-tech applications.

Consumption Therefore, minerals and metals are consumed in
greater quantities than ever before. Since 1900,
Natural resources provide essential inputs to the mine production of the main metals has
production. World population is growing faster increased by several orders of magnitude
than at any time in history. Meanwhile, mineral (Graedel and Erdmann 2012) (. Fig.  1.21).  

consumption is increasing more quickly than Increased world demand for minerals will be
population as new consumers enter the market affected by three factors (Kesler 2007): applica-
for minerals and as global standard of living tions for mineral commodities, the level of popu-
rises. According to Glöser et al. (2015), the rapid lation that consumes these raw materials, and the
economic development of emerging countries in standard of living that will establish how much
combination with an accelerating spread of new each person consumes. As new materials and
technologies has led to a strongly increasing applications are found, markets for mineral com-
demand for industrial metals and minerals modities can expand considerably. In this sense,
regarding both the total material requirement present technologies utilize almost the entire
and the diversity of elements used for the pro- periodic table.
1.7 · Mineral Resources Consumption
31 1

Ores and industrial minerals

Fossil energy carriers
MATERIAL EXTRACTION Construction materials
Billion tons Biomass GDP
GDP Trillion international dollars
100 50

80 40

60 30

40 20

20 10

0 0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

..      Fig. 1.21  Global material extraction in billion tons from 1900 to 2005 (Modified from Krausmann et al. 2009)

Demand forecasting is difficult, but it is needed materials have been carried out in the past 15 years
to guide supply policies. Human population was 6.5 due to the current tensions in raw material markets
billion in 2005, with a 95% of population growing in (e.g., Speirs et al. 2013; Glöser et al. 2015).
developing world, and United Nations forecast near As a representative of the former school, there
ten billion by 2050 (an increase of 40%). The devel- is an impending shortage of two fertilizers: phos-
oping economies need minerals for construction, phorus and potassium, and these two elements
energy, etc., and in the near future mining deeper cannot be made, cannot be substituted, are neces-
will be necessary, with lower grades and larger sary to grow all life forms, and are mined and
scales, which means more health risks and carbon depleted (Grantham 2012). Therefore, according
footprint will increase as well. Nowadays, the easy to this author, their consumption must be com-
mineral resources, the least expensive to extract and pletely decreased in the next 20 or 30 years or the
process, have been mostly exploited and depleted humanity will start to starve. Grantham’s article
(Bardy 2014). There are plenty of minerals left to concluded that the society is actually in a hopeless
extract, but at higher cost and increasing difficulty. situation related to these two raw materials.
There are two competing views of mineral Similar are the conclusions of a study based on
depletion: the fixed stock paradigm and the oppor- potential substitutes for 62 different metals in all
tunity cost paradigm. Under the opportunity cost their major uses and of the performance of the
paradigm, mineral depletion is considered mainly substitutes in those applications (Graedel et  al.
a matter of economics and availability a function of 2015). The study concludes that any of the 62 met-
price; long-term tendencies in real mineral prices als have exemplary substitutes available for all
indicate few problems of availability (Humphreys major uses. Other alarmist forecasts suggest that
2013). With regard to the effects of consumption for some minerals and metals, depletion may
on worldwide mineral supply, there are two classi- occur over relatively short timescales of a few
cal schools of thinking: those who think that min- decades or even years. These forecasts are usually
eral resources are being depleted and consequently based on reserves estimates. It seems that they are
will be exhausted, and those who believe that there untrustworthy previsions of the long-sighted
are infinite possibilities in the supply of mineral accessibility of metals since their definitions
resources. Numerous studies about the quantifica- depend on economics, present science, and tech-
tion of supply risks of mineral and metallic raw nology (Graedel et al. 2014).
 32
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

Box 1.6
1

Hubbert Peak Theory magnitude far greater than that of of petroleum besides crude oil.
It is well known that there are three fossil fuels. This approach assumes However, although unconven-
main laws to describe the depletion that the level of production is tional oil is not included, the
of any finite resource: (a) production mainly driven by technical factors basic principle behind the Hub-
starts at zero, (b) production then that can reasonably be approxi- bert curve that production will
rises to a peak which can never be mated by a logistic function. eventually peak and decline still
surpassed, and (c) once the peak has Based on his theory, Hubbert stands. Oil production in the mid-
been passed, production declines presented a paper to the 1956 nineteenth century recovered 50
until the resource is depleted. These meeting of the American Petroleum barrels of oil per barrel that was
simple rules were first described in Institute in San Antonio (Texas, extracted. The number of barrels
the 1950s by Dr. Marion King Hub- USA), which predicted that overall recovered today is 1–5 per barrel
bert (American geophysicist) and oil production would reach the extracted. As ever, two views are
applied to depletion of the world’s peak in the USA at 10.2 million possible, optimistic and pes-
petroleum resources. In 1956, barrels of petroleum/day between simistic. Optimistic view holders
Hubbert developed a theory (The 1965 and 1970, which he consid- predict a world peak in oil pro-
Hubbert curve) now referred to as ered an upper-bound. The term duction around 2020, becoming
«The Hubbert Peak Theory» predict- Peak Oil refers to the maximum rate critical closer to 2030. Pessimistic
ing that petroleum supplies did not of the production of oil in any area view holders believe that a peak
come in an endless supply. The Hub- under consideration, recognizing has already happened. With the
bert peak theory says that the rate implicitly that it is a finite natural varying estimations of data, it is
of oil production tends to follow a resource subject to depletion. difficult to conclude when the
bell curve in which there is a point Almost everyone, inside and world will peak or if it has already
of maximum production based on outside the oil industry, rejected happened. Most data, however,
discovery rates, production rates, Hubbert’s analysis. However, the support optimism, placing a peak
and cumulative production. Later, controversy raged until 1970, when date around 2020–2030. This date
production declines because of the US production of crude oil varies from Hubbert’s predicted
resource depletion, and finally the started to fall: Hubbert was right. date due to the attempted regula-
oil production would enter in a final As an example, the oil production tion of Organization of the Petro-
decline. The theory can be applied in the USA by the mid-2000s had leum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
to any given geographical area, fallen to 1940s’ levels. Moreover, in and the use of alternative ener-
from an individual oil-producing 1974, Hubbert projected that global gies and unconventional oil and
region to the planet as a whole. In oil production would peak in 1995 gas. Regarding the former, pre-
fact, Hubbert has believed in 1956 «if current trends continue». dicting production for the OPEC
that nuclear energy would become The theory does not take has widely diverged from the
a long-term source of energy at a into account any other sources Hubbert curve since the 1970s.

One of the most classical examples of mineral However, the application of the peak concept to
resource exhaustion school is the peak theory in metals production has been criticized (Crowson
the context of an earlier debate about the future of 2011; Ericsson and Söderholm 2012). For instance,
the US oil production (Hubbert 1956) (. Box 1.6:   data from the last 200 years show that prices of
Hubbert Peak Theory). Examining the world pro- major metals are mainly cyclical, with intermittent
duction of 57 minerals reported in the database of peaks and troughs closely to economic cycles.
the USGS, Bardi and Pagani (2007) affirm that Thus, declining production is usually generated by
eleven minerals where production has definitely falling demand rather than by declining resources
peaked and is actually declining while some more or lack of resource discovery. For this reason, the
can be peaking or near peaking; adjusting the pro- peak concept is not very useful for modeling min-
duction curve with a logistic function, the defini- eral resource depletion. The reserves could be
tive quantity extrapolated from the adjusting «infinite», but other problems can arise. For exam-
corresponds well to the quantity obtained adding ple, the reserves of some raw materials (e.g., coal)
the cumulative production so far and the reserves seem to be very extensive, but the use of these raw
calculated by the USGS.  The results obtained by materials has a negative impact on the world’s cli-
these authors clearly indicate that in general the mate. Therefore, climate policies can be a more
Hubbert model is valid for worldwide production restrictive factor on raw materials use than its
of minerals and not just for regional cases. availability. Moreover, many of the important raw
1.8 · Sustainable Development
33 1
materials are located in countries that are econom- variety of constraints on mineral supply response
ically and/or politically unstable. Hence, exploita- (Humphreys 2013).
tion of these resources originates local conflicts, a
high risk of instability, and supply interruptions.
Regarding the former, these are the so-called con- 1.8 Sustainable Development
flict minerals because miners are forced to take
part in the illicit mining economy, and money The best way to mitigate the problem of mineral
earned from the sale of these conflict minerals is resources depletion is to use them in a sustainable
utilized mainly to promote violent causes and wars. way. The definition of sustainable development that
Regarding the second school of thinking, the is most commonly used today was presented by the
changes of global reserves to global consumption United Nations in 1987 (The Brundtland Report).
between 1995 and 2010 for several minerals show In this report, sustainable development is defined
that available reserves have been able to keep up as «development that meets the needs of the pres-
with global demands. Overall analysis suggests that ent without compromising the ability of future gen-
increasing demand and prices led to expansion of erations to meet their own needs». This has become
supply (Wellington and Mason 2014). The data also the most accepted definition of sustainable devel-
show that although there is a greater worldwide opment internationally. This report stressed the
demand for a selected number of minerals, new need for the world to progress toward economic
sources are being exploited and the global mineral development that could be sustained without per-
reserves should meet world demand for the next 50 manently harming the environment. In this sense,
years. In this sense, demand is likely to remain the the discovery of new reserves may be viewed as
dominant factor in world mineral supplies for the only a temporary possible solution to mineral
next few decades. Obviously, the problem of min- resource sustainability. Other potential solutions to
eral resources supply can be diminished by the sustainability of mineral resources include the fol-
application of more detailed mineral exploration lowing (Wellmer and Becker-Platen 2007): (1)
strategies, better mining and mineral processing improvement removal from the deposit, (2) finding
technology, resource efficiency and improvements new material to replace, (3) enhancing recycling
in recycling, and processes of substitution for many processes, (4) decreasing consumption by more
raw materials. For instance, in addition to identi- efficient use, and (5) looking for new possibilities.
fied copper resources of 2100 million metric tons On the other hand, the concept of sustainable
(Mt), a mean of 3500 Mt of undiscovered copper is production and consumption was implemented at
expected globally using a geology-based assess- the beginning of the 1990s. Its main goal is the cor-
ment methodology (Johnson et al. 2014). rect production and use of natural resources, the
On the other hand, history of mining proves minimization of wastes, and the optimization of ser-
that increasing demand for minerals and higher vices and products. Sustainable production and con-
prices will generally lead to technological and sci- sumption intends to provide the utilization of goods
entific innovations that result in new or alterna- and services over the life cycle so as not to jeopardize
tive sources of supply. the needs of future generations (Sustainable
According to Lusty and Gunn (2015), wide- Consumption Symposium in Oslo, Norway, 1994).
spread adoption of low-carbon mining technolo- Regarding substitution of mineral resources to
gies, supported by multidisciplinary research, and promote sustainable development, the impor-
incremented global use of low-carbon power tance of the hierarchy of relative mineral resource
sources will enable challenges such as power con- values must be emphasized. According to this
sumption and varying the present link between model (Wellmer and Becker-Platen 2007), «the
metal production and greenhouse gas emissions most valuable resources (energy resources)
to be met. In this sense, new focused research will occupy the top of the hierarchy; the next lower
improve the understanding of the processes mobi- value category consists of those mineral resources
lizing and concentrating these elements, enhanc- whose deposits are created by natural enrichment
ing the exploration models, and ability to identify (for example, metalliferous deposits and some
new deposits. In addition, while it may generally nonmetallic deposits like phosphate and barite);
be the case that properly functioning markets will the next lower level consists of bulk raw materials
provide solutions to mineral ­shortages, there are a such as those used in construction and those
 34 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

whose availability, from a geological viewpoint, is There is a growing awareness that the con-
1 unlimited in the Earth’s crust; finally, waste prod- struction structures, building, and other prod-
ucts and residues from beneficiation or burning ucts in the economy today could be the urban
of higher value resources occupy the lowermost mines of the future (OECD 2015). Thus, anthro-
part of the hierarchy». Obviously, if possible, the pogenic stocks have been less studied than geo-
main goal of any policy leading to mineral sus- logical stocks. They represent a growing area of
tainable development is to utilize low-value interest, particularly in industrialized economies
resources at the base of the mineral resources where geological stocks are limited but man-
hierarchy. Thus, the high-value resources at the made stocks are believed to be large. Much of the
top are conserved. Another relevant tool for com- study of anthropogenic stocks focuses on metals
paring materials consumption is eco-efficiency, because they can be infinitely recycled, and
which combines the notions maximum environ- unlike minerals, which dissipate with consump-
mental and economic benefit and minimum envi- tion (e.g., fossil fuels, salt for deicing), metals
ronmental and economic cost. Eco-efficiency also retain their chemical and physical properties
decreases raw materials consumption throughout over time. Many of the potential negative envi-
the life cycle to a limit more or less in line with the ronmental impacts associated with the produc-
Earth’s calculated capability. This concept focuses tion and consumption of metals can be reduced
heavily on effective resource consumption and the using these anthropogenic stocks with recycling.
reduction of waste (Fleury and Davies 2012). Simultaneously, pressure on virgin stocks could
The role of developed countries in sustainable be diminished.
development is crucial since these countries are
mostly involved in mineral resource consump-
tion and depletion. For instance, Europe environ- 1.9 Critical Raw Materials
mental footprint is one of the largest on the
planet; if the rest of the world lived like Europeans, The global market of mineral raw materials is
it would require the resources of more than two characterized by: (a) increasing demand for min-
earths to support them. For this reason, some erals from both industrial and developing coun-
developed countries such as EU countries have tries, (b) dramatic changes in where minerals are
elaborated extensive programs trying to resolve sourced, (c) volatile markets and pricing, and (d)
the dualism rich countries  – poor countries. As increased vulnerabilities in the mineral supply
an example of these programs, the European chain. In this framework, modern society is
Union (EU) is developing the named «Sustainable increasingly dependent on mineral resources,
Consumption and Production and Sustainable which differ in their availability, the way of use,
Industrial Policy Action Plan». This plan includes the cost of production, and their geographical dis-
different actions, of which 11 are devoted to tribution. Raw materials are essential for the
Natural Resources. Europe 2020 strategy has as its development of the economy of industrialized
flagship initiative a «resource efficient Europe: to regions. Sectors such as construction, chemicals,
help decouple economic growth from the use of automotive, aerospace, and machinery are com-
resources», being the resource efficiency the key pletely dependent on access to certain raw materi-
political priority. als. European extraction covers only 29% of the
Previously, the EU Raw Materials Initiative of demand for concentrates necessary to meet the
2008 included an integrated strategy based on the requirements for production in metallurgical
following three pillars: «(1) ensure access to raw plants. Therefore, the potential effects of mineral
materials from international markets under the supply disruption are essential for maintaining
same conditions as other industrial competitors; and improving the quality of life.
(2) set the right framework conditions within the Moreover, a type of scarcity referred to as
EU to foster sustainable supply of raw materials «technical scarcity» or «structural scarcity» pres-
from European sources; and (3) boost overall ents a particular challenge and may be difficult
resource efficiency and promote recycling to reduce and expensive to alleviate. Technical scarcity
the EU’s consumption of primary raw materials applies chiefly (Graedel et al. 2014) to «a range of
and decrease the relative import dependence». rare metals used mostly in high-tech applications;
1.9 · Critical Raw Materials
35 1
many of these are not mined on their own, rather
..      Table 1.4  Primary supply (%) of some critical
they are by-products of the mining of the ores of raw materials from the most important producing
the more common and widely used metals (e.g. countries (European Commission 2014)
aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc); these by-­
products are present as trace constituents in the Critical raw Supply Major suppliers
ores of the host metals and, under favorable eco- material (%) (>20%)
nomic conditions, they can be extracted from Antimony 93 China (87%)
these ores, which means that there is a little eco-
nomic incentive to increase production at times Beryllium 99 USA (90%)
of shortage». Borates 88 Turkey (38%)
Demand for a variety of mineral resources,
USA (30%)
such as rare earth elements (REEs), platinum group
elements (PGEs), beryllium, and lithium, among Chromium 88 South Africa (43%)
others, has increased with continued consumption Kazakhstan (20%)
in developed economies and the emergence of
Cobalt 82 DRC (56%)
other developing countries. Such elements are cru-
cial to a variety of manufacturing, high-tech, and Coking coal 94 China (51%)
military applications. In this framework, many Fluorspar 84 China (56%)
governments consider that a stable supply of some
mineral resources is essential for economic pros- Gallium 90 China (69%)
perity. It is important to note that the production of Germanium 94 China (59%)
minerals that supply many of these elements is
Indium 81 China (58%)
concentrated in a few countries. Thus, China pro-
duces more than 95% of the global rare earth ele- Magnesite 86 China (69%)
ments supply, and almost 80% of global platinum Magnesium 96 China (86%)
production is from South Africa. . Table  1.4
 

Natural 93 China (69%)

(European Commission 2014) indicates the pri-
graphite
mary supply in percentage of some critical raw
materials from most important producing coun- Niobium 99 Brazil (92%)
tries. In this scenario, the concept of critical min- PGMs 93 South Africa (61%)
eral or raw material must be introduced.
Russia (27%)
The term «criticality» was first used in 1939.
The American administration decided in those Phosphate rock 66 China (38%)
days to build up a stock for 42 raw materials with REE (heavy) 100 China (99%)
military relevance. This was enforced by the so-­
called Critical Material Stock Piling Act. The geo- REE (light) 100 China (87%)
political situation after the end of the Cold War Silicon metal 79 China (56%)
relaxed, but the stock piling of military relevant
Tungsten 91 China (85%)
raw materials is continued until today (Achzet
and Helbig 2013). The National Research Council, Total 90 China (49%)
in the book entitled Minerals, Critical Minerals,
and the U.S. Economy (2008) mentions the differ-
ence between «strategic» and «critical», com-
menting that the terms «critical» and «strategic» very precise specifications required in certain key
as mineral or material descriptors have been applications, but it is not simply related to overall
closely associated but commonly not definitely demand for all applications. Furthermore, a min-
differentiated. A mineral can be regarded as criti- eral can be regarded as critical «if an assessment
cal «only if it performs an essential function for indicates a high probability that its supply may
which few or no satisfactory substitutes exist». become restricted, leading either to physical
Thus, the dimension of criticality is therefore unavailability or to significantly higher prices for
related to the demand for a mineral that meets that mineral in key applications». Consequently,
 36 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

the two main dimensions of criticality are impor-

1 tance in use and availability. Obviously, the criti-
cality of a specific mineral can change overtime as

A measure of risk of supply shortages

production technologies evolve and new products

Threshold
are developed. critical
A more recent definition in the American
Mineral Security Act of 2015 (US Congress) says
that a critical mineral means «any mineral, ele-
ment, substance, or material designated as critical Threshold
pursuant to: (1) subject to potential supply restric-
tions (including restrictions associated with for-
eign political risk, abrupt demand growth,
military conflict, violent unrest, anti-competitive non-critical
or protectionist behaviors, and other risks
throughout the supply chain); and (2) important
in use (including energy technology-, defense-, A measure of economic importance or
expected (negative) impact of shortage
currency-, agriculture-, consumer electronics-,
and health care-related applications)». The term
does not include here fuel minerals, water, ice, or ..      Fig. 1.22  General scheme of the criticality concept
snow. projected into two dimensions (Sievers et al. 2012)
With regard to the European Union, the last
report on critical raw materials for the EU (2014)
establishes that «non-energy raw materials are is a relative ranking of the materials across the
intrinsically linked to all industries across all assessment components, with a material classified
supply chain stages, and consequently they are as critical if it exceeds both the threshold for eco-
essential for EU way of life; sectors may rely on nomic importance and the supply risk (Sievers
these materials as direct inputs, for instance et al. 2012) (. Fig. 1.22). For a country economy, 

metals refining relies on metallic ores as well as the importance of a raw material is difficult to
on industrial minerals; this primary industry determine as it presents not only data but also
underpins downstream sectors, which utilize conceptual and methodological difficulties. The
processed materials in their products and ser- analysis is carried out by evaluating the propor-
vices; thus, the healthcare sector uses equipment tion of each raw material associated with indus-
containing high performance magnets made trial megasectors at an EU level and then scaled to
from rare earth elements, electricity distribution define the overall economic importance for a
relies on pylons and cables constructed of alu- material. On the other hand, the overall supply
minium and copper respectively, and most vehi- risks are a combination of factors such as substi-
cles are equipped with tyres that are comprised tutability, high concentration of producing coun-
of natural rubber». The EU is in a particularly tries with poor governance, and end-of-life
vulnerable position on imports for many raw recycling rates.
materials (e.g., EU produced only 3% of the The last updated list of critical and noncritical
world metal production) which are increasingly raw materials (both metals or metallic ores and
affected by growing demand pressure. Moreover, industrial minerals) from the European
the production of many materials is concen- Commission (2014) includes 20 critical raw mate-
trated in a small number of countries. Supply rials (. Fig.  1.23). The main characteristics that
 

risks may arise as a result of political-economic make them critical for EU are: (a) the import
instability of the producing countries and export dependence of the EU (generally more than 70%;
or environmental restrictions imposed by these in most cases 100%), (b) their use is fundamental
countries. in emerging technologies, (c) they are produced
To assess criticality, the methodology utilized as by-products of other main metals treatment or
in the EU is a combination of two components: coupled elements, (d) their recycling rate is quite
economic importance and supply risk. The result low, and (e) the substitution options are limited.
1.10 · Mineral Resource Recycling
37 1

Clays (& Kaolin) Gold

Diatomite Manganese
Non-Critical Raw

Feldspar Molybdenum
Materials

Hafnium Bentonite Natural Rubber

Limestone Gypsum Aluminium Scandium
Perlite Potash Copper Barytes Tantalum
Sawn Softwood Pulpwood Rhenium Bauxite Tin
Silica sand Selenium Silver Iron Ore Titanium
Tellurium Talc Zinc Nickel Vanadium
EU
>20% <20% <10% <3% <1%
Supply
Gallium Silicon Metal Chromium Antimony
Magnesite Coking coal Lithium Beryllium
Critical Raw Materials

Fluorspar Tungsten Borate

Germanium Cobalt
Indium Magnesium
Natural Graphite
Niobium
PGMs
Phosphate Rock
REEs (Heavy)
REEs (Light)

..      Fig. 1.23  Critical and noncritical raw materials in EU (European Commission 2014)

China is the major producer of the EU critical raw result of previous considerations. The aim of this
materials, and it is the most influential in terms of document is to secure and improve access to raw
global supply. Other countries such as the USA materials for the EU countries. Materials security
for beryllium and Brazil for niobium provide spe- and materials criticality have also been of growing
cific raw materials. interest for other international forums, leading to
The list of critical raw materials is being used a number of studies and initiatives related to raw
to help prioritize needs and actions. It serves as a material supply and criticality (e.g., Resourcing
supporting element when negotiating trade agree- Future Generations – IUGS).
ments, challenging trade distortion measures, or
promoting research and innovation. The list not
only includes the name of the raw material, but 1.10 Mineral Resource Recycling
also some data about main producers, main
sources of imports, substitutability index, and Waste management priorities are organized
end-of-life recycling input rate. These two last according to the named «the three R’s»: reduce,
indexes are essential for the supply of critical raw reuse, and recycling (. Box 1.7: The Three R’s). In
 

materials. According the European list, «the sub- a broad sense, there are three main groups of min-
stitutability index is a measure of the difficulty in eral resources that can be reused or recycled: con-
substituting the material, scored and weighted struction and demolition waste, industrial
across all applications; the end-of-life recycling minerals, and metals. Each of them has its own
input rate measures the proportion of metal and characteristics dealing with source and capability
metal products that are produced from end-of-life to be recycled. Recycling will never be 100% effi-
scrap and other metal-bearing low-grade residues cient and varies greatly among different mineral
in end-of-life scrap worldwide». The European commodities due to the use and functionality in
Commission adopted a strategy document as a their respective applications.
 38
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

 Box 1.7
1

The Three R’s benefits. As less material is used, given to the material and save it
Over the last half century, the pollution from its manufacture and from going to the landfill. Materi-
amount of waste created per person transportation is reduced, energy als like glass, plastic, aluminum,
in the developed countries has and water is saved, and material is and paper can be mass collected
doubled. Thus, the concept and pro- kept out of landfills. Waste reduction (. Fig. 1.24), broken or melted
 

motion of the three R’s was created therefore should be the main prior- down, and made into entirely
to help combat the drastic increase ity in the waste management plans. new products. The definition of
in solid waste production. As a Thus, reducing is the most effective recycling is varied. For instance,
rule, the three R’s (reduce, reuse, of the three R’s. Aluminum cans are according to the Waste Framework
and recycling) conserve natural a good example of source reduction Directive of the European Union
resources, landfill space, and energy. because they are now made with (Directive 2008/98/EC on waste)
The problem of the landfill space 1/3 less aluminum than they were recycling is defined as: «any
is nowadays very important, since 20 years ago. recovery operation by which waste
siting a new landfill has become The second most effective materials are reprocessed into
difficult and more expensive due strategy for environmental stew- products, materials or substances
to environmental regulations and ardship is to reuse. An item might whether for the original or other
public opposition. Moreover, the be reused for the same purpose or purposes. It includes the reprocess-
three R’s ensure that future genera- it might be used in a different way. ing of organic material but does
tions have clean air to breathe, clean Reusing extends the life of exist- not include energy recovery and
water to drink, as well as forests, ing materials and decreases the the reprocessing into materials
fields, and beaches to enjoy. For resources needed for new prod- that are to be used as fuels or for
instance, it is possible to create a ucts. This concept can be difficult backfilling operations». Recycling
compost pile of the organic, biode- because the life in the actual world again conserves resources and
gradable kitchen waste and apply includes many disposable items, diverts materials from landfills.
it to the garden. Organic material in and it takes some imagination The possibilities of recycling are
the compost stores carbon, keeping and creativity to see how items infinite. For example, metals form
it from entering the atmosphere can be reused. For instance, it is almost 9% of the municipal solid
as a greenhouse gas. Nutrients in estimated that a glass beverage waste (MSW) in the USA in 2012
compost encourage healthy bacte- bottle can make about 15 round- (EPA 2014). Sources of metals from
rial growth in soil, enabling plants to trips between the manufacturer MSW include residential waste
grow strong and healthy the natural and the consumer before it must (including waste from apartment
way. be recycled due to damage. houses) and waste from com-
The three R’s are really a waste Finally, the last resort is to mercial and institutional locations,
management hierarchy with reduce recycle. Recycling includes several such as businesses, schools, and
being the most important strategy. steps that take a used material and hospitals, and these include items
The best way to manage a waste is process it, remanufacture it, and such as packaging, food waste,
not to produce it. Reducing waste sell it as a new product. Where a grass clippings, sofas, computers,
yields the greatest environmental product is recycled, a new life is tires, and refrigerators.

..      Fig. 1.24 Recy-
cling at Grand Can-
yon (USA)
1.10 · Mineral Resource Recycling
39 1
1.10.1  Construction and  but barriers to recycling the waste are numerous.
Demolition Waste Among them, the misconception about the qual-
ity of recycled products compared to new materi-
Construction and demolition waste (CDW) is als is the most important, since ignorance of the
one of the most significant waste streams in the good results of these materials in some applica-
world. It comprises very many materials such as tions probably will continue for years.
metals, glass, concrete, gypsum, bricks, wood,
plastic, solvents, and excavated soil, among oth-
ers, many of which can be recycled. CDW has 1.10.2  Industrial Minerals
high potential for recycling because many of the
components have high resource value. In particu- The valuable physical properties of many miner-
lar, there is a market for aggregates derived from als used in industrial and manufacturing pro-
CDW waste in roads, drainage, and other con- cesses are either destroyed in use or the minerals
struction projects. For instance, recycled and sec- are dispersed, and they cannot be recoverable in
ondary materials account for 30% of the aggregates their original form. Thus, plasticity of ceramic
market in Great Britain. They include construc- clays is lost during firing in the kiln. Some
tion and demolition waste, asphalt planings, used industrial minerals that are valued for their
railway ballast, etc. In the European Union, CDW chemical properties are impossible to reuse or
has been identified as a priority waste stream recycle. The most classical example is salt uti-
since it accounts for approximately 25% to 30% of lized to treat roads in the winter, and potassium
all the waste generated in the EU; approximately or phosphorous minerals that are the basis of
900 million tons per year, two tons per capita. The numerous agricultural fertilizers. However,
quantitative target set by The Waste Framework many industrial minerals can be recovered and
Directive of the EU at 2008 is the following: «by recycled in their manufactured form. For exam-
2020, the preparing for reuse, recycling and other ple, ceramic materials can be recycled as con-
material recovery, including backfilling opera- struction fills or as aggregates. Glass is an
tions using waste to substitute other materials, of outstanding case of material with high recycling
non-hazardous construction and demolition capacity (. Fig. 1.25). It is a manufactured prod-
 

waste … shall be increased to a minimum of 70% uct that may simply be melted and reformed in a
by weight». Concrete is the most important frac- similar way than metals.
tion in the CDW.  It presents many treatment According to IMA Europe (2013), «in general,
options (e.g., landfill, recycling into aggregates for recovering these minerals from their end applica-
road construction, or backfilling, among others), tions would be technically complicated, time

..      Fig. 1.25  Glass build-

ing (The National Grand
Theater of China, Beijing)
 40 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

c­onsuming and, ultimately, environmentally back into high-grade materials than mining and
1 unsound; however, although the minerals them- refining processes. For this reason, carbon emis-
selves may not be recyclable per se, many of them sions from recycling are substantially lower than
lead second, third, fourth or even an infinite num- those derived from mining. As a rule, the main ben-
ber of lives». The Industrial Minerals sector in efits from recycling metals are: (a) lowering energy
Europe estimates that a total 40–50% of all the consumption by 60–95% compared to primary pro-
minerals consumed in Europe are recycled, which duction, (b) reducing CO2 emissions and environ-
is the case for about 73% of all silica used in mental impact on water and air, (c) preserving
Europe. Markets for this recycled silica are varied: primary geological resources, and (d) decreasing the
construction and soil, container and flat glass, dependency on raw material imports. Depending
foundry, ceramics, etc. Other data about recycling on the metal and the form of scrap, recycling can
rates for industrial minerals in Europe are 50% of save as much as an indicator of ten or twenty in
bentonite, 58% of calcium carbonate, 67% of feld- power consumption (Reck and Graedel 2012).
spar, 49% of kaolin, or 60% of talc. In the metals industry, the term recycling is
commonly used to include two fundamentally
different kinds of scrap: (1) new scrap or process
1.10.3  Metals scrap: the material generated during processing
and manufacturing, and (2) old scrap (. Fig. 1.26)
 

Despite the vast reserves of several industrially or obsolete scrap (also post-consumer scrap or
important metals, the growing world population end-of-life scrap): the material recovered after
cannot keep consuming metals at current standard being built into a construction or a manufactured
for the western industrialized society. This is no article that has been used and eventually dis-
doubt beyond what is likely to be sustainable. carded. Thus, scrap is generally categorized as
Altogether, metal production today represents new scrap or old scrap. A broad range of terms,
about 8% of total global energy consumption and a such as external scrap, home scrap, internal scrap,
similar percentage of fossil-fuel-related CO2 emis- mill scrap, prompt scrap, and purchased scrap,
sions. Obviously, recycling will help in decreasing have been developed to design scrap originated by
this footprint as it usually requires less energy than different industry operations (Papp 2014).
primary manufacture (UNEP 2013). When recy- Hagelüken (2014) affirmed that recycling
cling metals, energy use is diminished because scrap ­possibilities or recyclability of a product is based
metals commonly require less energy to convert on various technical, economic, structural and

..      Fig. 1.26  Old scrap

1.10 · Mineral Resource Recycling
41 1
organizational factors: (a) the intrinsic metal value
..      Table 1.5  Recycling rates in the USA (Papp
of the base material depending on its absolute 2014)
metal content and the metal price, and determines
the economic attractiveness of recycling; (b) the Element USA (%)
material composition beyond the chemical com-
position to include physical characteristics such as Aluminum 52
shape, size, and the type of connection between Chromium 28
materials and components; and (c) the application
Copper 33
field of a product and how it is used referring to the
area of use while the latter deals with new or reuse Iron and steel 50
products, user behavior, risk of dissipation, etc. Lead 68
Few metals are used in pure form, and most are
Nickel 45
components of alloys or other mixtures. In cases
where these materials undergo reprocessing, some Tin 27
elements will be reprocessed to their elemental Titanium 63
form (e.g., copper), but many will be reprocessed
in alloy form (e.g., nickel or tin) (Reck and Graedel
2012). Tercero (2012) suggests that a main obstacle
to recycling is the complexity of the products steel recycling has an enormous impact on the
themselves. There are many difficulties such as the reduction of CO2 emissions. However, the greatest
energy and labor required to separate the materials request for logistical and technological advance in
of interest so that they can be recycled. Sometimes, steel recycling is in recovery and processing of
an adequate large-scale technology is not available scrap, covering enhancement in contaminant
(locally or worldwide) to recover the desired mate- removal and recovery (Bowyer et al. 2015).
rials in a useful quality. This is the case for phos- One of the most promising recycling sources
phors in energy-saving lamps, which are to date is waste electronic and electrical equipment
not recycled on a large scale. There is also an (WEEE), which contains many of the metals of
important difficulty yet recycling might be possi- rising demand. Much of WEEE is typically metal,
ble but too expensive given current technology not only the 60% «metals» slice, but also the metal
and prices, forcing downcycling or preventing and metallic compounds found in printed circuit
recycling altogether. An example of downcycling is boards, LCD screens, cables and metal-plastic
lithium from discarded lithium-ion batteries. It is mixes, etc. . Table 1.6 (Bakas et al. 2014) shows
 

currently possible but too expensive to produce the critical metals included in EEE and hence in
technical grade lithium carbonate out of recycled WEEE.  With increasing gross domestic product
lithium compared to primary production. (GDP), world consumption of these products
In spite of the resulting benefits from an envi- accelerates and the size of their waste streams
ronmental, economic, and social perspective, cur- increases. WEEE volumes are already enormous,
rent recycling rates are still rather low for most estimated between 20 and 50 million tons
metals (. Table  1.5). The world’s most recycled
  per annum, or 3–7 kg/person each year (assum-
material is steel, the metal used in 8–9 times greater ing seven billion people) (UNEP 2013).
quantity than all other metals combined. Of the In summary, recycling represents a major way
three R’s, recycling is probably the most recognized to mitigate negative impacts on increasing metals’
attribute of steel. «More than 475 million tons of demand and to ensure the potential of economic
steel scrap was removed in 2008 from the waste growth. For instance, the largest recycling park in
stream into the recycling stream; this is more than China is able to recover one million tons of cop-
the combined reported totals for other recyclable per per year. It is important to bear in mind that
materials, including paper, plastic, glass, copper, the largest copper mine in this country generates
lead, and aluminum; in 2012, the United States less than half of that amount of copper. This
recycled 69 million metric tons (Mt) of selected «urban mining» (anthropogenic stock) is impor-
metals, an amount equivalent to 59% of the appar- tant in producing recycled raw materials. Hence,
ent supply of those metals, and more than 91% of reinforcing the recycling of metals is a clear strat-
recycled metal was steel» (Papp 2014). Obviously, egy for a sustainable future (UNEP 2011).

42 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

1 ..      Table 1.6  Critical metals included in EEE (Bakas et al. 2014)

Metal Mobile PC Flat-screen Solar power Rechargeable Notebooks/laptops

phones TVs and converters batteries
monitors

Cobalt +a + + +a

Indium + + + + + +

Lithium +a + + +a

Silver + + + + + +

Tantalum + + + +

Tellurium (+) +

Tungsten + (+) +

Gold + + + +

Beryllium + + +

Gallium + + + + +

Germanium + + + +

Palladium + + + +

Ruthenium + + +

aWithin batteries

1.11 Trade and Markets near the mine, and they are also subject to a sig-
nificant world trade. This is because of their high
International trade in metals and gemstones has mining and processing costs and geographically
been carried out from two or more millenniums restricted mineral deposits’ character. The high
ago or more, but intercontinental traffic in miner- value of these metals is commonly associated with
als and metals of all kinds increased quickly in the the rarity of their economic deposits, which
last two centuries. Nowadays, all minerals, metals, means that they can be transported over long dis-
and related products enter into the world trade, tances and still they can maintain their value.
and some of them are produced for local con- The commercial arrangements that govern
sumption while others are transported to markets minerals trade are the markets. A «market» is a
worldwide. In this sense, geology and economics hypothetical place where sellers and buyers of a
have constrained the location of the minerals and selected commodity meet to determine its price.
metals that can be economically mined, so many Mineral markets are material goods markets, and
of them need to be transported. many are regarded as world markets because of
Most transoceanic minerals trade accounts for the easy negotiability of the traded commodities.
relatively low-value bulk minerals (e.g., iron ore Markets may exist at several stages of production
. Fig.  1.27 or phosphate rock), since economic
 
and for several levels of quality. However, the
deposits are few and the minerals must be trans- market usually referred to is that of the standard
ported for further processing in the industrial trade quality for the mineral commodities most
countries. Metalliferous ores, such as copper, lead, important in world trade (Gocht et al. 1988). For
zinc, and nickel ores, are usually concentrated just instance, this is the case of Arab Light (34°API)
1.11 · Trade and Markets
43 1
..      Fig. 1.27  A merchant
vessel in Saldanha Bay
(South Africa) September
2015 to transport iron ore
from Kumba Iron Ore busi-
ness (Anglo American) to
Asian markets (Image cour-
tesy of Anglo American plc)

for crude oil, although the OPEC basket of crudes New  York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX),
daily price is made up to 12 crudes. The form of including COMEX, the division responsible for
market is defined by the extent of free competi- metals trading. Related to NYMEX and its activ-
tion and hence pricing (oligopoly, monopoly, and ity, the new entity was closely devoted mainly to
competition), the latter being usually a result of energy (oil, natural gas, coal, etc.), although some
peaceful adjustment. ferrous products are also traded. In both LME and
Regarding the competitive prices, mineral NYMEX, the prices for the commodities are
commodities, particularly metals, can be stan- established on a supply/demand basis on an open
dardized according to quality and quantity and market. At a regional level, the Asian Market
are thus negotiable on exchanges. Here, prices are offers price metals for base metals, minor metals,
subject to competitive supply and demand. The ferroalloys, rare earths, precious metals, scrap
major base metals and the precious metals are metals, carbon steel, stainless and special, steel
traded in open markets. Open market prices are raw materials, refractories, and industrial miner-
very important price indicators used by all the als. Also at a regional scale, APMEX includes a
parties concerned although most trade is through complete information about precious metals in
private contracts. Many bulk nonfuel minerals, the USA.
such as iron ore, coal, and potash, or metals such Regarding the relationship between stock
as titanium tungsten, and uranium, are almost markets and commodity prices, it has received
entirely set by private contracts between major substantial attention over the past decades. An
supplies and consumers. Since they are bulk com- investigation based on the commodity-stock
modities, transportation and shipping become an market nexus in gold and other metals, as well as
important aspect of the contract price. In these the relevant stock market indices and stocks
cases, although the prices are set by contract, a traded on the Toronto Stock Exchange for the
number of organizations (e.g., UX Consulting period 1982–2011, shows that there is no indica-
Company for uranium prices) publish contract tions that the market states detected for the indi-
prices, which provides a level of transparency to vidual stocks are related to those for the raw
the metal prices even though they are not traded material price (Ntantamis and Zhou 2015). The
on an open market (Stevens 2010). objective of the investigation was to assess
At present, there are two important metal whether commodity price fluctuations were
exchange in the world where competitive prices reflected in the stock prices of firms whose pri-
are fixed: The London Metal Exchange (LME) mary business is in extracting and trading the
(. Box 1.8: London Metal Exchange) and The
  particular commodity.
 44 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

Box 1.8
1

London Metal Exchange in 1571. It was there that traders in beginning, but lead and zinc were
The London Metal Exchange is the metal and a range of other com- officially introduced in 1920, pri-
world center for industrial metals modities began to meet on a regu- mary aluminum was introduced in
trading. More than 80% of global lar basis. In the early nineteenth 1978, and was followed by nickel 1
nonferrous business is transacted century, there were so many com- year later. In 2008, the LME made
there, being the annual trading modity traders, ship characters, and a move into ferrous metals with
about USD$ 12 trillion. The prices financers using the Royal Exchange the introduction of two regional
on the London Metal Exchange are that it became impossible to do contracts for steel billet. In July
globally recognized and respected business and individual groups of 2010, these contracts merged into
by the industry. The Exchange pro- traders set up shops in the nearby a single global contract. The most
vides producers and consumers city coffee houses. At that moment, recent contract additions came in
of metal not only with a physical a merchant with metal to sell February 2010 with the launch of
market of last resort but also, would simply draw a circle on the two minor metals futures contracts
perhaps most importantly of all, dusty floor and call out «change» for cobalt and molybdenum.
with the ability to hedge against at which point all those wishing Currently, metals officially listed
the risk of rising and falling world to trade would assemble around in LME are nonferrous metals
metal prices. LME contracts trade the circle and make their bids. It (aluminum, copper, lead, nickel,
in US dollars although exchange was the origin of the so-called ring tin, and zinc), steel, and minor
rates for euro, GB sterling, and trading. In 1869, the opening of the metals (cobalt and molybdenum).
Japanese yen are also published. Suez Canal reduced the delivery The LME is also home to the LBMA
LME pricing has the following time of tin from Malaya to match Platinum and Palladium prices,
advantages: (a) unique price set by the 3-month delivery time for cop- which are discovered in a twice-
supply and demand, (b) transpar- per from Chile. This gave rise to daily auction. Each commodity
ent, (c) traded and tradable real- the LME’s unique system of daily information (e.g., copper) includes
time prices, (d) heavily regulated prompt dates for up to 3 months topics like stocks and prices, price
market, and (e) more accurate forward which still exists to this graph, historical data, average
hedging. Contrary to popular day. prices, production, and consump-
belief, gold and silver (precious As delivery tonnages grew to tion, among others. The date
metals) are not traded on the meet the increasing demands of structure is as follows: daily from
London Metal Exchange but in the industry, more and more mer- cash to 3 months; then weekly
London Bullion Market. chants were attracted to the metal from 3 months to 6 months (every
The origin of the LME can only be trading. New metals have been Wednesday); then monthly from
traced back as far as the opening introduced as demand dictated. 7 months (every third Wednesday);
of the Royal Exchange in London For instance, copper and tin have aluminum and copper contracts
been traded on the LME since the trade out to 10 years.

1.12 Mining as a Business industry and hosts the headquarters of some of

the largest and more important mining c­ ompanies
According to Graedel et al. (2014), expenditures in the world. The structure of the global mining
included in creating a new mine and to put it into industry is composed by three main types of min-
production nowadays commonly amount to hun- ing companies. The largest companies are the so-
dreds of millions of USD or more than a billion of called majors, and they operate across many
USD for a big mine on a greenfield place. In this geographies and minerals (e.g., BHP Billiton, Rio
sense, a metal mine commonly operates for a Tinto, or Anglo American). A second type is
decade as the minimum period although, depend- formed of companies more focused to a commod-
ing mainly on economic circumstances, it can go ity or a country. Examples are Freeport Mc MoRan
ahead for more than 100 years (e.g., Reocín mine, or Antofagasta, focused on copper; Barrick Gold
a lead-zinc deposit in northern Spain, operated or Newmont Mining, focused on gold; De Beers
continuously from 1856 to 2003) (. Fig. 1.28).  
focused on diamonds; or Norilsk Nickel and
The mining industry is a very large one, with a Kazakhmys, both operating in the ancient Soviet
market capitalization of hundreds of billions dol- Union. Finally, a third type is constituted by small
lars in FTSE100 index (this index includes the 100 companies, ranging from companies with two or
companies listed on the LSE with the highest mar- three mines to small family companies. Some of
ket capitalization). London lies as the heart of the these companies produce for international
1.12 · Mining as a Business
45 1
..      Fig. 1.28  Reocín mine (Santander,
Spain): a 1993; b actually a

MINA DE REOCÍN
1856 –2003

­ arkets, but others just supply local markets.

m The other essential actors in the mineral mar-
They often operate in markets where demand is ket are the exploration companies. Since explora-
small or where mineral deposits can be mined at tion is an extremely high-risk activity and the
small scale such as mining of precious metals. majority of exploration ends in failure with
On the other hand, the major mining companies investors losing their money, the exploration
can be subdivided in two groups according the companies use to have their own sources of fund-
property of the company. The first one, formed by ing, mainly stock markets. Examples of these
the companies mentioned above, quotes in stock markets for exploration companies are the
markets, from which their capitalizations are Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX) or the Australian
derived. The second group is formed of companies Stock Exchange (ASX). However, the global
that are either wholly or predominantly owned by economy is formed not only of companies and
the states. Classical examples are Codelco owned by consumers, but also of nations. Thus, nations
the State of Chile, which is the world’s largest copper have strategic interests and they view the mineral
producer, and several Chinese companies (e.g., products in terms of the contribution that they
China Shenhua, Yanzhou Coal, Chinalco, etc.). can make to national projects.
 46 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts

1.13 Questions Bakas I, Fischer C, Haselsteiner S, McKinnon D, Milios L,

1 Harding A, Kosmol J, Plepys A, Tojo N, Wilts H, Wittmer
D (2014) Present and potential future recycling of criti-
??Short Questions cal metals in WEEE. Copenhagen Resource Institute,
  1. What is an ore? Copenhagen, 100 p
  2. Define the concept of grade in a Bardi U, Pagani M (2007) Peak minerals. The Oil Drum,
mineralization. Europe. Discussion about energy and our future,
12 p
  3. What is a prospect in mineral exploration?
Bardy U (2014) Extracted  – how the quest for mineral
  4. What are the two main edges of wealth is plundering the planet – a report to the Club
classification in McKelvey Box? of Rome. Chelsea Green Publishing Co., USA, 368 p
  5. Set an example of the relevance of salt for Bateman AM (1950) Economic mineral deposits. Wiley,
humanity. New York, 918 p
Bowyer J, Bratkovich S, Fernholz K, Frank M, Groot H, Howe
  6. What is the mining cycle?
J, Pepke E (2015) Understanding steel recovery and
  7. List the three categories of mineral recycling rates and limitations to recycling. Dovetail
resources according to International Partners, Inc., Minneapolis, 12 p
Codes. Brown BW (1956) A modern definition of ore. Econ Geol
  8. What are the names of the studies carried 51:282–283
Capote M, Castañeda N, Consuegra S, Criado C, Díaz-del-
out to establish the overall characteristics
Río P, Bustillo MA, Pérez-Jiménez JL (2006) Casa Mon-
of a mining project in each stage of its tero, la mina de sílex más antigua de la Península
development? Ibérica. Tierra y Tecnología 29:42–50
  9. How enrichment factor for metals is Capote M (2011) Working in the flint mine: percussion tools
calculated? and labour organisation at Casa Montero (Spain). In:
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of the
10. Explain in summary form the Hubbert
UISPP Commission on Flint Mining in Pre- and
peak theory. Protohistoric Times. Edited by Capote M, Consuegra S,
11. Define the concept of sustainable Díaz P and Terradas X.  BAR International Series 2260,
development pp 231–242
12. What is the purpose of the concept of Cargill SM, Root DH, Bailey EH (1981) Estimating usable
resources from historical industry data. Econ Geol
critical minerals?
76:1081–1095
13. Explain the concept of «the three R’s» in Chapman PF, Roberts F (1983) Metal resources and energy.
mineral resource recycling. Butterworths monographs in materials. Butterworth
14. What is the reason of transoceanic trade and Co., Ltd. Kent, London, 238 p
of metallic ores? Coulson M (2012) The history of mining: the events, tech-
nology and people involved in the industry that
15. What is a market in minerals trade?
forged the modern world. Harriman House, Ltd., Great
Britain, Petersfield, 488 p
??Long Questions Crowson PCF (2011) Mineral reserves and future minerals
  1. Outline the main stages of the mining availability. Miner Econ 24:1–6
cycle. Dimitrakopoulos R, Abdel Sabour SA (2007) Evaluating
mine plans under uncertainty: can the real options
  2. Define the concept of mineral resource
make a difference? Resour Policy 32(3):116–125
and mineral reserve in International Edens B, DiMatteo I (2007) Classification issues for
Codes. How do the modifying factors ­mineral and energy resources. 11th Meeting of the
influence these definitions? London Group on Environmental Accounting
Johannesburg, 8 p
EPA (2014) Municipal solid waste generation, recycling,
and disposal in the United States: facts and figures for
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 49 2

Mineral Deposits: Types

and Geology
2.1 Introduction – 50

2.2 Basic Vocabulary – 51

2.3 Evolutionary Concepts About the Origin

of Mineral Deposits – 53

2.4 Mineral Deposits and Plate Tectonics – 55

2.5 Criteria for the Classification of Mineral

Deposits – 58

2.6 Ore-Forming Processes – 61

2.6.1 Magmatic Processes – 62
2.6.2 Metamorphic Processes – 63
2.6.3 Sedimentary Processes – 64
2.6.4 Hydrothermal Processes – 66

2.7 Mineral Resources Commodities – 68

2.7.1 Energy – 68
2.7.2 Metals – 76
2.7.3 Industrial Minerals – 79
2.7.4 Industrial Rocks – 84

2.8 Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits – 89

2.8.1 Magmatic Ore Deposits – 89
2.8.2 Hydrothermal Ore Deposits – 97
2.8.3 Sedimentary Ore Deposits – 106
2.8.4 Metamorphic and Metamorphosed Mineral
Deposits – 116

2.9 Questions – 117

References – 117

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

M. Bustillo Revuelta, Mineral Resources, Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and
Environment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-58760-8_2
 50 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

association (e.g., Stanton 1972). In general, this

Summary association represents the geological environment
This chapter provides a brief introduction to and processes that formed the mineralization.
2 the types of mineral deposits. These descrip- Several associations have been commonly and
tions include both the commodities and the successfully utilized for searching new deposits.
geology of the deposits. Previously, the McQueen (2005) suggested four basic geolog-
evolutionary concepts about the origin of ical requirements for any ore deposit to form: «(1)
mineral deposits are established, giving a a source for the ore components; (2) a mechanism
special consideration to the neptunism- that either transports these components to the
plutonism controversy in the nineteenth ore deposit site and allows the appropriate con-
century and the influence of plate tectonics centration or removes non-ore components to
theories in the genesis of mineral deposits. allow residual concentration; (3) a depositional
Ore-forming processes (magmatic, sedimen- mechanism (trap) to fix the components in the
tary, hydrothermal, and metamorphic) are ore body as ore minerals and associated gangue;
described before entering in the description and (4) a process or geological setting that allows
of the main types of mineral deposits. Energy the ore deposit to be preserved». Other require-
(petroleum, natural gas, tar sands, bitumi- ments comprise energy to power the transport
nous shales, coal, and uranium), metals (iron mechanism and an appropriate crustal structure
and steel, base metals, precious metals, light to locate the ore-forming components and reach
metals, and minor and specialty metals), and their deposition. Therefore, the particular elemen-
industrial minerals and rocks (aggregates, tal composition of a mineral deposit results from
ornamental rocks, carbonate rocks for a complicated interaction of favorable combina-
cement and lime, and clays for brick and tiles) tions of source, transport, and depositional vari-
form the main groups of mineral commodi- ables. Thus, the type, character, and abundance of
ties. From a geological point of view, a simple an ore deposit reflect the environment in which it
genetic classification of mineral deposits was formed. It preserves evidence for the evolu-
encompasses four main groups: magmatic, tion of ore-forming processes and tectonic setting
hydrothermal, sedimentary, and metamor- as well as the characteristics of the atmosphere
phic/metamorphosed, each of them with and hydrosphere (Jenkin et al. 2015).
several types and subtypes. Ever since Agricola (1556) first classified
ore deposits (. Fig.  2.1), successive writers have
 

attempted classification of mineral deposits

2.1 Introduction (Jensen and Bateman 1979). Classifications are
very useful because they mainly provide a com-
Mineral deposits are concentrations in the Earth’s mon reference scheme. Moreover, they are utilized
crust of helpful elements that can be extracted at for both scientific communication and practical
a profit. By definition, ores are somewhat unusual application. A classification scheme is basically
rocks. Like all crustal rocks, they consist of min- a means of grouping together known geological
erals formed through a variety of geological processes, minerals, and mineral-rock associa-
processes that collect the elements into a minor tion. With regard to genetic classification of min-
volume. One cubic meter of crustal rock contains eral deposits, including geological processes of
approximately 0.15  kg of nickel, but the cost to ore formation, stringent genetic classification is
mine and process this amount of rock clearly very difficult. In this sense, some deposits result
exceeds the value of the resulting nickel. For this from interplay of volcanic, intrusive, sedimentary,
reason, the existence of a concentrating geological and diagenetic processes. However, it is necessary
process is crucial. The great goal of geologists is to to remember that genetic concepts are an essential
know how the nature works to put all the elements component to find new mineral deposits. Thus,
into mineral deposits, trying to understand how the genesis must be reflected in mineral deposit
these processes work. One of the most common classification (Jenkin et al. 2015).
expressions in mineral deposit is the association In this chapter, two main classifications of
of specific ore types with determined host-rock mineral resources are described: one is based
assemblages; this expression is the ore-host-rock on commodities, whereas the other is made
2.2 · Basic Vocabulary
51 2
..      Fig. 2.1  Some types of
veins according to Agricola
(1556)

a­ ccording to the ore-forming processes and gen- (Turneaure 1955). The size of a metallogenic
esis. A combination of both classifications makes province can be as large as the Superior Province
it possible to describe in detail the overall charac- (Canadian Shield), and a metallogenic epoch can
teristics of mineral deposits. be as broad as the entire Proterozoic. A detailed
way to define metallogenic epoch and metallo-
genic province is «as those time intervals of Earth
2.2 Basic Vocabulary history and regions of Earth, respectively, which
contain a significantly greater number of deposits
There is basic vocabulary dealing with formation or larger tonnage of a specific deposit type than
of mineral deposits which is not used in other dis- would have resulted from average rates of min-
ciplines of mineral resources such as evaluation, eralization that have occurred over Phanerozoic
exploitation, or environmental impact. Some time» (Wilkinson and Kesler 2009). Another
terms are genetic, others are related to the geom- relevant term is metallotect, a geological, tec-
etry of the ore, and most of the following defini- tonic, lithological, or geochemical feature that is
tions are similar to those included in the Glossary believed to have played a role in the concentration
of Geology (Bates and Jackson 1987). Since metal- of one or more elements and hence is thought to
logeny is the synthesis of scientific endeavors to have contributed to the formation of ore deposits.
understand ore formation (Pohl 2011), expres- The use of genetic terms is also very varied.
sions such as metallogenic maps (. Fig.  2.2),
  Thus, syngenetic denotes that ore or minerals
metallogenic provinces, and metallogenic epochs have formed at the same time as their host rock
are usually found in the literature related to min- (a rock serving as a host for a mineral or ore); it
eral deposits. A metallogenic province may be is commonly but not only used for sedimentary
defined as a mineralized area or region containing rocks. By contrast, epigenetic means that the ore
mineral deposits of a specific type or a group of or minerals have emplaced in pre-existing rocks
deposits that possess features (e.g., morphology, of any origin (e.g., veins). Both terms are essen-
style of mineralization, or composition) suggest- tial and commonly used in genetic descriptions
ing a genetic relationship; a metallogenic epoch of mineral deposits, although they have caused
is a geological time interval of pronounced for- intense controversies through time. Other used
mation of one or more kinds of mineral d ­ eposits terms are hypogene and supergene. The former
 52 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

Pb, Zn, Ag U
F, Ba, Sr Fe, Mn, Ti
Cu Sb (As, Ag, Hg, Au)
Au, Ag, As P

6º50'0“W 6º40'0“W 6º30'0“W

Scale 1: 200,000

..      Fig. 2.2  Part of a Spanish metallogenic map (IGME)

refers to ores formed by ascending solutions, deposit is limited to a determined part of the
whereas the latter deals with ore formation by stratigraphic column.
descending solutions, classically meteoric waters Many terms are used in relation to the shape
interacting with rocks during surficial weather- of a mineral deposit since it is very variable, from
ing. Endogenetic indicates concentrations caused concordant tabular and stratiform to discordant
by processes in the Earth’s interior (e.g., magma- veins and breccia bodies. Veins are sheetlike zone
tism), whereas exogenetic points to concentration of minerals that fill a fracture; they are formed
caused by processes in the Earth’s surface (e.g., from hydrothermal solutions and commonly
sedimentation). Stratiform and stratabound are composed of quartz and/or carbonates with
also essential terms in mineral deposits formed minor sulfide minerals. A breccia is a fragmented
by sedimentary processes. Thus, a stratiform rock in which the clasts are cemented together
deposit means a mineral deposit related to a con- by minerals; it is a good host for hydrothermal
crete stratigraphic bedding, while a stratabound mineral deposits. Other terms are disseminated
2.3 · Evolutionary Concepts About the Origin of Mineral Deposits
53 2
Mineral deposits can be named according to
different criteria. Sometimes the name of a place,
region, or city is used (e.g., Alpine type, Sudbury
type, Cyprus type, Mississippi Valley type).
Other times the deposits are known using their
acronyms (e.g., BIF means banded iron forma-
tion ores, MVT means Mississippi Valley-type
lead-­ zinc ores, or SEDEX means sedimentary
exhalative ore). In addition, the deposits may be
called according to the rock type, like pegmatite
(large crystals), porphyry copper (disseminated
stockwork linked to plutonic intrusives), and
skarn (calc-silicate rock). Finally, deposits can be
known by their shape, being the most representa-
tive example a type of uranium deposits, namely,
roll-­front uranium deposit.

2.3  volutionary Concepts About

E
the Origin of Mineral Deposits

Agricola (1556) formulated the first reason-

able theory of ore genesis. In his book «De Re
Metallica, » he showed that «lodes originated by
deposition of minerals in fissures for circulating
underground waters, largely of surface origin,
..      Fig. 2.3  Stockwork texture that had become heated within the Earth and had
dissolved the minerals from the rocks.» Agricola
(ore minerals dispersed through the host rock), made a clear distinction between homogeneous
stockwork (an interlacing network of small and minerals (minerals) and heterogeneous min-
narrow, close-spaced ore-bearing veinlets travers- erals (rocks). Little progress was made in the
ing the host rock) (. Fig.  2.3), massive (miner-
  study of ore genesis from the time of Agricola
alization comprising more than 50% of the host until the middle of the eighteenth century. By
rock), tabular (an ore zone that is extensive in two the 1700s, more remarkable progress was made
dimensions but has restricted development in its in Germany, in the Erzgebirge mining district
third dimension), vein type (mineralization in (Henke, Zimmerman, and Von Oppel, among
veins, commonly discordant to the host rock lay- others). At the end of the eighteenth century, the
ering) (Misra 2000), pipe shaped (the mineraliza- polarized views of either plutonist or neptunist
tion body has the form of a carrot and is typical of theories were developed (. Box 2.1: Neptunism
 

diamond deposits), and lens shaped (the miner- vs Plutonism).

alization body is much thicker in the center than At the middle of the nineteenth century, Von
around the edges, and it may be flat lying, dipping, Cotta affirmed judiciously the various theories of
or vertical). mineral genesis and correctly concluded that no
The use of terms associated with formation one theory was applicable to all ore deposits. At
temperature of ore deposits is common. Examples the end of the 1800s and starting the 1900s, dif-
are epithermal (formed at less than 1500  m and ferent authors (e.g., Élie de Beaumont, Bischoff,
temperatures between 50 and 200  °C), meso- Hunt, Phillips, Sandberger, Posepny, Emmons,
thermal (originated at intermediate depths, and many others) created a new controversy
1500–4500  m, and temperatures between 200 related to the descensionist, ascensionist, and
and 400 °C), and hypothermal (formed at greater lateral secretionist theories. Lindgren proposed,
than 4500 m and temperatures between 400 and in his book «Mineral Deposits» (1913), a classi-
600 °C). fication of mineral deposits based on their origin,
 54 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

Box 2.1

Neptunism vs Plutonism
2 For the origin of mineral depos- to the Cenozoic; and (4) alluvial, not only to rocks but also to all
its, Abraham Gottlob Werner (superficial) deposits. The primitive mineral deposits. He delivered his
(1749–1817), father of neptunism formations would be found in the theory in two lectures to the Royal
(denominated after the Roman central parts of mountain ranges, Society of Edinburgh in the spring
God – Neptune – of the sea), dis- from which the water would have of 1785. Hutton claimed that ore
carded early theories about interior withdrawn first. Thus, the granites minerals were not soluble in water
source for the metals. Although were overlain by other layers of but were igneous injections, being
Werner was not the first to propose crystalline rock (metamorphic), thus one of the founders of plu-
water as origin of the rocks, he was followed by layers of sedimentary tonism (named after the classical
the most consequent supporter rock formed as a result of erosion mythology God – Pluto – of the
and divulgator of this theory. Wer- of the primitive crystalline rocks underworld).
ner was a careful mineralogist who and subsequent deposition. Rocks He recognized the signifi-
drew up an excellent system of clas- resulting from observed volcanic cance of the intergrowth texture
sification of minerals based on their eruptions were attributed to the between quartz and feldspar in a
properties. He became an insistent local action of «subterraneous sample of coarse-­grained graphic
advocate of the theory that mineral fires. » In fact, geologists at that granite and concluded that granite
veins were formed by descending time had a clear understanding might have «risen in a fused condi-
percolating waters derived from of the formation of many mineral tion from subterranean regions»
the primeval universal ocean, from ores, especially gold, which is gen- and that the country rock should
which not only sediments but all erally formed by precipitation and therefore be broken, distorted, and
the igneous and metamorphic fluid-induced changes. Therefore, veined. Hutton also recognized the
rocks were precipitated. Because these processes are more similar importance of unconformities and
of his theory that what are known to ideas of neptunism than to pointed out that many igneous
today as igneous rocks originated plutonism. rocks clearly intruded surrounding
in the sea, Werner and his followers Opposite to Werner’s ideas, rocks and therefore were younger.
were called neptunists. James Hutton (1726–1797), a Because Hutton and his followers
According to Werner, by suc- prominent member of the Edin- held that igneous rocks came from
cessive sedimentation onto an burgh scientific community (the molten material within the Earth,
irregular terrestrial core, four types Royal Society of Edinburgh was at they were called plutonists, being
of formations were supposed to be that time one of the most active thus Hutton the founder of plu-
deposited: (1) primitive, crystalline scientific bodies in the world), tonism. The controversy between
rocks such as granite and gneiss; defined in his book entitled «The- plutonism and neptunism contin-
(2) transitional, limestones, slates, ory of the Earth» the true origin of ued into the nineteenth century,
and quartzites; (3) floetz, the magmatic and metamorphic rocks and eventually the plutonist views
layered rocks from the Permian and applied his magmatic theory on the origin of rocks prevailed.

whether they were products of mechanical or deposited. Simultaneously to this exotic theory,
chemical concentration and, if chemical, whether Bateman (1951) suggested that the formation of
they were deposited from surface waters, from mineral deposits is complex, and eight diverse
magmas, or inside rock bodies. processes can account for their formation: mag-
Other theories include extreme magmatic matic concentration, sublimation, contact meta-
views about the origin of mineral deposits. For morphism, hydrothermal action, sedimentation,
instance, many ore deposits have resulted from weathering, metamorphism, and hydrology.
the injection and rapid freezing of highly concen- The advent of plate tectonics (see next sec-
trated magmatic residues (Spurr 1923). A metal- tion) improved considerably the understanding
lurgical interpretation of the ore deposits was also of the lithotectonics of rocks and the ore occur-
proposed: during the former molten stage of the rences. Because mineral deposit systems require
Earth, the metallic minerals sank in deep zones a conjunction of processes to produce exceptional
due to their specific gravity, and they were later metal enrichment over background terrestrial
brought to the surface (Brown 1948). According concentrations that result in ore deposits, they
to this model, the upper layers first and the can form only under specific conditions in par-
lower layers later moved upward in the form of ticular tectonic environments. Thus, some min-
vapors, from which the metals and minerals were eral deposit types are diagnostic of given tectonic
2.4 · Mineral Deposits and Plate Tectonics
55 2
settings and can be used to define these settings 2.4  ineral Deposits and Plate
M
in combination with more conventional tectonic Tectonics
and petrogenetic evidence (Groves and Bierlein
2007). Taking in mind this view, a logical first-­ Plate tectonics is a theory of kinematic charac-
order grouping of mineral deposit types can be ter showing that the lithosphere is divided into
proposed in terms of geodynamic setting, and this a finite number of plates that migrate across the
is most conveniently seen in the context of plate surface of the Earth (. Box 2.2: Plate Tectonics). It
 

tectonics. As an example of modern theories on has revolutionized the theories about formation of
mineral deposit genesis, a classification based on mineral deposits since plate tectonics determine
the different geological processes that form min- the origin and distribution of many ore deposits.
eral deposits can be outlined (Kesler 1994). Thus, Thus, plate tectonics plays an essential role in the
ore-forming processes can be surface processes, detection of geological environments with differ-
including weathering, physical sedimentation, ent characteristics. Consequently, the classifica-
chemical sedimentation and organic sedimenta- tion of mineral deposits based on plate tectonics
tion, and subsurface processes, involving water is intensively used, particularly when discussing
or magmas. This broad expression of ore-forming the broad-scale distribution of ore deposits.
processes is the most used actually, and it will be Tectonic setting controls factors favorable
explained with more detail in 7 Sect. 2.6.
 
for the formation of mineral deposits such as the

Box 2.2

Plate Tectonics
The word tectonics derives from and related geophysical phenom- tal (. Fig. 2.4). The oceanic litho-
 

the Greek tektonikos, meaning ena to movement and interaction sphere has a 5–8 km-thick oceanic
«pertaining to building or con- of the rigid plates forming the crust (with a basaltic composition),
struction. » In geology, tectonics Earth’s crust. Thus, plate tectonics while the continental lithosphere
concerns the formation and struc- provides a unified mechanism has a 30–40 km-thick granitic-­
ture of the Earth’s crust. From the explaining aspects such as the dioritic crust. The lithosphere is
late 1960s, the proposal of plate distribution of earthquakes and fragmented into pieces of variable
tectonics theory, supplanting the volcanoes, the origin of continents shape and size, the so-called plates,
geosynclinal concept of lithotec- and ocean basins, the distribu- and the edges of the plates are
tonic associations, clearly caused tion of fossil plants and animals, termed plate boundaries. The Earth
a revolution in understanding the or the genesis and destruction has seven major plates (Africa,
dynamic interaction of the Earth’s of mountain chains. Two major Antarctica, Australia, Eurasia, North
crust and mantle as well as geologi- premises of plate tectonics are: (a) America, South America, and Paci-
cal thinking. In fact, plate tectonics the outermost layer of the Earth, fica) and several minor ones (Adria,
is one of the most important dis- known as the lithosphere, behaves Arabia, the Caribbean, Nazca, the
coveries of the twentieth century. as a strong, rigid substance resting Philippines, and others). These
Earlier in this century, geologic par- on a weaker region in the mantle plates move independently relative
adigm was dominated by the belief known as the asthenosphere; and to one another, with a restricted
that ocean basins and continental (b) the lithosphere is broken into independence from the seven large
land masses were permanent and numerous segments or plates that plates, however. The average rates
fixed on the surface of the Earth. are in motion with respect to one of motion of the plates, in the past
The theory of plate tectonics another and are continually chang- as well as the present, range from
incorporates the ideas of continen- ing in shape and size. less than 1 to more than 15 cm per
tal drift and seafloor spreading in The Earth is composed of layers year.
a unified model. Wegener (1912) of different composition and physi- The motion of lithospheric
is usually considered the first to cal properties, principally the solid plates is a considerable conse-
have formulated the continental central core, the fluid peripheral quence of thermally driven mass
drift theory precisely, and seafloor core, the viscous mantle, and the movements on the Earth. Thus,
spreading hypothesis was pro- solid lithosph ere. The lithosphere plates move because of the intense
posed by Harry H. Hess in 1960. is comprised of the upper mantle heat in the Earth’s core, which
The theory of plate tectonics and the crust, the outer shell of causes molten rock in the mantle
attributes earthquakes, volcanoes, the Earth. There are two types of layer to move. However, the detailed
the mountain-building process, lithosphere: oceanic and continen- mechanism by which tectonic
 56 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

Mid-oceanic ridge
Trench Ocean
2
Subduction

Continental Oceanic
lithosphere lithosphere

Cold
Convection
Upwelling
cell
Hot

Outer
core
Mantle
Inner
core

..      Fig. 2.4  Illustration of plate tectonics theory

plates move is still a subject of much plates, such as the South American type of relative motion between
debate among Earth scientists Plate, consist of variable amounts the plates: divergent, convergent,
(convection cells vs slab pull). Plate of both oceanic and continental and transform. In a divergent
tectonics, the study of such relative lithosphere with a transition from boundary, two plates pull away or
motions and their consequences, one to the other along the margins separate from each other, produc-
allows relating surface, geological, of continents. The plates move ing new crust. Examples are Mid-
and geophysical structures with with respect to one another on the Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise.
quantified movements attributed to ductile asthenosphere below. As In a convergent boundary, two
deep processes of the Earth. the plates move, they interact with plates move toward or collide with
Each lithospheric plate one another along their boundar- each other, consuming old crust.
consists of the upper roughly ies, producing the majority of Examples are India into Asia and
80–100 km of rigid mantle rock Earth’s earthquake and volcanic NW coast of the USA and SW coast
capped by either oceanic or conti- activity. Most plates contain both of South America. In the third
nental crust. Lithosphere capped oceanic and continental crust, and type of boundary (transform), two
by oceanic crust is often simply a few contain only oceanic crust. plates slide horizontally past each
called oceanic lithosphere, and Essentially, the continents are other. In this case, the process
lithosphere capped by continental lighter and more buoyant; hence, does not consume or create crust.
crust is referred to as continental they float higher on the Earth’s Examples are North Anatolian
lithosphere. Some plates, such as mantle than the ocean’s crust does. Fault (Turkey), Dead Sea Transform
the Pacific Plate, consist entirely The three basic kinds of plate Fault (Israel, Jordan), and San
of oceanic lithosphere, but most boundaries are defined by the Andreas Fault.

form and composition of igneous bodies, the for- also facilitates the interaction between fluid and
mation of sedimentary basins and the character- rock (Kyser 2007).
istics of sediments that infill the basins, and the The study of relationships between mineral
development of faults and shear zones that pro- deposits and plate tectonics has been particularly
vide conduits for mineralizing fluids or places for successful for many kinds of deposits (e.g., por-
ore location. Thus, it is not surprising that many phyry copper deposits, volcanic-hosted massive
authors have attempted to relate the distribution sulfide deposits, and much more) (. Fig.  2.5), 

of mineral deposits to plate tectonics. Tectonics but others (e.g., Precambrian massive sulfide
not only controls the architecture of a basin but and Ni sulfide deposits) cannot yet be easily
2.4 · Mineral Deposits and Plate Tectonics
57 2

Convergent Divergent Convergent Continental

plate boundary plate boundary plate boundary rift zone

Island arc Spreading center Continental arc

Sedimentary-exhalative,
Orogenic gold Epithermal Sediment-hosted copper,
vein deposits deposits
Volcanogenic and evaporite deposits
Epithermal Porphyry
massive sulphide Volcanogenic Polymetallic
Porphyry deposits Volcanogenic Shield deposits massive sulphide Deposits replacement deposits
deposits massive sulphide volcano
deposits deposits MVT
deposits
Oceanic crust Continental crust
Lithosphere
Subducting
plate Subducting
Astenosphere plate
Hotspot

..      Fig. 2.5  Distribution of mineral deposits in relation to the main types of tectonic plate boundaries

assigned to specific plate tectonic processes. Initial hypotheses of the relationship between
Some plate tectonic settings, especially during distinct classes of ore deposits and their plate tec-
the Precambrian, are still highly controversial. It tonic locations were well established (e.g., Mitchell
is important to keep in mind the overall influ- and Garson 1981; Sawkins 1984). These accounted
ence of plate tectonics in each group of mineral for the distribution of some ore deposit types in
deposits. Since mineral deposits can be com- the Phanerozoic, but however there were limita-
monly separated into those originated by endog- tions (Kerrich et al. 2005): (1) at the time, genetic
enous processes and those formed by surficial hypotheses for many types of ore deposit were
ones, Sawkins (1984) proposed that: «the depos- based on syngenesis; (2) where consensus existed
its formed by endogenous processes are invari- on a syngenetic versus epigenetic origin, the age
ably associated with thermal processes and, in of mineralization was not well constrained; (3)
general, can be related more readily to magmatic epochs, or secular cycles, of metallogenic prov-
and tectonic events instigated by plate activ- inces were not accounted for; and (4) extrapola-
ity while deposits formed by surficial processes tion to the Precambrian met with uncertainties as
such as weathering or shallow marine sedimen- to tectonic processes during that era. Other classi-
tation will show relationships to their tectonic fications and descriptions include, for example, a
environment that are more tenuous.» Moreover, concise list of metallic and nonmetallic resources
since most mineral deposits are concentrated by for each era, including their geodynamic and geo-
subsurface chemical processes related to mag- logical settings (Windley 1995).
mas and hot waters as well as by near-surface During the period of plate tectonics revolu-
chemical and physical processes, such as erosion tion, other discoveries had a major impact on
and evaporation, these processes are much more theories of ore genesis such as the observable
common on the continental crust, and their natural concentration systems, actually active at
products are better preserved there because the or near the Earth’s surface. For instance, modern
continents are floating on the mantle. In con- seafloor prospection shows the great magnitude
trast, ocean crust sinks back into the mantle at of the manganese nodules outlined by the Chal-
subduction zones. Thus, the oldest known ocean lenger expedition. It demonstrates not only the
crust is only about 200 million years, whereas enormous potential resource of Cu, Co, Ni, and
the oldest rocks on the continents are about 4 other associated metals but also the potential of
billion years old (Kesler 1994). Consequently, cold seawater as a dilute-mineralizing fluid. The
the continental crust is the archive of Earth his- hot brine pools and underlying soft ferruginous
tory (Cawood et al. 2013). muds rich in Zn, Cu, and Ag in the Red Sea deeps
 58 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.6  Black smoker

(Image courtesy of MARUM,
University of Bremen)

are also another example of this type of concen- formation emerged. Arndt and Ganino (2012)
tration systems. They were discovered in 1965 observed that through the twentieth century:
and show an exhalative deposit actually forming «many classifications were based on the types of
in a continental rift system. Finally, the discov- rocks hosting the ore deposits or on the geometry
ery of active «black smoker» hydrothermal vents of the deposit and its relation to the host rocks;
and massive sulfide deposits on the Mid-Atlantic thus, deposits in granites were distinguished from
Ridge (. Fig. 2.6) made a dramatic impact.
  those in sedimentary rocks; vein-­ like deposits
were separated from layers conformable with the
stratification of the host rock; massive ores were
2.5 Criteria for the Classification distinguished from disseminated ores, and so on.»
of Mineral Deposits Criteria used to classify mineral deposits vary
widely. Since a perfect classification is utopic, a
Mineral deposits are found in so many different large number of items can be applied. A classifica-
forms, and under so many varying conditions, the tion accepted implies that it has been derived by
attempts of different writers to formulate a clas- systematic application of certain principles. It must
sification, founded upon a natural basis, have not be understandable for the user and must be open
been attended with much success (Park 1906). so that new mineral deposit types can be added
This assertion made more than a century ago is in the future. Geologists usually rank ore deposits
actually untruth since the knowledge of the min- according to the (a) commodity, (b) tectonic set-
eral deposit formation processes obviously has ting, (c) geological setting, (d) genetic model in
increased dramatically in a century, but it shows the genesis of the mineral deposit, and (e) other
how problematic it was to create a simple classifi- aspects (e.g., form of the deposit, temperature of
cation of mineral deposits. In many cases, the dif- mineral formation, etc.). For instance, Gabelman
ficulty to avoid the dispute between plutonist and (1976) shows up with different criteria to classify
neptunist was insurmountable. Prior to the twen- stratabound ore deposits such as major controlling
tieth century, models for the formation of mineral processes, direct emplacement mechanism, host
deposits were subject to the often polarized views lithology, chemical reactivity, source of metals
of either plutonist (all deep igneous origins) or and/or transporting fluids, direction of transport-
neptunist (all sedimentary origins) theories for ing fluids, and relative age of deposit and host.
the origin of rocks. It was really only in the twenti- The genetic classification schemes are the most
eth century that modern views of mineral deposit commonly used since they incorporate e­ lements
2.5 · Criteria for the Classification of Mineral Deposits
59 2

Parcial Diagenesis
Weathering erosion
melting metamorphism &
deformation
Mantle Crust
Residual and
supergene deposits

Meteoric,
Magmas
Ore marine, Placer
fluids connate deposits
Lavas waters

Magmatic Hydrothermal Exhalative Marine and other

deposits deposits deposits sedimentary deposits

Syngenetic Epigenetic Syngenetic

Diagenetic, metamorphic, deformational

..      Fig. 2.7  Genetic classification scheme for ore deposits (McQueen 2005)

of composition, form, and association. This type categories tend to coincide with genetically derived
of classifications allows to develop predictive models; so even by using purely physically descrip-
models that can be used to search for geological tive classifications, there is often a close coincidence
environments in which appropriate ore-forming between these and models defined using genetic
processes have possibly operated (McQueen criteria (Herrington 2011).
2005). In this sense, some authors think that clas- The classification of mineral deposits based on
sifications by commodity are geologically useless; major Earth process systems is very easy. Rocks
thus, uranium deposits occur in sandstone and are classified universally as igneous, sedimentary,
in granites, their formation processes being radi- and metamorphic, which express the fundamental
cally different. However, knowledge of uranium processes active in the crust of the Earth. Likewise,
world production, regardless of their genesis, can since ores are rocks, they can often be associated
be essential for other purposes, such as mineral with each type of rock. Therefore, this character
supply, world trade, etc. Other authors underline (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) can rep-
that genesis is not a good classification criterion resent a good basis for classification as it reflects
because there is considerable controversy among the genetic process involved in ore formation. In
geologists as to the exact mode of formation of this sense, . Fig. 2.7 shows a genetic classification
 

many mineral deposits. for mineral deposits showing the major clusters of
A sound alternative is to classify deposits based ore-forming and modifying processes (McQueen
on empirical features such as type of minerals or 2005). The classification highlights the categories
host-rock associations, which will lead to the unique of ore-forming processes and the subsequent
fingerprint of a particular deposit (i.e., a descriptive overprinting that can suffer the deposits.
model). Even though no two mineral deposits are In summary, linking deposit types directly
identical, empirical descriptions of deposits tend to ore-forming processes and genesis is certainly
to show natural groupings into a small number of the preferred way to classify (e.g., Herrington
loosely definable categories or types. In turn, these (2011); . Table 2.1). It provides better criteria for
 
 60 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Table 2.1  Major classes of economically important mineral deposits (Herrington 2011)

Class Type/Subtype
2 Deposits in mafic
1  1.1  Layered chromite deposits
magmas
1.2  Podiform chromite deposits.

1.3  Titanomagnetite deposits

1.4  Magmatic platinum group metal deposits

1.5  Nickel sulfide deposits 1.5.1  Sudbury

1.5.2  Flood basalt association

1.5.3  Ultramafic volcanic association

Other mafic and ultramafic intrusive associa-

1.5.4 
tions

Magmatic diamond
2  Kimberlites and lamproites
deposits

Deposits associated with

3  3.1  Porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposits
felsic magmas
3.2  Porphyry Mo (W) deposits

3.3  Granite-hosted Sn-W deposits

3.4  Intrusion-related gold deposits

Deposits associated with

4  4.1  Peralkaline Ta-Nb, rate earth element deposits
peralkaline and
carbonatite magmas 4.2  Carbonatite Cu, rare earth element, Nd, Fe, P deposits

5  Skarn and carbonate replacement deposits

6  Iron oxide copper-gold deposits

Hydrothermal gold end

7  7.1  Sediment-hosted gold deposits
silver deposits
Epithermal gold and
7.2  High-sulfidation epithermal
silver deposits
Low-sulfidation epithermal

7.3  Lode (or orogenic) gold deposits

Volcanic-hosted or
8  Mafic
volcanogenic massive
sulfide deposits Bimodal mafic

Pelitic mafic

Bimodal felsic

Siliciclastic felsic

Sediment-hosted
9  9.1 
Sediment-hosted 9.1.1 
Sedimentary exhalative Pb-Zn (Cu) in clastic
deposits sulfide deposits sediments (+Broken-Hill type deposits)

9.1.2  Mississippi Valley type (MVT) Ph-Zn

9.1.3  «Irish» type Pb-Zn (Cu)

9.1.4  Clastic sediment-hosted Cu

2.6 · Ore-Forming Processes
61 2

..      Table 2.1 (continued)

Class Type/Subtype

9.2 
Sediment-hosted iron 9.2.1  Ironstones
and manganese
deposits Banded iron
9.2.2  9.2.2.1  Algoma BIF
formation (BIF)
9.2.2.2  Superior BIF

9.2.2.3  Rapitan BIF

9.2.3  Manganese ore

Sedimentary uranium
9.3  9.3.1  Unconformity vein type uranium
deposits
9.3.2  Sandstone-hosted uranium

9.4  Gold and uranium in conglomerates

9.5  Chemical sediments 9.5.1  Evaporites

9.5.2  Manganese nodules

Ores related to
10  10.1  Laterites 10.1.1  Bauxite
weathering
10.1.2  Nickel (cobalt) laterite

10.1.3  Lateritic gold

Supergene weather-
10.2  10.2.1  Secondary copper
ing
10.2.2  Secondary zinc

11  Placer deposits

understanding the deposits with respect to asso- between both lists is the secondary importance of
ciated features such as its association with igne- metamorphism in the enumeration of substantial
ous rock suites, alteration patterns, etc. This will ore-­forming process compared to its fundamental
lead to more efficient exploration models for their role in generating rocks. Another major differ-
discovery and evaluation. Nevertheless, descrip- ence is the essential function of hydrothermal
tive models are needed in practical terms to aid fluids (hot aqueous fluids) in the genesis of ore
engineers in the evaluation of particular deposits: deposits. The circulation of this kind of fluids in
choice of exploration tool, elements to analyze in the crust is usually cited as a factor that modifies
geochemical exploration, etc. (Herrington 2011). locally the composition and texture of previous
rocks. Ore-­forming processes can be classified
into four main categories (Evans 1993): internal,
2.6 Ore-Forming Processes hydrothermal, metamorphic, and surficial pro-
cesses. The former three processes are related to
The list of captions in ore-forming processes is subsurface phenomena, while the last one covers
much larger than the list of geological processes those processes occurring at the Earth’s surface.
found in any geology text explaining the origin Hydrothermal should be further subdivided into
of rocks. Thus, some mineral deposits are formed magmatic, metamorphic, diagenetic, and surface
by magmatic processes, while other mineral to refine the nature of the hydrothermal process.
deposits are produced by sedimentation or sur- Therefore, the first approach to ore-forming pro-
face weathering. Probably, the main difference cesses can be outlined according to the next four
 62 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

types described below: magmatic, metamorphic, are linked genetically to its cooling and solidifica-
sedimentary, and hydrothermal processes. tion pattern. It is recognized that different mineral
Whatever the ore-forming process, because of deposits are hosted in igneous rocks, and these
2 chemical and geological factors, some minerals/ deposits display different metal associations. This
metals tend to occur together in mineral depos- must be associated somehow to the environment
its, while others may be found associated with in which magmas are originated and the compo-
a particular rock type. Examples of the former sitional characteristics generated from specific
are galena with sphalerite, copper sulfides with settings. In this sense, it is broadly recognized that
molybdenite, gold with arsenopyrite or pyrite, most of the chalcophile and siderophile elements
and silver with galena. Regarding the association (e.g., Ni, Co, Pt, Au) more likely to be linked with
of mineralization/host rock, examples are lead-­ mafic rocks, while concentrations of most litho-
zinc in carbonates, copper or copper-lead-zinc phile elements (e.g., Sn, U, and W) are classically
with volcanic rocks, tin and tungsten with granite located in association with felsic or alkaline rocks
intrusions, chromite in large ultramafic intru- (Robb 2005). Essentially, this distribution was
sions, and uranium in sandstone and shales. understood because of the geochemical fate of
different metals during fractional crystallization
(solid-liquid fractionation) of silicate melt bodies
2.6.1 Magmatic Processes (Pohl 2011).
Where the magma enters the crust and crys-
In a broad sense, ore-forming processes related tallization starts, an immiscible sulfide liquid will
to the evolution of magmas emplaced at crustal divide from the silicate liquid if the concentra-
levels span a continuum. The two end members tion of sulfur exceeds the solubility. Experimental
of this continuum are (a) orthomagmatic pro- studies have shown that the solubility of sulfide
cesses, concentration of mineralization as a direct depends on external parameters, such as tem-
result of magmatic crystallization dominated by perature and pressure, and on the composition
silicate melt-crystal equilibria, and (b) (mag- of the melt. During fractional crystallization
matic) hydrothermal processes, concentration of of magma, the temperature drops, Fe content
ore minerals from magmatic hydrothermal fluids slightly changes, and Si content increases, which
by crystallization dominated by crystal-volatile lead sometimes to sulfide saturation and the
equilibria (Misra 2000). The second possibility is separation of sulfide liquid. Many parameters
­considered here as totally controlled by the action influence these processes, including depth of
of hydrothermal fluids, and, accordingly, it will intrusion, tectonic activity, temperature gradi-
be included in the group of hydrothermal pro- ent in space and time, fractional crystallization,
cesses. A large and diverse group of ore deposits dynamics of the melt body, repeated injection of
originates by various processes during the forma- fresh melt, assimilation of country rocks, sulfur
tion, evolution, emplacement, and crystallization or external fluids, liquid immiscibility of ore and
of silicate melts (magmas) in the upper mantle silicate melts, and mixing or redissolution (Kerr
and in the Earth’s crust. Magmatic deposits may and Leitch 2005).
form as a result of (1) solid phases crystallizing Another mechanism to explain the formation
as a differentiate as the magma cools, (2) miner- of magmatic mineral deposits is the so-called
als crystallizing from the enriched residual fluids fractional crystallization (. Fig.  2.8). In this
 

formed as magma cools and crystallizes, (3) the model, dense minerals form a cooling magma
formation of a sulfide melt that developed by chamber and settle to the bottom producing a
immiscibility from a coexisting silicate melt, or sequence of layered rocks. The remaining liquid
(4) where a magma transports xenolithic or xeno- magma becomes saturated with sulfur, and sulfide
crystic phases that it has picked up on its passage minerals rich in some metals crystallize out of the
through the Earth’s crust (Herrington 2011). magma and settle to the bottom. For instance,
The processes of magmatic ore formation are these layered rocks formed by sulfides host PGE
related to intrinsic properties of the magmas and deposits.
2.6 · Ore-Forming Processes
63 2
..      Fig. 2.8  Illustration of
fractional crystallization

Magma Crystals form from

magma cooling and
settle to floor of
chamber

Crystals from early

cooling accumulate

2.6.2 Metamorphic Processes (b) where decarbonation reactions lead to focused

fluid flow and skarn formation, and (c) where
Ore deposits in metamorphosed rocks can be rapid uplift drives dehydration reactions despite
formed before, during, or after metamorphic falling temperature, so that the rate of fluid pro-
processes. The first category is of premetamor- duction is not limited by heat flow.
phic origin independent from later metamorphic Since magmatic activity is common in certain
overprinting, and it is the class of metamorphosed metamorphic settings, it is reasonable to consider
ore deposits (Pohl 2011). Metamorphic deposits that some mineral deposits in metamorphic rocks
owe their origin to contact or regional metamor- were formed by combined metamorphic and
phism and involve recrystallization, commonly magmatic processes. Skarn and contact meta-
accompanied by mobilization of disseminated ore morphism ore deposits are intimately related to
constituents by metamorphic fluids (Misra 2000). thermal aureoles of magmatic intrusions. They
Metamorphic rocks host many ore deposits, and can be envisaged as products of contact meta-
metamorphic fluids are thought to be a source for morphism, but the causal agent is the interaction
various mineral deposits. Thus, this type of fluids with magmatic fluids and not simply change by
usually carries important metal content, although heating (Pohl 2011). Because of the complica-
for chloride-complexed metals, maximum con- tions of describing skarns based on alteration
centrations are commonly lower for magmatic minerals, which are a combined function of wall-
fluids. For instance, gold ore is the type of min- rock chemistry and the superimposed system,
eralization usually linked to metamorphic fluids. mineralized skarns are best classified in terms
Therefore, based on chemistry, it is possible to of component of interest. Seven major types are
argue that in some circumstances, metamorphic recognized: iron, gold, tungsten, copper, zinc,
fluids can contain high concentrations of metals molybdenum, and tin (Herrington 2011). The dif-
and may therefore be potential ore fluids (Banks ferent metals found in skarn deposits are a prod-
et  al. 1994). According to Yardley and Cleverley uct of the differing compositions, oxidation state,
(2014), there are three situations in which ore and metallogenic affinities of the igneous intru-
deposits are formed from metamorphic fluid sion. For instance, Fe and Au skarn deposits are
processes: (a) where relatively metal-rich meta- usually associated with intrusions of more mafic
morphic fluids provide a medium for segregation, to intermediate compositions. Most of the large
 64 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.9  Skarn tungsten mine at Los Santos (Salamanca, Spain) (Image courtesy of Daytal Resources Spain, S.L.)

and economically viable skarn deposits are asso- lead directly to the redistribution and accumula-
ciated with calcic exoskarns, a limestone (calcic) tion of specific minerals. Thus, these deposits are
being the host rock and the metasomatic assem- formed as a result of the differing physical and
blage external to the intruding pluton (exo – pre- chemical behavior of the minerals forming the
fix). Thus, tungsten skarns produce the bulk of the original rock, either hydraulic (water) or Aeolian
world production of tungsten (. Fig. 2.9) and are
  (wind) being the physical processes. Examples of
typically associated with calco-alkaline intrusions these deposits are the already mentioned diamond
emplaced relatively deep in the crust. placer deposits (. Fig.  2.10) in river sediments
 

and deposits of heavy minerals in beach sands.

Regarding chemical and/or biochemical pre-
2.6.3 Sedimentary Processes cipitation, metals and other valuable minerals are
soluble in surface waters. They precipitate where
Low-temperature surface processes can be they meet saturation levels (evaporation) or where
responsible for the formation of economic ore the composition or physical conditions on the
deposits at or very near the Earth’s surface. Under water shift. Examples of the latter are sediments
favorable conditions, sediments and sedimentary enriched in iron or manganese resulting from
rocks become selectively enriched in some ele- mixing of waters with different composition or
ments of potential economic value. Two main redox states. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon
types of sedimentary processes can be outlined: where dissolved salts precipitate as water is lost
sedimentation and weathering. Sedimentation in an evaporating basin or by the evaporation of
may lead to the formation of mineral deposits water from the ground’s surface due to heat energy
through clastic accumulation (e.g., gold or dia- from the sun. Sedimentation is limited to the sur-
mond placer deposits) and chemical and/or bio- face of the Earth, which is also the realm of life
chemical precipitation of economically important and its biochemical cycles; therefore, sedimentary
constituents in lakes, coastal settings, or shallow ore formation will almost always show biogenic
to deep oceans, including evaporation processes. components (Southam and Saunders 2005). It is
In clastic accumulation, physical processes such as very obvious in phosphate deposits made of bones
physical erosion, transportation, and deposition and coprolites and in lignite seams composed
2.6 · Ore-Forming Processes
65 2

..      Fig. 2.10  Diamond placer deposit in river gravels (South Africa) (Image courtesy of Rockwell Diamonds Inc.)

of fallen trees. Bacteria can enhance dissolution and in the surface-crustal interface can lead to
of rocks and minerals containing metals, aid in residual upgrades or chemical dissolution and
metal transport, affect porosity and permeability reprecipitation mechanisms to concentrate the
of rocks, and cause the precipitation of biogenic metal/mineral of interest. Under these condi-
sulfur, sulfides, and carbonates. In particular, iron- tions, ore formation is driven by the circulation
reducing bacteria and sulfate-­reducing bacteria of largely meteorically derived water at the Earth’s
may play important roles in low-temperature ore surface, although similar analogous processes
genesis. Thus, iron-reducing bacteria can cause can take place on the seafloor. These subsurface
reductive dissolution of Fe oxyhydroxides, such waters can dissolve and reprecipitate components
that it occurs in red beds, causing adsorbed and at favorable mineral sites or surface interfaces
coprecipitated metals to be released to solution. (Herrington 2011).
Organic compounds produced by bacterial deg- Supergene processes usually originate differ-
radation of a more complex organic matter could ent types of raw materials such as iron, manga-
enhance metal transport by formation of metal- nese, or aluminum ores. In supergene process,
organic complexes. Similarly, biogenic H2S could two basically different process types may lead
form stable aqueous metal-­ sulfide complexes to concentration: (1) the valued component is
leading to transport of certain metals such as Ag enriched in a residuum, while much of the rock
at low temperature (Kyle and Saunders 1996). mass is dissolved and carried away; an example
Weathering may also lead to residual concen- are laterite deposits, in which iron or aluminum
tration of weathering-resistant minerals of the is enriched in the clayey-sandy soils of the trop-
parent rock or of relatively insoluble elements ics and subtropics; and (2) the valued component
reconstituted into stable minerals (Misra 2000). is dissolved, transported, and concentrated on
In this regard, weathering is a very important reprecipitation; in this case, the transport distance
ore-­forming process resulting in chemical change is commonly very short, meters to ten of meters
and redistribution of components in surface rocks (Pohl 2011). A special case of weathering would
by migrating solutions. The differential chemi- be the so-called supergene enrichment pro-
cal properties of minerals at the Earth’s surface cess, which involves the leaching of ore-forming
 66 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.11  Gossan at

VMS deposit (Fiji) (Image
courtesy of Geonomics)

elements (e.g., copper) from surficial parts of chemical composition of the fluid such as where
a low-­grade sulfide deposit and reprecipitation fluids react with a rock (Stevens 2010).
below the water table. The process involves the Hydrothermal processes can develop in
release of ore metals from unstable sulfide min- almost all geological environments. The applica-
erals to downward percolating meteoric water tion of new technologies in geosciences in the
and precipitation of more stable secondary oxide last 50 years (e.g., fluid inclusions, trace element
and sulfide mineral assemblages in the subsur- analysis, isotope geochemistry, among many oth-
face environment. These deposits are usually ers) has changed many of the geological concepts,
called «gossan» (. Fig.  2.11). In the nineteenth
  including metallogenic thinking. For instance,
and twentieth centuries, gossans were important expelled fluids in sedimentary basins during
guides used by prospectors in their quest for bur- diagenesis can produce numerous metallic con-
ied ore deposits. centrations, excluding the participation of endog-
enous processes. In the past decades, many efforts
are carried out toward a better understanding of
2.6.4 Hydrothermal Processes the complexity of hydrothermal processes.
Although there are several natural processes
A big problem dealing with the word hydrother- that concentrate elements within the Earth’s crust
mal is its meaning. Hydrothermal means hot water, and form mineral deposits, the most important of
which is an extremely lax sense of the word because which is the hydrothermal process. Hydrothermal
hot water can range from 70 to 200  °C or even ore-forming processes are ubiquitous, and many
400 °C. The former temperature can be attained in mineral deposits on Earth have been originated
the sedimentary realm, during diagenesis, and the straightly from hot aqueous solutions flowing
others are characteristic temperatures of endog- through the crust. Direct evidence for the pres-
enous conditions. Hydrothermal fluids generally ence of hydrothermal fluids in the Earth’s crust
travel along temperature or pressure gradients, is surface manifestations such as hot springs and
from hot areas to cool areas or from high pressure fumaroles. In this sense: «the concept of hydro-
to low pressure. They migrate until they reach a thermal mineralization can be extended to depos-
suitable site for metal deposition. For this deposi- its related to fluids derived from sources other
tion, the following is necessary: a rapid decrease than magmatic solutions; such fluids include
in temperature such as where hot fluids exit at the those formed from metamorphic dehydration
seafloor, a rapid decrease in pressure such as where reactions, from the expulsion of pore fluids
fluids enter a fault cavity, and/or a change in the during compaction of sediment (the release of
2.6 · Ore-Forming Processes
67 2
..      Fig. 2.12 Yellowstone
(USA) hot springs

trapped water from sedimentary basins undergo- crust is being thinned. In the case of seafloor,
ing diagenetic change), and from meteoric waters; this phenomenon is common where a new ocean
it also considers seawater as a hydrothermal fluid is formed by the seafloor spreading through the
with specific reference to the formation of base formation of submarine volcanoes. On land, such
metal deposits on the ocean floor» (Robb 2005). hydrothermal fluids can be generated in zones
Magmatic hydrothermal fluids form as a body of crustal attenuation, often associated with sub-
of magma cools and then crystallizes. In some aerial volcanism. Surface manifestations of this
circumstances, the magmatic system can be a pas- process are the presence of hot springs on land
sive source of heat that drives the circulation of (. Fig. 2.12) or seafloor hydrothermal vents.
 

fluids exotic to the magma through adjacent frac- The various stages of diagenesis that result in
tured crust into which the magma is intruding. In the transformation from uncompacted particles
other situations, the magmas, particularly felsic of sediment to lithified sedimentary rock produce
magmas that form granitic rocks, include very sig- aqueous solutions that evolve with time and depth;
nificant amounts of miscible water, which is car- such type of fluids are often involved in the forma-
ried in the magma itself. As the magma cools and tion of ore deposits (Robb 2005). This process may
crystallizes, it becomes more concentrated and develop on a large scale in a sedimentary basin
eventually forms an immiscible fluid phase, which undergoing burial and lithification and is a related
in the process collects other components that pre- process to hydrocarbon generation. The released
fer to partition from a silicate melt into a hydrous water can pick up dissolved salts (becoming a
fluid phase. Williams-Jones et  al. (2002) suggest brine; . Table 2.2), which then has a greater ability
 

that these metal-rich fluid phases can then migrate to transport many cations and ligands to a point of
away from the magma and interact with miner- deposition to form an ore deposit (Brimhall and
als and fluids in previously crystallized magma or Crerar 1987). In sedimentary basins, evaporite
outside rocks, which cause these to become altered beds may be a specific source of salts that can be
by chemical reaction and lead to precipitation of dissolved by the basinal water. Basins undergoing
new mineral phases, including the ore minerals. diagenesis become heated, and thus the basinal
Surface or seafloor hydrothermal fluids are brine may be a highly effective solvent for dissolv-
generated as deeply penetrating meteoric- or ing large quantities of metals. These basinal brines
seawater-­ derived waters descend and become can then migrate via crustal faults and permeable
heated deeper in the crust. This process is par- horizons to depositional environments.
ticularly apparent in regions where there is ele- Diagenetic process evolves to metamorphism
vated crustal heat flow, often where the Earth’s as rocks are gradually buried and temperatures
 68 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

are used preferably in construction (e.g., buildings,

..      Table 2.2  Terms for water with different
salinities (Davis and DeWiest 1966)
roads, or bridges). Typical examples are natural
aggregates and building stone.
2 Term Concentration of total
dissolved solids (TDS) in ppm
(parts per million) and weight 2.7.1 Energy
percent

Fresh water 0–1000 <0.1% Energy commodities include mainly fossil energy
raw materials and uranium to produce nuclear
Brackish water 1000–10,000 <1%
energy. Coal was the first fossil energy raw mate-
Seawater 31,000–38,000 3.1–3.8% rial used by man at the beginning of the Industrial
Saline, or salty 10,000–100,000 <10%
Revolution, and this predominant role spanned
water until early in the twentieth century. Since then,
oil has displaced coal to a second rank (here the
Brine >100,000 >10%
terms oil and petroleum are used interchange-
ably, although some differences exist). In 2014,
the world’s primary energy supply was provided
overcome approximately 200  °C. Thus, meta- by 32.9% from oil, 23.7% natural gas, 23.8% coal,
morphic-hydrothermal fluids form as metamor- 6.8% hydroelectricity, 4.4% nuclear power, and
phism results in mineral-chemical processes 2.8 renewables (BP Statistical Review of World
that may release volatiles, often dominated by Energy 2016). Altogether they form the so-called
water but which may include gases such as CO2. primary energy. In the future, the Energy Outlook
Metamorphism is induced in rocks by external 2035 establishes that economic expansion in Asia
heat or pressure or by a combination of both. Heat will produce a continued growth in the world’s
may be provided by the deep burial of a rock mass demand for energy, rising by 37% from 2013 to
through time or alternatively by the intrusion of a 2035 or by an average of 1.4% a year.
magma body nearby. Pressure to cause metamor-
phism may be provided again during deep burial Petroleum
or else by tectonic processes. Petroleum (. Fig.  2.13) is derived from ancient
 

fossilized organic materials such as zooplankton

and algae (. Box 2.3: Petroleum Formation). It
 

2.7 Mineral Resources is formed by hydrocarbons with the addition of

Commodities some other substances. Thus, the main hydro-
carbons commonly present in petroleum are
Mineral deposits can be classified according to the the following: paraffins (15–60%), naphthenes
valuable raw material being extracted. This classifi- (30–60%), and aromatics (3–30%), with asphal-
cation finds some application in a purely economic tics making up the remainder. The percentages
context and gives raise to three main groups: (a) for these hydrocarbons can vary greatly, depend-
energy commodities, this group is formed by ing upon the geographic region. Regarding the
petroleum, natural gas, tar sands, bituminous chemical composition, the basic components are
shales, coal, and uranium; (b) metallic commodi- carbon (93–97%), hydrogen (10–14%), nitrogen
ties, a very large group that includes many metal (up to 2%), oxygen (up to 1.5%), and sulfur (0.5–
types, related to their uses, density, monetary 6%), with a few trace metals making up a very
value, etc.; and (c) nonmetallic commodities. In small percentage of the petroleum composition.
turn, the latter can be subdivided into two essen- The properties of each different petroleum source
tial categories: industrial minerals and industrial are defined by the percentage of the four main
rocks. The minerals used by their specific chemical hydrocarbons found within petroleum as part of
and physical properties (e.g., sodium sulfate uti- the petroleum composition.
lized as laundry detergent) fit in the first category; Petroleum is generally measured in volume (a
the second one, developed after the Second World barrel is equal to 159 liters). The petroleum indus-
War and of growing commercial interest, includes try classifies the different oil types by the location
a wide variety of raw materials, mainly rocks, that where the petroleum is produced (West Texas
 2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
69 2

..      Fig. 2.13  Petroleum platform (Image courtesy of Pedro Cámara)

 Box 2.3

Petroleum Formation
Petroleum (also known as crude oil toplankton died, they sank to the Increasing heat and pres-
or simply oil) is a fossil fuel that was bottom and accumulated in large sure cause the organic matter to
formed from the remains of ancient quantities in the oxygen-free sedi- change, first into kerogen, one of
marine organisms. Coal, natural ments. Over time, they were buried the products of anaerobic decom-
gas, and petroleum are all fossil deeper and subjected to a long position of organic matter (it is
fuels that formed under similar process of chemical conversion by found in various oil shales around
conditions. In fact, petroleum is bacterial decomposition followed the world) and then into liquid
frequently found in reservoirs along by the effects of high tempera- and gaseous hydrocarbons in a
with natural gas. In the past, natural tures. This caused the formation of process called catagenesis. Thus,
gas was either burned or allowed to liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons catagenesis comprises all pro-
escape into the atmosphere. Now, in the source rock (hydrocarbons cesses that act on rock matrix and
technology has been developed to are simply chemicals made up of organic matter after considerable
capture the natural gas and either hydrogen and carbon). Petroleum burial and that result in petroleum
reinject it into the well or compress source beds are fine-grained, clay- generation; higher pressure and
it into liquefied natural gas (LNG), rich siliciclastic rocks (mudstones, temperature are essential fac-
which is easily transportable and shales) or dark-colored carbonate tors of change. The main result
has versatile uses. rocks (limestones, marlstones), of catagenesis is the generation
Formation of naturally occur- which have generated and effec- of oil and wet gas while kerogen
ring raw petroleum takes millions tively expelled hydrocarbons. «matures. » At about 60 °C, oil
of years. Large amount of the Most of the economically useful begins to form in the source rock
organisms sourcing the petroleum petroleum deposits were depos- due to the thermogenic break-
remains settled to sea or lake bot- ited during the Phanerozoic. This down (cracking) of organic matter
tom, mixed with sediments and is thought to reflect the lower rate (kerogen). There is a temperature
buried under anoxic conditions. of organic carbon production and range in which oil forms. It is called
As the microscopic algae and phy- burial in the earlier eons. the «oil window» (often found in
 70 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

the 60–120°C ­interval – approx. permeable rocks. Migration occurs pores, capillary entry pressures
2–4 km in depth). Below the vertically and laterally through are so high that they cannot be
minimum temperature, oil remains the fractures and faults until an overcome by the buoyancy of a
2 trapped in the form of kerogen, impermeable barrier is reached. high oil or gas column. The most
while above the maximum tem- Oil and gas migration takes thou- ideal and best sealing cap rocks
perature is converted to natural sands or millions of years and may are, however, evaporite strata like
gas through thermal cracking extend over tens of kilometers. anhydrite or rock salt. Such good-­
(about 160°C). The gas produced Gravity forces the oil to move out quality cap rocks hold many of the
in this way is often separated from of the source rock and upward large petroleum accumulations in
the petroleum. If temperature toward the surface, looking for a the Middle East in place.
reaches high value (>250°C), the reservoir. Reservoir is a rock that If there is a suitable combina-
original biomass will be destroyed has the ability to store fluid such tion of source rock, reservoir rock,
and no gas or petroleum is formed. as sandstone where oil or gas can and cap rock and a trap in an area,
Typically lower temperatures dur- be between grains of sandstone. recoverable oil and gas deposits
ing petroleum formation will result Porous limestone is also a good may be discovered there. If there
in thicker, darker raw petroleum reservoir rock since many cavities is no cap rock, the oil and gas will
deposits, the most solid of which can be connected with each other. slowly continue to migrate toward
being a bitumen substance. Thus, reservoir rocks are porous the surface. In certain geological
After expulsion from the and always saturated with water, locations, as the oil migrated and
source rock (. Fig. 2.14), both
  oil, and gas in various combina- came closer to the Earth’s surface,
oil and gas, lighter than water, tions. Petroleum reservoirs can microorganisms slowly consumed
migrate upward through perme- be found beneath the land or the the hydrocarbons, beginning with
able rocks (e.g., sandstones) or ocean floor. the lightest. The heavy oil and
fractures until they are stopped In addition, impermeable rock bitumen now being produced are
by a non-permeable layer of rock has to be present to stop petro- the remnants of that migration.
(e.g., shale). The production of leum escaping from reservoir rock. Heavy oil deposits (e.g., tar sands)
petroleum increases pressure Impermeable rock that forms a seal are the world’s largest known
within the rock because oils and over reservoir rocks is called cap liquid hydrocarbon resources and
gases are less dense than solids rock. Cap rocks of most petroleum comprise about 65% of all the
and, hence, take up more volume. fields are fine-grained, clay-rich liquid petroleum in the world. Very
The overpressure fractures the sediments like shales or mud- large deposits of tar sands occur
source bed, enabling migration stones. Due to their low perme- in northern Canada (Athabasca tar
of the gas and oil into adjacent abilities and very small-diameter sands) and eastern Venezuela.

Reservoir
Oil

Sandstone
mig
rati
on

Reservoir
Oi
lm

one
Sandst
ig

80°C
F

ra
tio
a

n
u

100°C
l

Source rock
t

120°C

H e a t 140°C

..      Fig. 2.14  Formation of petroleum reservoirs (Illustration courtesy of The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate)
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
71 2
..      Fig. 2.15  Oil produc-
tion by region in million Asia Pacific 100
barrels daily (BP Statistical
Africa
Review of World Energy
2016) Middle East
90
Europe & Eurasia
S. & Cent. America
North America 80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

90 95 00 05 10 15 0

Intermediate or Brent), the density in API gravity Natural Gas

(if the API gravity of a crude oil is greater than 10, Natural gas plays a vital role in the world’s supply
it floats on water; if less than 10, it sinks), and its of energy. In its pure form, natural gas is colorless,
sulfur content. The major oil-producing regions shapeless, and odorless. Compared to other fossil
around the world are located in Kuwait and Saudi fuels, natural gas is cleaner and emits lower values
Arabia, although other countries in the Middle of harmful components to the air. Although it is a
East region also make up a significant part of world blend of different hydrocarbon gases, natural gas
production (e.g., Iran and Iraq) (. Fig. 2.15). The
  is formed mainly of methane (70–90%), ethane,
North Sea crude oil fields are the second most propane, butane (all three together up to 20%),
influential oil field in economic terms. and other components (e.g., pentane, carbon
The main application of petroleum is for power dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen sulfide).
combustion engines (gasoline or petrol). Other Temperature and pressure determine the com-
applications include manufacturing of plastics and position of the gas phase because several higher
synthetics, paving road, and roofing. In general, a hydrocarbons are gaseous in the reservoir but
lighter raw petroleum composition is more useful condense if the pressure is lowered. Natural gas is
as a fuel source, while denser petroleum composi- called «dry» if it is almost pure methane and «wet»
tion is more suitable for plastic manufacturing and if other hydrocarbons are present. The «dryness»
other uses. Broadly, a barrel of crude oil produce of gas can be characterized by the percent meth-
the following components: 43% gasoline, 21% die- ane/percent ethane ratio. Other denominations
sel, 10% jet fuel, 4% fuel oil, 4% liquefied petro- are «sour» gas if it has elevated fractions of sulfur
leum gases, and 18% other products. and CO2 and «sweet» gas if it contains less than
 72 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.16  Natural gas

reserves-to-production
(R/P) ratios in 2015 by
region (BP Statistical 120
2 Review of World Energy
2016)

80

40

North S. & Central Europe & Middle Africa Asia 0

America America Eurasia East Pacific

2% of CO2 and no H2S. Only «sweet» gas can be

directly used, and the rest must be first refined.
Natural gas is found in reservoirs often asso-
ciated with oil deposits. Since gas is dissolved in
oil, a free gas cap forms on top of the oil pool
where saturation is reached. When natural gas
is formed, it rises toward the surface because
it has a low density. Some of this methane will
dissipate into the air, but it will also rise up into
geological formations that trap the gas under the
ground. These formations are mainly composed
of layers of porous sedimentary rocks with an
impermeable layer of sediment on top to pre-
vent the migration of the natural gas until the
surface. The obtained natural gas is then refined ..      Fig. 2.17  Tar sands sample
to remove impurities (e.g., water, other gases, or
sand). After refining, the natural gas is usually Tar Sands
transmitted through a network of pipelines to Tar sands (. Fig. 2.17), sometimes referred to as
 

its point of use. Natural gas can be measured in oil sands, are a combination of bitumen, water,
cubic feet or, like other forms of energy, in Brit- clay, and sand, the bitumen being a heavy black
ish thermal units (Btu). The definition of a Btu viscous oil. Tar is a term for heavy and extra-­heavy
is the following: 1 Btu is the quantity of natural oils (6–12°API) that are highly viscous and sulfur-
gas that will generate sufficient energy to heat 1 rich. It is the residuum of a degradation or nor-
pound of water by 1 degree at normal pressure. mal petroleum; degradation is essentially the loss
Regarding the production and reserves of natural of light hydrocarbons and an increase of N-S-O
gas, . Fig. 2.16 shows the reserves-to-production
 
compounds. Deposits of tar sands may be mined
ratios in 2015 by region. to obtain the oil-rich bitumen, which is later
 2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
73 2
refined to produce oil. Because the bitumen in tar Bituminous Shales
sands cannot be pumped in its natural state, tar Oil shale or bituminous shale is a sedimentary
sand deposits are commonly mined using open- rock that contains up to 50% of organic matter.
pit mining. In other cases, the oil is extracted by In fact, it represents certainly an old petroleum
underground heating with additional upgrading. parent rock. Once extracted from the ground,
This process involves injecting steam into the the rock can either be used directly as fuel for
ground to melt the bitumen from the sands and a power plant or be processed to produce shale
pumping the bitumen up to the surface. oil and other chemicals and materials. With a
During many decades, the oil industry clearly few exceptions (e.g., fracking), these deposits are
ignored tar sands oil since the exploitation of this yet little exploited. Because environmental con-
energy source is much more expensive, difficult, siderations and other factors make extraction of
and, more important from an environmental view these raw materials relatively unattractive, the
point, dirty than conventional oil. Theoretically, strategical character of oil shales as a resource
much of the world’s oil reserves (e.g., 2 trillion of oil and gas depends on a number of criteria
barrels) are in tar sands form, although obvi- such as the ultimate destination of the raw mate-
ously it is not all mineable. The largest deposits rial, the basic cost of extraction and processing,
in the world of tar sands are found in Canada and the environmental costs, among many oth-
(Athabasca deposit) and Venezuela, although ers. The heating value of bituminous shale is low
various countries in the Middle East and Russia and similar, for example, to that of brown coal
have also important reserves. In this sense, only or average forest residues and less than half of
Canada has a large-scale commercial tar sands that of the average bituminous coal. This is dras-
industry. Exploitation of tar sands produces actu- tically changing with the introduction of frack-
ally a strong dispute in Canada, essentially for the ing or hydraulic fracture techniques (. Box 2.4:  

environmental impacts of this kind of mining. Hydraulic Fracking).

 Box 2.4

Hydraulic Fracturing
Natural gas produced from shale As the reserves of con- of factors, including technological
is often referred to as «unconven- ventional natural gas and oil advance, desire to decrease depen-
tional gas» by contrast to «conven- falling inexorably and could be dence from foreign energy, new
tional gas» produced from other nearly exhausted, the extrac- geopolitical realities, and high oil
kinds of rock usually sandstones tion of unconventional oil and prices, have made unconventional
or limestones. Conventional gas is gas trapped in shale appears gas and subsequently hydraulic
found in reservoirs in sandstone or to be an attractive alternative fracturing particularly attractive.
limestone where gas has migrated for several countries, especially Hydraulic fracturing is most
up from source rocks. In these the USA. Because shale is a fine- often performed in horizontally
rocks, organic matter becomes gas grained, sedimentary rock, the drilled wells (. Fig. 2.18). A typical
 

or oil through the action of heat gas and oil it contains do not horizontal well has an average lat-
and pressure over time. According easily flow and therefore must be eral extension of 1400 m (maximum
to the International Energy Agency released before it can be pumped of 3000 m). After a period of verti-
(IEA), the volume of unconven- from the ground. The technique cal drilling in order to reach shale
tional gas resources (including used to extract shale gas is called deposits (most of unconventional
shale gas, tight gas, and coalbed hydraulic fracturing or colloquially gas is trapped deep inside of shale
methane) is currently estimated at «fracking. » It consists of injecting formations at depths between 1500
340 trillion cubic meters, equiva- water, proppant (e.g., granules and 3000 m), a lateral extension of
lent to about 40% of global gas of sand), and chemicals at high up to 2000 m is drilled parallel to
resources. In this statistics, shale pressure into a shale or sandstone the rock layer containing the shale.
gas accounts for the biggest share formation. The buildup in pressure In the next step, fracking fluids are
of these resources. Thus, the emer- causes the formation to fracture, injected into the recently bored hole
gence of shale gas and shale oil has and the proppant fills the fractures in order to release the hydrocarbons
quickly changed the landscape of to keep them from resealing. This that are trapped; the fluid is injected
opportunities for energy provision allows the natural gas impounded under high pressure with the intent
and security in different regions of in the formation to rush into the of fracturing the soft shale. The rock
the world. well for extraction. A combination is hydraulically fractured multiple
 74 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.18 Hydraulic
fracking (Illustration
courtesy of National
2 Aeronautics and Space
Administration)

Groundwater

Water + additives

Natural gas

Water makes
cracks in the
Shale shale, and gas
escapes

times every 100 m along this hori- being produced typically less than These chemicals typically include
zontal extent. Occasionally, other 1 mm wide. The fracking fluid con- acids to «clean» the shale to
substances such as gels, foams, tains around 20 percent of sand, improve gas flow, biocides to
compressed gases, and even air are and this helps to open and keep prevent organisms from growing
injected. Chemical mixtures are usu- open the tiny cracks, allowing gas and clogging the shale fractures,
ally included in the injection, and to flow into the well. Fracturing corrosion and scale inhibitors to
their objectives are to increase the fluid consists of about 98–99.5% protect the integrity of the well,
permeability of the rock by dissolv- water and proppant. The rest gels or gums that add viscosity
ing various components. (0.5–2% by volume) is composed to the fluid and suspend the
Regarding the fracking fluid, of a blend of chemicals, often pro- proppant, and friction reducers
it can be injected at various pres- prietary, that enhance the fluid’s that enhance flow and improve
sures and reach up to 100 MPa properties. The concentration the ability of the fluid to infiltrate
(1000 bar) with flow rates of up varies depending on the geology and carry the proppant into small
to 265 liters/second, the cracks and other water characteristics. fractures in the shale.

Coal plant debris to coal involves biochemical action,

Coal is a solid, black mineral made up of carbon, preservation of the material from further decay,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in varying pro- and pressure under accumulated plant materials
portions. In addition, it contains impurities such and other later sediments. This caused physical
as ash and sulfur. In the Industrial Revolution, and chemical changes in the organic remains
coal was a major fuel competing with charcoal transforming them into peat and then into coal.
and wood. Coal is an essential fuel for steel and Coal formation began during the Carboniferous
cement production and other industrial activities period, called the first coal age, which spanned
as well as to provide electricity. 360–290 million years ago. However, coal occurs
Coal commonly contains altered remains of in all post-Devonian periods. For instance,
prehistoric vegetation because it is of vegetable Cenozoic yields most of the lignite of the world.
origin, with components growing in swamps and The types of vegetation, depth of burial, tem-
lagoons and going through a peat stage, all with perature and pressure and this depth, and length
the combined effect of pressure and heat over mil- of the time forming the deposits are factors to
lions of years to form coal seams. The change from define the quality of a coal deposit. The degree of
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
75 2
change undergone by a coal deposit as it matures water, poisonous emissions, and increased risks
from peat to anthracite is known as coalification. of lung cancer for coal plant workers. Despite
Coalification has an important bearing on coal’s this fact, nearly 70% of China’s electricity comes
physical and chemical properties and is referred to from coal, and around 40% of the world’s elec-
as the «rank» of the coal. Ranking is determined by tricity is produced after this energy source. Coal
the degree of transformation of the original plant seam extraction can be carried out by surficial or
material to carbon. The ranks of coals according underground mining, depending on the depth
to the carbon content are lignite, subbituminous, and quality of the seams and the geological and
bituminous, and anthracite (. Fig. 2.19).   environmental factors. In addition, lignite can be
The use of carbon as an energy source causes broken down chemically through a process called
bad effects on both humans and the environment. coal gasification to create synthetic natural gas.
Examples of these issues are acid rain, waste prod- Coal reserves in 1995, 2005, and 2015 by region
ucts, high levels of carbon dioxide, contaminated are shown in . Fig. 2.20. 

..      Fig. 2.19 Transforma-
tion of the original plant
material to carbon and
types of coal according
their rank (Illustration cour- Time
tesy of Kentucky Geological
Survey)

Pressure

Heat

Peat
Lignite
(brown coal)
Sub-bituminous
Banded Bituminous
“black” Anthracite
coals

Europe & Eurasia

Asia Pacific
North America
Middle East & Africa
S. & Cent. America

1.0 38.5
6.0
2.2 31.6
5.6
1.6
3.7 34.8

1995
Total 1031610 2005
Total 909064 2015
million tonnes
million tonnes Total 891531
24.3 million tonnes

32.7 27.5
28.0
32.3
30.2

..      Fig. 2.20  Distribution in percentage by region of coal-proved reserves in 1995, 2005, and 2015 (BP Statistical
Review of World Energy 2016)
 76 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.21 Fission
process
Fission product A

2
Fissile nucleus

Primary
neutron Secondaries
gamma &
neutrons

Uranium-235
Plutonium-239

Fission product B

Uranium using preferably U-235 (. Fig.  2.21). Therefore,

 

Uranium is the raw material for nuclear power, because nuclear power plants need fuel with
a radioactive metal being present on the crust of U-235 enriched to a level of 3–5%, the material
the Earth. It is important to bear in mind that must be enriched to achieve this concentration.
nuclear power actually originates about 16% of Since enrichment process is produced in gas-
electricity of the world. Uranium can come from eous form, the «yellow cake» is turn to uranium
mining directly uranium-rich ore bodies or as hexafluoride gas (UF6). Enriched uranium (UF6)
a by-­product from mining other minerals such cannot be directly used in reactors so that it must
as copper, phosphate, or gold. In this sense, the be converted into uranium oxide (UO2). Fuel
uranium concentration in the mineralization can pellets are formed by pressing UO2, which is
range from 0.03% up to 20%. The most impor- sintered (baked) at temperatures of over 1400 °C
tant uranium-­rich ore producers in the world are to achieve high density and stability. The pellets
Kazakhstan, Canada, and Australia. There are are packed in long metal tubes to form fuel rods,
three methods to obtain uranium in the mine: which are grouped in «fuel assemblies» for intro-
classical open-pit and/or underground meth- duction into a reactor. As the spent fuel assem-
ods and in situ leaching. In the latter, uranium blies are very hot and radioactive, they must be
is leached directly from the ore. It is the leading removed from the reactor and are stored under
method to produce uranium today in a process water, which provides both cooling and radia-
called in situ leaching (ISL). The WNA (World tion shielding. After a few years, spent fuel can
Nuclear Association) reports that ISL mining be transferred to an interim storage facility. After
accounted for approximately 49% of world pro- 40 years in storage, the fuel’s radioactivity will be
duction in 2014. ISL processing implies that min- about a thousand times lower than where it was
ing solution is passed through the underground removed from the reactor. Some countries chemi-
ore body using several bores or wells. The ura- cally reprocess usable uranium and plutonium to
nium then is brought to the surface in a dissolved separate them from unusable waste.
state for further purification. After the chemical
treatment to separate uranium, the product is the
so-called yellow cake, which is a yellow powder 2.7.2 Metals
of uranium oxide (U3O8) where the uranium
concentration is reaching more than 80%. Despite some limitations such as their low specific
Natural uranium includes mainly two iso- strength or corrosion processes, metals are still one
topes: U-238 (99.3%) and U-235 (0.7%). The fis- of the most important components of our way of
sion process in the nuclear reactor is carried out life. This situation will continue in the future, thanks
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
77 2
..      Fig. 2.22 Metallic
­mercury from Almadén
(Spain)

to unique properties that make them irreplaceable. coke (also used as energy input to the process), and
According to Lu (2010): «metals possess much alternative reducing agents such as limestone and
higher fracture toughness than other materials: dolomite. The main application of this raw material
steels are the toughest known materials; secondly, is to produce steel, the toughest of all construction
the properties of metals are uniform in all direc- materials, which is an alloy made of low-carbon
tions (their strength is the same in tension and com- iron (steel production requires iron, steel scrap,
pression and it is usually predictable), being these and lime). Non-­metallurgical uses of iron ore, such
features critically important for predicting fracture as chemical applications, pigments, and abrasives,
in engineering structures; third, most metals are consume a very small share of total iron ore produc-
more conductive than ceramics and polymers; and tion. Steel is obtained by blowing oxygen through
fourth, they have the best overall mechanical prop- molten iron, thereby reducing its carbon content
erties at temperatures up to a few hundred degrees; up to 2%. The properties of steel can be adapted
moreover, most metals are recyclable, making them by alloying it with other metals such as manganese,
more competitive for quantity applications». chromium, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten,
In order to separate the metals in groups, there and vanadium, the so-called steel metals.
is a general consensus that five clusters can be out- The most famous and used alloy steel is stain-
lined: (1) iron and steel metals; (2) base metals, less steel. Iron and the most common iron alloy,
copper, lead, zinc, and tin; (3) precious metals, steel, are relatively poor materials from a corrosion
gold, silver, and PGM; (4) light metals, aluminum viewpoint. In spite of this, there is a group of iron-
and magnesium; and (5) minor and specialty base alloys, the iron-chromium (Fe-Cr) alloys,
metals, this group is formed by numerous met- often with nickel (Ni) additions, known as stain-
als (e.g., mercury (. Fig. 2.22), antimony, arsenic,
  less steels, which do not rust in seawater, which
bismuth, titanium, cobalt, tungsten, molybde- are resistant to concentrated acids, and which
num, and many others). do not scale at temperatures up to 1100 °C. The
combined effect of the alloying elements, heat
Iron and Steel Metals treatment and, to some extent, the impurities,
Iron ore is destined to the production of pig iron establishes the property profile of a certain steel
in the blast furnace. High iron concentration in type (Outokumpu 2013). Applications of stainless
ore, low content of SiO2 and alumina, and coarse steel include food handling/processing, medical
grain size are favorable properties. The basic mate- instruments, and structural/architectural uses,
rials for pig iron production are iron ore, coal and among many others (. Fig. 2.23).
 
 78 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.23  Santander (Spain) Sport Hall; the external cover is made with stainless steel

Base Metals
Base metals such as copper and zinc are widely
used in communication and information technol-
ogy. Copper and its alloys exhibit many desirable
properties. It is ductile, malleable, hard, tough,
strong, wear, and corrosion resistant. It also has
high-tensile strength, fatigue strength, and thermal
and electrical conductivity. The production of cop-
per is mainly utilized by the wire and cable markets,
taking advantage of properties such as the electri-
cal conductivity, corrosion resistance, and thermal
conductivity. Excellent malleability, ductility, and
resistance against atmospheric attack distinguish ..      Fig. 2.24  Nickel briquettes (Image courtesy of Sherritt
International Corporation)
copper metal and its alloys (e.g., tin or zinc); copper
shows also strong antibacterial properties. Other
applications include structural and aesthetic uses. important properties of tin-based alloys are their
With regard to zinc and lead, there are few ore high resistance to corrosion, low-fatigue strength,
deposits that contain only lead or zinc, and most and compressive strength. For its part, nickel, also
mines produced both metals. Zinc is used predom- a base metal, is hard and ductile (. Fig. 2.24), and
 

inantly in galvanizing and alloys. Steel coated with the main application is in steel alloys.
zinc (galvanized steel) exhibits high levels of corro-
sion resistance. This application is responsible for Precious Metals
around 50% of total demand. Zinc-based alloys are Apart from copper, gold is one of the earliest met-
also used in die casting, ranging from automotive als intentionally looked for by humans. Gold was
components to toys and models. Lead is a heavy always a metal valued for wealth, adornment,
metal, soft, and malleable. Lead is commonly uti- and strong currency. There is little difference
lized in alloyed form, which increases its low-tensile today, and only 10% are consumed by industry
strength. When added to metal alloy, lead improves (e.g., electronics and dental applications). For
their machinability. Regarding tin, it is a soft, the future, an increasing role of nano-sized gold
weak, malleable, and ductile metal and has many particles as catalysts in chemical production, in
important uses as an alloy. It can be alloyed with pollution control, and in medical applications is
lead and with copper to produce bronze. The most predicted (Pohl 2011). In respect of silver, it is
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
79 2
obtained mainly as a by-product from copper, Minor and Specialty Metals
lead, zinc, and gold ores. In fact, the economic via- The term minor metals encompasses a vast array
bility of many base metal and gold deposits relies of metals, including tungsten, titanium, cobalt,
on by-product silver. The use of silver is basically and molybdenum, to name just a few. These met-
in industrial applications, but nearly 40% is con- als are crucial to the global economy, and many
sumed in jewelry, coins, and silverware. of them are by-products of the major exchange
The platinum group metals (PGM) are used metals. Only the precious metals are more valu-
in several industrial applications as well as in jew- able than many of the minor and specialty metals.
elry. The six chemical elements normally referred Minor metals show relatively low annual produc-
to as the platinum group elements (PGE) are tion volume, compared to base metals, and they
ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), have commonly high-technology applications.
osmium (Os), iridium (Ir), and platinum (Pt). Uses include filaments in lightbulbs, electronic
Platinum and palladium are actually the most pastes, components in mobile phones and tab-
commercially important of the PGM with largest let Pc’s, agriculture, and flat panel screens as
utilization in the automotive industry where they well as alloying agents in specialist steels for the
are applied to decrease harmful emissions from automotive and aerospace sectors, among many
vehicle systems (Gunn 2014). Rhodium is the others; as technology progresses, new applica-
third more important PGM. It is also used in auto- tions are found which will create new supply and
catalysts, although its consumption is an order of demand patterns, as demonstrated by the growth
magnitude less than platinum and palladium. in renewables technology (Minor Metals Trade
Association – MMTA).
Light Metals Nowadays, one of the most important groups
Aluminum is the most important of the non- of these metals is rare earth elements (REE)
iron metals, and it is commonly produced from because their chemical properties make them
bauxite, which is a loose soil or a hard rock with indispensable and non-replaceable in many
30–65% Al2O3. About 95% of bauxite produced high-­technology applications. For this reason,
is processed into aluminum metal. The remain- REE consumption is growing due to their daily
ing 5% serves as an industrial raw material for contribution to our lives in products like hybrid
numerous special products such as abrasives, cars, catalytic converters, wind power generators,
Portland cement, technical ceramics, glass, chem- household appliances, industrial motors, MRI
icals, paints, and refractories. Favorable attributes machines, iPods and computer hard drives, and
of aluminum metal such as lightweight, strength, green energy technology.
and excellent corrosion resistance (Lu 2010) allow
its use in many applications from building air
frames to food packaging. 2.7.3 Industrial Minerals
The other light metal is magnesium. Very
diverse raw materials, natural and industrial The use of the term «industrial minerals and
brines, and seawater are used for the production rocks» is very common in the literature (e.g.,
of magnesium and magnesium compounds. For Kuzvart 1984; Carr and Herz 1989; Jeffrey 2006),
instance, harvesting salts on the shores of the Great and it cover both types of raw materials. In this
Salt Lake is a source of magnesium. Applications section, industrial minerals are described sepa-
of the extremely light magnesium metal (density rately from industrial rocks because the char-
1.74 g/cm3) employ the pure metal or aluminum acteristics of the materials and applications are
alloys. Magnesium-aluminum alloys are mainly wholly different. The economically usable min-
consumed for beverage container making. About erals automatically classify themselves into four
40% of magnesium is used for die casting in the broad groups based on the stages of processing
car industry in order to reduce weight and fuel required for conversion to finally usable products
consumption. Other sectors include the space, air- (Chatterjee 2009): (1) those that are mainly used
craft, and chemical industry. Magnesium is mainly directly in consumer product industries, (2) those
utilized as magnesium oxide in applications such that are not used without first extracting metals
as refractory material (e.g., furnace linings for the from them, (3) those that are used in both ways
production of iron and steel), glass, and cement. but mainly valued for their metal content, and (4)
 80 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

those that are used in both ways, but their direct Valley-­type lead-zinc deposits or quartz, feldspar,
uses are of importance and their metal values and mica from pegmatites. Most industrial min-
are of minor significance. It has become a con- erals and rock commodities also have multiple
2 vention to refer to the first and fourth groups as uses. For instance, a pure limestone deposit could
«industrial minerals» (earlier called «nonmetallic supply material for lime, aggregate, and cement
minerals»), while the second and third groups are production, in granular form for flue gas desul-
considered as «metallic minerals. » furization, and in a range of powders for fillers,
Industrial minerals are valuable economic raw soil stabilization, and agricultural uses. Each of
materials that are not used in the production of these applications can command very different
metals or energy. Compared with metals and other prices per ton, so evaluating the overall value of
nonmetallic resources, they are mainly processed the deposit is difficult and involves assessing for
by physical methods. Both definitions, however, multiple quality requirements and variable prod-
are not without exceptions, and some attribu- uct splits. In many cases, the evaluation process
tions to the group are rather by tradition (Pohl for an industrial mineral resource is considerably
2011). Typical examples of industrial minerals are more technically complex than that for metal
talc (. Fig.  2.25), mica, and fluorite. Several ore
  deposits (Jeffrey 2006).
minerals such as chromite, bauxite, and rutile also Globalization is an important economic driver
have industrial applications, but the bulk of pro- in the industrial mineral sector. Large interna-
duction feeds metallurgy. Because of multiple and tional corporations (e.g., Sibelco in Belgium) have
even changing uses and a wide genetic variety, the formed by consolidation and acquisition of smaller
most common classification of industrial miner- companies. In some cases, this process has led to
als is based in the alphabetical order. Occasionally, one or two corporations having dominant con-
final applications of the industrial minerals are trol over individual mineral commodities such as
used as a basis for their classification. borates, nepheline syenite, garnet, and talc. As the
Although the industrial mineral deposits are technical demands on specific minerals increase
generally exploited for single minerals, a signifi- or supplies are restricted, companies explore the
cant number are worked together as by-products possibilities of making synthetic mineral prod-
such as fluorite and barite from Mississippi ucts. This is especially true for gemstones, but

..      Fig. 2.25  Talc mine at León (Spain)

2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
81 2
major industries are making synthetic zeolites for The classification is constructed using a matrix of
use in washing powders, as intermediates such as commodities and uses that are grouped accord-
synthetic rutile for TiO2 manufacture and in pig- ing to applications. Clustering of commodities
ments, and as bulk materials such as magnesite, reveals the following groupings: (1) principal
gypsum, and soda ash (Jeffrey 2006). abrasives (diamond, alumina, garnet, and pum-
In some applications, the boundaries with ice), (2) principal refractories (pyrophyllite, sil-
material science become blurred such as in indus- limanite group, magnesite, and graphite), (3)
tries making synthetic corundum and silica for principal fillers (wollastonite, titanium minerals,
laser, military, and electronic applications. Here the mica, barite, and iron oxide), (4) principal physi-
mineral structure has been perfected to a point not cal and chemical minerals (feldspar and zeolite),
found in nature. Some of these synthetic miner- (5) mixed-application physical minerals (silica,
als are also produced as by-products of upgrading perlite, clay (. Fig. 2.26), and talc), (6) principal
 

other mineral products, but all affect the demand chemical minerals (phosphate, salt, and sulfur),
for primary industrial minerals from new or exist- and (7) mixed-application physical and chemical
ing deposits. More often, a shortage of suitable minerals (olivine, chromite, fluorspar, gypsum,
mineral supplies, or the possibility of cost savings, and limestone).
leads to substitution by function. Other minerals Regarding the trade value of industrial miner-
that can perform the same role in a product are als, most of them are essentially high-volume, low-
then used instead. The increased use of fine-ground value commodities, while metals are the opposite,
or precipitated calcium carbonate at the expense of mainly precious metals. Beyond the difference in
kaolin in paper coating is a good example. scale of value between the two groups of commod-
As a tool to assist in teaching about industrial ities, a key issue is the fact that industrial minerals
minerals, a classification that defined seven groups do not have markets whose prices are set by an
of commodities based on the relative importance exchange system (e.g., London Metal Exchange in
of physical and chemical applications or a combi- metals). Some attempts have been made by vari-
nation of the two can be established (Smith 1999). ous organizations in recent years, especially with

..      Fig. 2.26  Clay (bentonite) quarry from Milos (Greece) (Image courtesy of José Pedro Calvo)
 82 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

the advent of the Internet and e-commerce. For the basic structure, industrial minerals are also
the reasons outlined here, it is unlikely that any present in all parts of the building as a constituent
kind of industrial mineral pricing exchange will or during their manufacturing. For instance, all
2 be created in the foreseeable future. ceramic compounds of a house (e.g., tiles, tubing,
etc.) include industrial minerals. Even the wallpa-
Industrial Mineral Applications per, paints, and carpet lining contain important
The industries in which industrial minerals are amounts of industrial minerals.
utilized are cover paint, electronic, metal cast- Detergents such as the powder ones utilized for
ing, paper, plastic, glass, ceramic, detergent, laundry and dishwashers include a «bleaching sys-
pharmaceutical and cosmetic, environmental tem. » Two systems are currently in use: perborate
engineering, and construction (IMA Europe). For and percarbonate. Both rely on industrial miner-
instance, glass in buildings is manufactured with als, borates, or calcium carbonate, respectively,
industrial minerals, mainly silica. The following which are chemically processed up to the required
descriptions are a brief resume of the application properties. Detergents are a major consumer of
of industrial minerals in these sectors. silica, which makes a whole family of detergents
The glazes that cover ceramics are largely based on sodium silicate. Other industrial miner-
composed of minerals, mainly borates, silicates, als (e.g., bentonite and sepiolite) are also used in
and metallic pigments. Ceramics and refractory detergent applications because of their adsorption
articles are indispensable in buildings: pipes, tiles, properties. In this sense, sepiolite is the main com-
and refractory bricks are all 100% industrial min- ponent in making cat litter (. Fig. 2.27).
 

erals. Even if some ceramics are being replaced The nervous system of a computer is made
by resins, these also contain important amounts of silicon, this component being extracted from
of industrial minerals. Technological develop- silica sand or massive quartz rocks. This quartz
ments in the ceramic sector represent an area in crystals also pace actually the functioning of most
which industrial minerals are at the forefront of of clocks. After extraction, the silicon is delivered
progress. For instance, ceramic tiles protect space to the electronic manufacturers in the form of
shuttles in order to support the high temperatures «wafers» a few centimeters wide.
of the Earth’s atmosphere. Industrial minerals are crucial in water man-
Industrial minerals such as clays, sand, feld- agement, whether considering drinking water
spar, kaolin, and other minerals are basic to all preparation or wastewater treatment. Thus,
construction materials, from bricks to tiles and silica sands are used as filters, perlite, zeolites,
from cement to limes and plastics. Apart from or talc as flocculants or adsorbents, bentonite as

..      Fig. 2.27  Cat litter

manufactured with sepio-
lite (Image courtesy of
SAMCA)
 2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
83 2
a degreasing agent, and calcium carbonate as a The mineral blend is a determinant to the glass
neutralizing agent, to mention but a few. Indus- properties during manufacture and use.
trial mineral-­based liners and geosynthetic liners, Historically, fillers and extenders were used to
either basal or superficial, are increasingly used furnish low-cost bulk to paint solid content. Today,
to avoid escape of leachate from landfill sites. Air the range of extenders available is extremely wide
treatment of industrial effluents also largely relies and determines many of the paint’s properties:
on minerals. Activated carbon is the best-known gloss, opacity, flow, film toughness, permeability,
technique, but other minerals are used as well. For rheology, resistance, etc. Waterborne systems,
instance, flue gas desulfurization of power station low solvent paints, powder coatings, high-solid
fumes is achieved with calcium carbonate. coatings, and industrial minerals are crucial to
The glass industry is one of the primary con- all the environment-friendly developments of
suming markets for industrial minerals with the paint technology. The paper industry, particularly
highest demand in terms of volume for silica printing and writing paper, is by far the largest
sand, limestone, feldspar, and soda ash. Fiberglass volume user of industrial minerals (. Box 2.5:  

and glass wool are also members of this group. Papermaking Additives).

 Box 2.5

Papermaking Additives
Papermaking starts with the papermaking, minerals are used especially useful in paper casting
production of the most important either as fillers or as a coating on and will appeal to papermakers
raw material: wood. The pulping paper. Some minerals, like talc, and model makers alike. Calcium
process then converts the wood are also used in pitch control carbonate provides an alkaline
into the most appropriate type (absorption of wood resins that reserve in paper which promotes
of pulp. Pulping of wood can be tend to obstruct the machines). acid-free archival qualities, being
done in two ways: mechanically or The use of minerals in paper also used as filler and in coating. It
chemically. In the case of mechani- production increases the speed retards shrinkage in paper castings
cal pulp, the wood is processed of the machine performance and and makes a smoother surface. In
into fiber form by grinding it fluidity. The final characteristics paper sheets, it improves opacity
against a quickly rotating stone of the paper (strength, whiteness, and whiteness. Talc gives paper a
under addition of water. In chemi- gloss, ink retention, etc.) are largely greasy or soapy feel and enables
cal pulp, the pure fiber has to be determined by the blend of miner- it to take a high finish. Kaolin
set free, the wood chips being als used. High-quality, glossy paper is one of the most used filler.
cooked in a chemical solution. The is obtained by applying a thin layer Lime is used in alkaline pulping
next step is pulp bleaching. It is a of industrial minerals on the sur- process. Magnesite is a common
complex process consisting of sev- face of the paper. As for fillers, the component of cigarette paper as
eral chemical process steps with final characteristics of the coating filler, being also considered as an
washing taking place between the and its fitness for use are governed excellent ingredient for harmless
various chemical treatments. The by the nature of the mineral blend. smoking; hydromagnesite and
paper machine then converts the The list of minerals used huntite are used to control the
pulp into a thin base paper, which, as additives in papermaking is burning rate of cigarette papers.
at the end of the production pro- impressive. Soda ash dissolves out Sodium silicate is utilized in waste
cess, is coated to give it a superb the noncellulose parts without paper deinking for wetting, ink dis-
flat surface and bright shade. weakening the finished paper. persion, and peroxide stabilization.
Coating a paper enhances its Titanium dioxide is a strong white Finally, many pigments and dyes
optical and tactile characteristics pigment which makes paper used in papermaking come from
(whiteness and shade, gloss, and whiter and more opaque, acting industrial minerals such as iron
smoothness), but it also improves as a filler and giving a smoother oxide, titanium oxide, zinc com-
its printing behavior, allowing the surface to the paper. The filling pounds (e.g., zinc sulfide or zinc
use of very fine screens, yielding effect is much stronger than with oxide), lead compounds, cadmium
more color in thinner ink layers, calcium carbonate, but it does not sulfide, etc. A type of mixture con-
and producing more contrast in have the ability to neutralize paper taining coprecipitates of titanium
printed images. acids. Titanium dioxide is also used and mica (or other minerals) is
In all the previous processes, to tint-colored pulps. China clay is used to make a pearlescent, which
many types of additives (fillers, a fine white powder, also known as is transparent and highly light
binders, and many others) are opal gamma kaolin, which is used refractive, imparting to the ink film
used to improve the efficiency to make paper more opaque and the luster characteristic of mother-
and quality of the final product. In smooth and reduce shrinkage. It is of-pearl.
 84 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

The role of industrial minerals in pharmaceu- a proximity to consumption center. Consequently,

ticals falls into one of two main categories: excipi- the markets for the product are commonly local
ent or active substances. The excipients have no markets, especially in aggregate industry. Finally,
2 intrinsic health benefit on their own; they are resources and reserves of industrial rocks are
used solely as carriers, allowing the intake of min- almost infinite. Moreover, one particular type
ute amount of active substances. pH regulation or can be substituted by another one, for example, if
adsorbents are the kind of applications for which the price of the product suddenly increases, and
some minerals are used as active ingredients. even a finished product can also be replaced by
Thus, antacid pills are composed mainly of cal- another one of similar specifications. According
cium carbonate, lithium used in antidepressants to the main markets of construction, industrial
is derived from industrial minerals, and many rocks can be grouped in to five main types: (1)
excipients are minerals such as talc, magnesium aggregates, (2) ornamental rocks, (3) limestone
carbonate, or silica. Many cosmetics incorporate for cement and lime, (4) gypsum, and (5) clay for
important amount of industrial minerals such as bricks and tiles.
talc, although others like mica, silica, or borates
are utilized for their abrasive, visual, or stabilizing Aggregates
properties. It is necessary to remember that earli- Aggregates are granular materials used in con-
est civilizations (e.g., the Romans) already made struction formed of natural or crushed, hard,
use of earth pigments for body painting. sound, and durable particles of nonreactive min-
Finally, polymeric resins such as PVC and PP erals. Sand, gravel, and crushed rock are typically
are generally filled and/or reinforced with indus- the most common natural aggregates in the mar-
trial minerals (e.g., talc and calcium carbonate). ket. While aggregate is used primarily in asphalt
They are also used in polyamide, unsaturated poly- and concrete (asphalt pavement includes 94%
esters, HDPE (high-density polyethylene), and aggregate and concrete is formed by 80% aggre-
LDPE (low-density polyethylene). Small amounts gate), all construction worldwide involves the use
of minerals, particularly talc and silica, are used in of this raw material. In fact, aggregates are the
the compounding and manufacturing of rubber second natural resource more used by the human-
goods. Thus, the new-generation car tire relies its kind, after water. Aggregates are mainly obtained
energy saving on the silica content of the polymer. by mining quarries and gravel pits and in some
countries from sea-dredged materials (marine
aggregates). Recycled aggregates (see 7 Chap. 1)
 

2.7.4 Industrial Rocks are derived from reprocessing materials previously

used in construction such as demolition debris.
This term encompass a group of rocks (single min- The production and consumption of this
eral species are excluded of this group) whose main raw material are impressive. According to the
application is addressed to construction market. Union Européenne des Producteurs de Granulats
Industrial rocks typically comprise of multi-min- (UEPG – European Aggregates Association), the
eral hard and unconsolidated rocks and sediments. European aggregate consumption is 2.8 billion
Aggregates (sand and gravel) for road construc- tons per year, the average aggregate consump-
tion, limestone for cement, and dimensional stone tion being 5.2 tons per person per year; about
(granite, marble or slate) for building material are 90% of all aggregate produced are from quarries
all well-known examples of industrial rocks. and pits (25,000 quarries and pits in Europe)
The main characteristics of industrial rocks and the remaining 10% from recycled aggregates
can be outlined as follows. Firstly, the price of the (6%) and marine and manufactured aggregates
raw material is low to very low, and sometimes the (2% each). US aggregate consumption includes
price of the finished product is low as well. One of approximately 1 billion tons of sand and gravel in
the principal industrial rocks, namely, aggregates, 2016 and similar amount of crushed rock (USGS).
displays the lowest price for a raw material in the Aggregates are indeed the main component in
industry (e.g., 7 dollars per ton of concrete sand). all homes, offices, social buildings, and infrastruc-
For this reason, exploration, exploitation, and tures. For instance, the construction of a common
mineral processing costs must be very low. Sec- new home uses up to 400 tons of aggregates, from
ondly, the very high prices of transport resulted in the foundations through to the roof tiles. Other
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
85 2
..      Fig. 2.28 Aggregates
forming a breakwater or
armour stone

examples are roads or railways: the construction become a marble. Other example is basalt, which
of 1 km of motorway consumes up to 25,000 tons is defined as granite in natural stone industry,
of aggregates, and the construction of 1 m of rail- although the former is a volcanic rock and the lat-
way for a high-speed train (TGV) uses up to 10 ter a plutonic one.
tons of aggregates. Drainage, dams, and breakwa- Ornamental rock blocks are exploited in
ters (. Fig. 2.28) are a few more of other impor-
  quarries. Currently, the most common method
tant construction items involving aggregate. to extract the blocks is by using diamond wire.
Specifications for the most important applica- Diamond wires are cutting tools for rocks (marble,
tions of aggregates such as concrete and ballast granite, or slates). The wires are composed of a
are closely regulated and subject to industrial stainless steel cable over which are assembled dia-
standards (e.g., ASTM in the USA, EN in Europe, mond-sintered pearls, 10–12 mm in diameter and
ISO worldwide) and concern petrographical com- spaced 25  mm along the wire. The utilization of
position, geometrical properties such as particle this slabbing technology has expanded all over the
size and grain shape, mechanical and physical world due to its advantages facing other techniques
properties (e.g., resistance to wear or resistance such as explosives or thermal lance. After extrac-
to fragmentation), thermal and weathering prop- tion in quarries, the blocks are manufactured using
erties (e.g., boiling test for Sonnenbrand basalt), different techniques, which depend on the size of
and chemical properties (e.g., determination of the products and the type of rock. Marble or gran-
acid-­soluble chloride salts). ite is commonly polished to perform products for
interior paving. Granite is also processed to obtain
Ornamental Rocks flamed granite, most used in pavements.
For centuries, natural stone has been used by
nearly all civilizations, being applied mainly in  arbonate Rocks for Cement
C
architecture. Ornamental rocks are the main eco- and Lime
nomic component of the natural stone industry. Carbonate rocks are extremely important raw
The market is shaped by three rock types: granites materials for industry, construction, agriculture,
(. Fig.  2.29), marbles, and shales (. Fig.  2.30),
    forestry, and environmental engineering. The
although they do not always represent the same most representative application of these rocks is in
typology of geological rock. Thus, limestone is a cement and lime industry. Cement is a fine powder
marble in natural stone industry, although obvi- that sets after a few hours when mixed with water.
ously the limestones need a metamorphism to It then hardens in a few days into a solid and strong
 86 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.29  Granite quarry for ornamental rock at Cadalso de los Vidrios (Spain) (Image courtesy of Marcelino Martínez)

..      Fig. 2.30  Underground shale quarry for ornamental rock (roofing) (León, Spain)

material. The so-called Portland cement is the most of mainly calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron
classical type of cement although there are many (. Box 2.6: Manufacture of Cement). The main use
 

types of common cement. This product is manu- of cement is to make concrete, the most important
factured in a controlled chemical combination construction material in the last century.
 2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
87 2
 Box 2.6

Manufacture of Cement
Cement is a fine gray powder that, facture Portland cement is through ore, and much more. These are
when reacted with water, hardens the so-called dry method. The raw called correctors because they
to form a rigid chemical mineral material for cement manufacture must define the final proportions
structure that gives concrete its is a rock mixture of about 80% of all oxides. The clay and lime-
high strengths. The credit for its limestone (which is rich in CaCO3) stone and correctors are then fed
discovery is given to the Romans, and 20% clay or shale (a source of together into a mill where the rock
who mixed lime (CaCO3) with SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3). Lime and is ground until the material is less
volcanic ash, producing a cement silica provide the main strength of than 100–200 μm in diameter.
mortar that was used during the cement, while iron reduces the In the third step of manu-
construction of such impressive reaction temperature and gives the facturing, the fine-grained raw
structures as the Colosseum. When cement its characteristic gray color. materials are then dried, heated,
the Roman Empire fell, information Raw material preparation and fed into a rotating kiln
on how to make cement was lost includes a variety of blending (. Fig. 2.31). Here the raw materi-
 

and not rediscovered until many and sizing operations that are als react at very high temperatures
centuries later. Roman cement was designed to provide a feed with to form 3CaO•SiO2 (tricalcium
not improved upon until 1758, appropriate chemical and physical silicate), 2CaO•SiO2 (dicalcium
when Smeaton noticed that using properties. Thus, quarried clay and silicate), 3CaO•Al2O3 (tricalcium
a limestone that was 20–25% clay limestone are crushed separately, aluminate), and 4CaO•Al2O3•Fe2O3
and heating the mixture resulted and samples of both rocks are (tetracalcium aluminoferrite).
in a cement that could harden then sent off to the laboratory Minor compounds such as MgO,
under water. for mineral analysis. If neces- TiO2, Mn2O3, K2O, P2O5, and Na2O
Portland cement (the most sary, minerals are then added to are also present in clinker. The
common type of cement in com- either the clay or the limestone to cement kiln heats all the raw
mon use today) is manufactured in ensure that the correct amounts materials to about 1500 °C in huge
a four-step process: (a) quarrying, of aluminum, iron, etc. are present. cylindrical steel rotary kilns (60 m
(b) raw material preparation, (c) Since the four basic oxides must long). The materials are continu-
clinkering, and (d) cement milling be present in exact proportions ously and slowly moved to the
and mixing. The name Portland (calcium oxide, 65%; silicon oxide, lower end by rotation of the kiln. A
was given owing to the resem- 20%; alumina oxide, 10%; and iron burner is located at one end of the
blance of this hardened cement oxide, 5%), limestone and clay are kiln, and the ground raw materials
paste to the natural stone available mixed together with many other are introduced at the other end.
at a place called Portland in Eng- raw materials such as slate, marl, As the material moves through the
land. Most common way to manu- blast furnace slag, silica sand, iron kiln, some elements are driven off

..      Fig. 2.31  Rotating kiln to manufacture cement (Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos Portland Valderrivas)
 88 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

in the form of gases. The remain- forms of calcium sulfate (as setting production process, the cement
ing elements are joined to form a retardant) and other materials. It industry is capable of coprocessing
new substance called clinker and is essential to note that cement (a) alternative fuels, which have
2 formed by gray balls. They are manufacture is an energy-intensive significant calorific value (e.g.,
discharged red-hot from the lower process. waste oils); (b) alternative raw
end of the kiln and commonly are One of the most significant materials, the mineral components
brought down to handling temper- challenges facing the industry of which mean they are suitable
ature in various types of coolers. into the twenty-first century is for the production of clinker or
The final step includes clinker a requirement to reduce CO2 cement (e.g., contaminated soil);
milling and mixing with other emissions. CO2 is produced dur- and (c) materials that have both a
components to obtain the so- ing the calcination phase of the calorific value and provide mineral
called Portland cement. Thus, after manufacturing process and also components (e.g., paper sludge,
the clinker is cooled, cement plants as a result of burning fossil fuels. used tires). Without coprocessing,
grind it in large ball mills to obtain Opportunity to reduce emissions the wastes and by-products that
a very fine powder (e.g., 20 μm). through increased energy effi- make up these materials would
Finally, it is then mixed with ciency is only possible on the latter have to be incinerated or landfilled
small amount of either gypsum of the CO2 emissions. In this sense, with corresponding greenhouse
or anhydrite, both of which are due to the characteristics of the gas emissions.

Regarding the other main product obtained components of the construction industries, and
from carbonate rocks, lime is a term specifically they are primarily utilized as building materi-
used to refer high-quality products such as quick- als. These include two big groups: (a) bricks
lime (CaO) and calcium hydroxide, also known and roof tiles and (b) ceramic tiles. Clay for
as hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2). The raw material for bricks and roof tiles is used in a wide range of
all this type of products is limestone, commonly buildings from housing to factories as well as
formed by almost exclusively calcium carbon- in the construction of tunnels, bridges, etc. In
ate (CaCO3). Limestone is processed to form brick- and roof tile-making terms, clay includes
lime, being heated in a specially designed kiln to a range of naturally occurring raw materials. In
over 900  °C.  In this process, called calcination, manufacturing process, clay must possess some
a chemical reaction occurs and creates calcium specific properties and characteristics. It usually
oxide. The applications of lime are huge, but those shows the most important property to obtain
in environmental engineering are the most widely these products: plasticity. This property permits
consumed (e.g., soil conditioning or to neutralize clay to be shaped and molded when mixed with
the acidic effluents). water.
All types of clays used for bricks and roof tiles
Clays for Bricks and Tiles contain some percentage of silica and alumina
Clay rocks are cohesive unconsolidated or indu- sand, silt, and clay with varying amount of metal-
rated clastic sedimentary rocks where size frac- lic oxides. Metallic oxides act as fluxes promot-
tion lower than 0.002 mm is dominant. They vary ing fusion of the particles at lower temperatures
considerably in physical properties, color, and (950 °C). In geological terms, the key in the man-
mineralogical content. Clay rocks mainly consist ufacturing process is the mineral content of the
of clay minerals such as kaolinite, illite, mont- raw material. Due to variances in the age of the
morillonite, chlorite, and mixed-layer clay min- deposits, depositional conditions, and impurities
erals. Besides clay minerals, clay and claystone involved, there are variations between different
contain fine-grained clastic silicates (quartz, clay types even in the same deposit. These varia-
mica, and feldspar), biogenic matter (carbonate tions may affect the brickmaking process and the
microfossils, kerogen, and coaly particles), and properties of the finished product.
diagenetic minerals (marcasite, pyrite, carbon- Regarding the second group, ceramic (wall and
ate, and phosphate). These clays are mainly used floor) tiles (. Fig. 2.32), they are made from clay
 

for the production of bricks, roof tiles, ceramic and other inorganic raw materials that are ground
tiles, and other fired and sintered products. and/or mixed and then molded before drying and
Ceramic materials are one of the most i­ mportant firing at sufficiently high temperatures (1400 °C)
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
89 2

..      Fig. 2.32  Glazed ceramic tiles (Image courtesy of José Pedro Calvo)

to acquire the necessary stable properties. The 2.8.1 Magmatic Ore Deposits
raw materials that make up the ceramic tile are
essentially clays, feldspars, sand, carbonates, and A magmatic ore deposit is formed by an accumu-
kaolin. From a glazed point of view, ceramic tiles lation of magmatic minerals. Some of them are
can be unglazed or glazed. The former is fired extremely rare and almost never encountered in
only once, whereas glazed tiles include a vitrified common rocks (e.g., alloys of the platinum met-
coating between the firing. The manufacturing of als). However, other minerals such as magnetite
glaze and frit is a complex process involving many are common. A very large and diverse group of
different raw materials, such as carbonates, sili- ore deposits originates by magmatic processes.
cates, borates, and many others. According to Ardnt and Ganino (2012), many
magmatic ore deposits are hosted by granites, but
the ore results from precipitation of ore minerals
2.8 Genetic Classification from aqueous fluids and not from the granitic
of Mineral Deposits magma itself. The type of ore mineral in mag-
matic deposits is directly linked to the composi-
According to the main ore-forming processes, a tion of the host rock. For instance, deposits of
simple genetic classification of mineral deposits nickel, chromium, and platinum group elements
encompasses four main groups: (1) magmatic, (2) are founded in mafic-ultramafic hosts. By con-
hydrothermal, (3) sedimentary, and (4) metamor- trast, felsic rocks generate ores from the elements
phic/metamorphosed. The following is a descrip- confined that concentrate in evolved magmatic
tion of the main classes included in these groups. liquids. Some of these elements are present in
However, it is not obviously an exhaustive over- late-crystallizing phases such as ilmenite, which
view of all types of mineral deposits existing in contains Ti and cassiterite; the ore of Sn and oth-
the Earth’s crust. ers enter the water-rich fluid that separates from
 90 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

the silicate liquid to be redeposited in pegmatites Chromite Deposits

or in hydrothermal ore bodies. Pegmatites are Chromite (Mg, Fe2+) (Cr3+, Al, Fe3+)2O4 is the only
also an important source of rare but increasingly commercial source of chromium. The source to
2 important metals such as lithium and beryllium. obtain this metal comes mainly from four different
Crystallization of economic minerals normally mineral deposit types: podiform deposits, strati-
occurs from mafic to ultramafic magmas that form deposits, placer deposits, and laterites. The
are low in viscosity and have important content latter are derived from weathering of ultramafic
of nickel, copper, and platinum group elements. rocks that contain chromite. In particular, most
Magmatic ore deposits associated with ultramafic of the world’s resources are located in stratiform
and mafic rocks span most of the history of the chromite deposits such as the Bushveld Complex
Earth, being well represented in all continents. (South Africa) (. Fig.  2.33) and the Great Dyke
 

«Currently, these deposits are estimated to account (Zimbabwe). The Bushveld Complex contains
for approximately 7% of the total value of annual the main type examples of ore deposits in a large
global metal and mineral mining and they include layered intrusion. Important podiform chromite
the world’s greatest concentration of metals: the deposits are located in Kazakhstan, Turkey, the
Bushveld Complex, which has an estimated total Philippines, New Caledonia, and Russia. Known
metal endowment value, representing past pro- resources of alluvial and eluvial placer deposits
duction and current reserves and resources, of US derived by erosion of such rocks are low in grade
$3.6 trillion» (Peck y Huminicki 2016). and of very minor importance (Misra 2000). The
The description of magmatic deposits can major stratiform chromite deposits also contain
be carried out according to the host rock asso- important contents of platinum, palladium, rho-
ciation or related to the commodity. The latter is dium, osmium, iridium, and ruthenium.
easier and allows to summarize the main groups Regarding the genesis of the deposits, little con-
of deposits present in the Earth’s crust from a sensus has been reached about the magma chamber
magmatic viewpoint. On this basis, four types of processes responsible for chromite segregation and
magmatic ore deposits can be defined: (1) chro- crystallization although extensive studies have been
mite deposits, (2) nickel (copper) sulfide deposits, carried out. In general, the most widely accepted
(3) platinum group element (PGE) deposits, and explanation involves the mixing of primitive and
(4) diamond deposits. Since the four types can fractionated magmas. Thus, the commonly cited
be considered as orthomagmatic deposits, a fifth hypotheses include: «(1) mixing of a parent magma
type related to granitic pegmatites can be added. with a more primitive magma during magma

..      Fig. 2.33 Stratiform
chromite at South Africa
(Image courtesy of Roland
Oberhänsli)
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
91 2
chamber recharge; and (2) contamination of the and to mostly small- to medium-sized dykes and
parent magma by localized assimilation of country sills, as opposed to the generally much larger
rock at the roof of the magma chamber; the mixing ­layered mafic-ultramafic intrusive complexes that
of magmas would produce a partially differenti- typically host sulfide-poor PGE-­enriched depos-
ated magma, which could then be forced into the its such as Stillwater Complex in Montana (USA).
chromite stability field and result in the massive Nickel sulfide deposits can be classified into two
chromitite layers found in stratiform complexes» principal classes based on the petrology of the
(Schulte et al. 2012). In this sense, chromitite is a host rocks: peridotite-dunite class (komatiitic
term used for massive chromite containing 50% to association) and gabbroid class (tholeiitic associa-
more than 95% of cumulus chromite. tion) (. Fig. 2.34).
 

The sequences of massive chromitite layers According to Schulz et  al. (2014): «sulfide
(>90% chromite) or seams of disseminated chro- deposits containing nickel and copper with or
mite (>60% chromite) are commonly found in the without (±) platinum-group elements (PGE)
lower ultramafic parts of the layered intrusions. account for approximately 60% of the world’s
These intrusions were emplaced in stable cratonic nickel production and they form where mantle-­
settings or during rift-related events throughout derived, sulfur-undersaturated picrite or tho-
the Archean or early Proterozoic, although a few leiitic basalt magma becomes sulfide-saturated,
younger deposits exist. The intrusions extend any- commonly following interaction with continental
where from 2 to 180 km in diameter and can reach crustal rocks; sulfur saturation results in forma-
thicknesses of as much as 15 km. As a rule, the indi- tion of an immiscible sulfide liquid, which tends
vidual seams included in the intrusions range from to segregate into physical depressions in the lower
less than 1 cm to 5–8 m thick. The mineral occurs parts of dike- and/or sill-like intrusions because
in layers that reach a meter or more in thickness of changes in the magma flow dynamics; such
alternating with layers composed of other mag- dynamic systems appear to promote the inter-
matic minerals (Arndt and Ganino 2012). In some action of sulfide liquid with a sufficiently large
cases, the chromite deposit is not economic due to amount of silicate magma to concentrate chal-
the low grade of the mineralization or the low ton- cophile elements to economic levels». The ore
nage of chromite available for mining. metals nickel, copper, and the PGE are all chal-
Podiform chromite deposits, another impor- cophile and show a tendency to partition more or
tant source for chromite, are small magmatic less strongly into the sulfide. Nickel is lithophile
chromite mineralization originated in the ultra- as well as chalcophile, and in normal ultramafic
mafic part of an ophiolite complex in the oce- rocks, it is distributed between olivine and sulfide.
anic crust. Most podiform chromite deposits are Copper is moderately chalcophile, but the PGEs
located in dunite or peridotite close to the contact are enormously chalcophile. This means that any
of the cumulate and tectonite zones in ophiolites droplet of sulfide will extract most of the copper
(Mosier et  al. 2012). Accordingly, chromite that and nickel and effectively all of the PGE from the
occurs in podiform deposits has a geotectonic surrounding silicate liquid. In this sense, if the sul-
environment distinctly different from the model fide droplets can then be concentrated effectively,
in stratiform chromite deposits. In podiform for instance, by gravitational processes, then an
deposits, chromite shows different textures such ore deposit is formed (Arndt and Ganino 2012).
as massive aggregates and banded, nodular, net, Deposits of magmatic Ni-Cu sulfides occur
or graded layers, which indicate relict cumulate with mafic and/or ultramafic bodies emplaced
features. Nodular texture is probably the most in diverse geological settings. They generally are
important feature to distinguish podiform chro- found in penetrating faults, which permit the effi-
mite deposits from stratiform deposits. cient transport of magma undersaturated in sulfur
from the mantle to relatively shallow crustal depths.
Nickel (Copper) Deposits For this explanation, sulfur-bearing crustal rocks
These deposits are referred as magmatic sulfide-­ such as black shales, evaporites, or paragneisses
rich Ni-Cu ± PGE deposits related to mafic and/ are near to many deposits and a potential source of
or ultramafic dyke-sill complexes. The name of the sulfur. These deposits range in age from Archean
deposits emphasizes the relation of these Ni-Cu to Cenozoic, but the largest number of deposits
sulfide-rich deposits to mafic and ­ultramafic rocks are Archean and Paleoproterozoic. Although the
 92 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.34  Aguablanca mine (Spain), a gabbroid class sulfide-rich nickel-copper deposit (Image courtesy of Lundin
Mining Corporation)

deposits occur in most continents, the biggest ones and between 0.2% and 2% of copper. Tonnages
are located in Russia, China, Australia, Canada, and of individual deposits range from a few tens of
Southern Africa. The major Ni-Cu sulfide mineral- thousands to tens of millions of tons bulk ore.
ogy typically consists of an intergrowth of pyrrho- Two giant Ni-Cu districts, with ≥10 Mt nickel,
tite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite. In most cases, dominate world nickel sulfide resources and
the massive and matrix ore is zoned, with copper- production. These are the Sudbury district in
rich zones relatively enriched in gold, palladium, Ontario (Canada) where sulfide ore deposits are
and platinum. Those zones, as footwall dykes and at the lower margins of a meteorite impact-gen-
veins, either overlie or are separated from Cu-poor erated igneous complex and contain 19.8 Mt of
zones relatively enriched in osmium, iridium, nickel and the Noril’sk-Talnakh district in Siberia
ruthenium, and rhodium. The compositional (Russia) where the ore deposits are in subvolcanic
zonation is attributed to fractionation of mono- mafic intrusions and contain 23.1 Mt of nickel.
sulfide solid solution from a sulfide liquid. Cobalt, Three other Ni-Cu sulfide deposits in the world
PGE, and gold are extracted from most magmatic are also important: Voisey’s Bay in Newfoundland,
Ni-Cu ores as by-products, although such elements Kambalda in Australia, and Jinchuan in China.
can have a significant impact on the economics
in some deposits, the Noril’sk-Talnakh deposits PGE Deposits
being a good example, which produce much of the The concentration of PGE in terrestrial envi-
world’s palladium; in addition, these deposits may ronments ranges from sub-ppb level in rocks of
contain between 1 and 15% magnetite associated felsic and intermediate composition to generally
with the sulfides (Schulz et al. 2014). 1–100  ppb in mafic and ultramafic rocks. Eco-
The sulfide-rich Ni-Cu  ±  PGE deposits con- nomic deposits typically contain 5–10 ppm PGE
tain ore grades of between 0.5% and 3% of nickel and involve concentration factors in the order of
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
93 2
1000, similar to those for gold deposits. Anoma- is a group of thick chromite reefs that, in addi-
lous concentrations of PGE are known from tion to high PGE concentration, are also extracted
high-­temperature magmatic to low-temperature for their chromium contents (Arndt and Ganino
hydrothermal and sedimentary environments, 2012). There is no consensus regarding the origin
but significant concentrations of PGE are virtually of these types of PGE deposits: one line of think-
restricted to ultramafic rocks. Two types of depos- ing argues that these deposits formed through
its, both intimately associated with Ni-Cu sulfides, magmatic processes, whereas the opposing view
account for about 98% of the world’s identified ascribes an important role to the migration of
PGE resources: (a) stratabound deposits in large, volatile-rich fluids. Arndt and Ganino (2012) also
layered complexes (e.g., Bushveld, Stillwater, and said that: «in the first case, a plume of primitive
Great Dyke) mined primarily for PGE and (b) magmatic liquid was injected into the base of the
Ni-Cu sulfide deposits mined primarily for Ni-Cu chamber and then mixed with evolved liquid to
sulfides, but containing recoverable amounts produce a hybrid magma that became saturated
of PGE as by-products (e.g., Sudbury, Noril’sk-­ in sulfide. The other view propose that volatile-
Talnakh, Jinchuan, and Karnbalda deposits) rich fluids migrated up through the cumulus pile,
(Misra 2000). The large layered intrusions contain leaching out the PGE from the cumulus minerals
about 90% of the world’s PGE resources, with the then redepositing them at favorable horizons.»
Bushveld Complex accounting for about 80%.
In general, the deposits generally occur as Diamond Deposits
sparsely dispersed sulfide minerals in basal units Diamonds form under extreme high pressures and
or stratabound layers or reefs in very large- to temperatures at depths greater than 150 km below
medium-sized, typically layered mafic and/or the surface, predominantly though not exclu-
ultramafic intrusions. In the Bushveld Complex, sively, in the Earth’s lithospheric upper mantle.
there are in the lower part important deposits of They are transported into the crust either rapidly
the platinum group elements mainly at two specific in explosively emplaced volatile-rich kimberlite,
horizons. The upper layer is the Merensky Reef, a lamproite, or related magmas or more slowly by
thin (1–10 m) layer of pegmatoid pyroxenite. The tectonic processes in rocks that have undergone
second principal mineralized layer, termed UG2, ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism (. Fig.  2.35).
 

Mobile belt Ancient craton Mobile belt

kimberlite lamproite

Archaean
crust
50
Lithosphere Peridotitic Eclogite
diamond block Eclogitic
diamond
Approx.depth (km)

100 Eclogitic Eclogitic

150

te
hi d
r ap on
200 G am
Di
Asthenosphere

..      Fig. 2.35  Origin of diamonds (Illustration courtesy of De Beers)

 94 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

Diamond ore deposits are confined to a minority the measurement of weight in diamonds (1 carat
of the volcanic sources and to secondary depos- equals 0.2  g). The value of the diamonds can be
its derived from them (Gurney et al. 2010). Since very variable depending on its size, shape, color,
2 diamonds only form beneath old, stable, and thick and quality. Large, equidimensional, colorless, and
parts of the Earth’s crust, this greatly restricts the clear diamonds without defects are most highly
global distribution of primary deposits. valued. Therefore, the common measure used to
Although diamond deposits are often very low assess the economic potential of a deposit is a com-
grade, the value of the individual diamonds makes bination of the grade of the deposit (carats per ton)
the overall deposit highly valuable. Thus, diamond and the dollar value per carat of the diamonds in
deposits represent some of the highest value mines the deposit (Stevens 2010). Diamond in kimberlite
globally. Grade values in diamond deposits com- is probably the best-known type of magmatic min-
monly range from 0.25 to 1.5 carats/t, carat being eral deposit (. Box 2.7: Diamond in Kimberlite).
 

 Box 2.7

Diamond in Kimberlite
Diamond is one of the most mond producer in the world for 50 carry significant quantities of
sought-after gemstones on Earth. the next 90 years. diamonds. Of these, many are
They are formed mainly in the A variety of mantle-derived considered subeconomic either
Earth’s lithosphere where pressure igneous rocks comprise the primary because the quantity or quality of
conditions are appropriate for car- sources of diamond, with the princi- the diamonds or the quantity of
bon to crystallize as diamond, and pal hosts being kimberlite and lam- ore is insufficient. The presence and
they are brought to the surface, proite. Kimberlite is a special type quality of diamonds in a kimberlite
mostly through the eruption of of ultramafic magma and derived can only be determined with
alkaline igneous rocks. Following from the Earth’s mantle at more confidence by the collection and
the discovery of diamonds in river than 140 km depth. Lamproite, a processing of a large and represen-
deposits in central South Africa rock type similar to kimberlite, can tative sample.
in the mid-nineteenth century, it also contain commercial diamond The typical diamond deposit is
was at Kimberley where the vol- deposits. All kimberlite-hosted pipe- or carrot-shaped with a cir-
canic origin of diamonds was first diamond mines which exist in the cular surface diameter of 50–500 m
recognized. These volcanic rocks, world, like in south-central and and a depth extent of several
that were named «kimberlite,» Southern Africa, western Africa, hundred to one thousand meters
were to become the cornerstone Canada, China, Russia, and the USA, or more. The distribution of the
of the economic and industrial are located in Archean continental diamond xenocrysts is variable in
development of Southern Africa. blocks. They are virtually restricted the whole host rocks, and the con-
Thus, the name of the rock comes to ancient (>2.4 Ga) cratons and centration has a level of less than
from the town of Kimberley in the younger (>1.0 Ga) accreted 0.01–2.0 ppm. Strictly speaking,
South Africa, where the discovery belts of cratonized regions that are diamonds in kimberlites are not
of a diamond called «the Star of underlain by cratons (the ages of truly magmatic. Kimberlite magma
South Africa» in 1869 spawned a kimberlites range from Proterozoic is merely a vehicle that transports
diamond rush and creating the to Tertiary). Diamonds in economic the diamonds rapidly to the sur-
Big Hole (. Fig. 2.36). It is claimed
  deposits are estimated to be mainly face under conditions that prevent
to be the largest hole excavated (99%) derived from subcontinental them from reverting to graphite,
by hand. Early mining of the kim- lithospheric mantle (Gurney et al. their unattractive low-pressure
berlites around Kimberley was a 2010). In both kimberlites and polymorph. Diamonds remain hid-
chaotic business with many claim lamproites, diamonds range in den, unless they are picked up by
holders digging small individual size from microcrystals smaller «younger» kimberlites, lamproites,
claims of 10 by 10 m. Later, as than 50 microns to macrocrystals or other magmatic rocks origi-
mining reached deeper levels occasionally over l cm in size. It is nated either within or below the
and became more difficult, claims important to remember that most mantle source region and intrud-
were consolidated into numer- kimberlites and lamproites contain ing fast enough for the diamonds
ous companies. In 1888 De Beers no diamonds. In fact, diamonds are to survive transport to the surface
Consolidated Mining Company a very minor xenocryst component or near-surface emplacement site.
was created, and this company (<5 ppm) in even the richest ore Probably, kimberlites move to the
consolidated all mining opera- bodies. Of the approximately 1000 surface through the mantle at
tions under the one company, individual kimberlite intrusions velocities of 10–30 km/h by crack
thereby creating the leading dia- known in South Africa, only about propagation processes.
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
95 2

..      Fig. 2.36  Kimberley mine in South Africa (The Big Hole) (Image courtesy of De Beers)

The famous diamond deposits at India and k­ imberlites of Africa (Angola, Botswana, Leso-
Borneo were the only diamond producers until tho, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland,
the eighteenth century. Some big and famous dia- Tanzania); the diamond deposits in Australia
monds such as Koh-i-Noor or the Great Mogul (Western Australia); and the kimberlite pipes in
Diamond were obtained from these countries. Canada (NWT). Secondary diamond deposits
Several decades ago, almost all diamond mines such as placer deposits are formed from these
were located in Southern Africa, but large and primary source kimberlite rocks by weathering
important deposits have been found and mined and transportation. The resulting deposits are
in Russia, Australia, and Canada. Examples of commonly very rich in high-quality diamonds.
these deposits are the Mir pipe in Yakutia (Rus- Examples include those of the Ural Mountains,
sia), perhaps the most diamond-bearing kim- the marine deposits of Namibia, and the alluvial
berlite pipe in the world, which contains only deposits of West Africa, Brazil, and Venezuela.
one part of diamond per every one and half mil- These deposits have supplied about 90% of the
lion parts of kimberlite; the d­ iamond-bearing world’s diamond output.
 96 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology

..      Fig. 2.37  Lithium peg-

matites (Salamanca) (Image
courtesy of Carlos Villaseca)

Pegmatite Deposits Pegmatites may host many useful raw materi-

Another type of magmatic ore deposit is found als: ores of Be, Li (. Fig. 2.37), Rb, Cs, Ta > Nb, U,
 

in pegmatites. In these rocks, metals like lithium, Th, REE, Mo, Bi, Sn, and W; the industrial min-
beryllium, boron, tin, niobium, thallium, and the erals muscovite, feldspar, kaolin, quartz, spodu-
rare earth elements are mined. Pegmatites are mene, fluorite, and gemstones; as well as rare
formed by the crystallization of melts expelled mineral specimens (emerald, topaz, tourmaline,
from granitic magmas. Pegmatitic rocks are very ruby, etc.) (Linnen et al. 2012), the complex-type
coarse-grained basement rocks abundant in pegmatites of the lithium-cesium-thallium (LCT)
quartz, feldspar, and/or mica, in places endowed family being an important class of rare-element
either with megacrystals of the aforementioned pegmatites. The NYF pegmatites are a different
rock-forming minerals or rare-element minerals. family of pegmatites and are enriched in niobium,
«Apart from the size of their crystals, it is the var- yttrium, and fluoride. Their current economic
ied spectrum of rare elements and the significant importance is much less than that of the LCT
number of extraordinary minerals resultant from family, but these pegmatites could be a source in
these elements, which renders these crystalline the future for rare earth elements and other stra-
rocks so different from granitic rocks» (Dill 2015). tegic metals.
Most pegmatites show a paragenesis of ortho- Pegmatites of the LCT family were emplaced
clase, microcline, albite, mica, quartz, and com- in orogenic hinterlands intruding metasedimen-
mon minor minerals including topaz, tourmaline, tary rocks, typically at low-pressure amphibolite
cassiterite, beryl, and lithium. Granite pegmatites to upper greenschist facies, the largest deposits
occur in the form of dikes, oval, and lenticular being Archean in age. Giant deposits of these
bodies, being homogeneous (without a change pegmatites include Tanco in Canada (2.1 Mt at
of mineralogy or texture from wall to wall) and 0.215% Ta2O5), Greenbushes in Australia (70.4
isotropic or strikingly inhomogeneous and aniso- Mt at 2.6% Li2O), and Bikita in Zimbabwe (12 Mt
tropic (zoned or complex pegmatites). Most peg- at 1.4% Li2O) (Bradley and McCauley 2013). On
matite bodies are relatively small with a thickness the other hand, NYF pegmatites are also some-
that rarely surpass tens of meters and a length times REE-enriched pegmatites. Traditionally,
of a few hundred meters (Pohl 2011), but with the vast majority of this kind of pegmatites has
increasing industrial request for high-technology been exploited for their major mineral con-
metals such as lithium and the rare earth elements tent: feldspar, quartz, and muscovite. Studies of
(Arndt and Ganino 2012). REE-­ enriched granitic pegmatites as a whole
 2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits