2018 Lecture Notes for

Engineering 5003 – Ship Structures I

CLAUDE DALEY, Professor, [Link]., FEC, FSNAME, FCAE, [Link].
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCE
MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY
ST. JOHN’S, CANADA
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Table of Contents

Topic 1: Introduction to Ship Structures ............................................................................................ 1

Topic 2: Approaching Ship Structural Design ................................................................................. 18
Topic 3: Longitudinal Strength: Buoyancy & Weight ....................................................................... 29
Topic 4: Longitudinal Strength: Murray’s Method............................................................................ 40
Topic 5: Longitudinal Strength: Wave Bending Moments ............................................................... 48
Topic 6: Longitudinal Strength: Inclined Bending / Section Modulus .............................................. 54
Topic 7: Beam Theory .................................................................................................................... 62
Topic 8: Solving Beam Equations ................................................................................................... 75
Topic 9: Indeterminate Beams – Force Method .............................................................................. 89
Topic 10: Indeterminate Beams – Displacement Method ............................................................. 100
Topic 11: Solving Beam Problems using Superposition ............................................................... 110
Topic 12: The Moment Distribution Method .................................................................................. 114
Topic 13: The Moment Distribution Method with Sway ................................................................. 128
Topic 14: Matrix Structural Analysis.............................................................................................. 135
Topic 15: Overview of Finite Element Theory ............................................................................... 148
Topic 16: Hull Girder Shear Stresses ........................................................................................... 160
Topic 17: Shear Stresses in multi-cell sections ............................................................................ 168
Topic 18: Shear Flow in adjacent Closed Cells ............................................................................ 181
Topic 19: Torsion in ships ............................................................................................................. 183
Topic 20: Shear Center and Shear Lag in Ship Structures ........................................................... 191
Topic 21: Plate Bending................................................................................................................ 200
References ................................................................................................................................... 213
Appendix 1 – Angle Formulas ....................................................................................................... 214
Appendix 2 –Areas and Moments ................................................................................................. 215
Appendix 3 – Fixed End Moments ................................................................................................ 216
Appendix 4 – Beam Formulas ...................................................................................................... 217
Appendix 5 – Moment Distribution ................................................................................................ 222
Appendix 6 – Hooke’s Law, Mohr’s Circle and von-Mises ............................................................ 223
Appendix 7 - Energy Methods in Structural Analysis .................................................................... 233

Note: all images, sketches and photo's are © C. Daley unless otherwise indicated.

Changes from 2017 edition:

• Updated Topic 1 – with ship structural features included
• Updated Topic 2 – new discussion of approach to structural design
• New Topic 11 – discussion of use of tables and superposition
• New beam tables in Appendix 4
• Energy Methods moved to Appendix 7

Cover image by C. Daley using Sketchup

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Topic 1: Introduction to Ship Structures

The course is intended to develop the student’s knowledge of ship structures. The
focus is on various types of intact structural behavior, building upon concepts from
mechanics of materials and statics. The follow-on course (6003) will move from the
consideration of intact behavior to the mechanics of structural failure.

There are many types of structures. The definition of the word structure (Webster’s)
is;
structure
1. manner of building, constructing, or organizing
2. something built or constructed, as a building or dam
3. the arrangement or interrelation of all the parts of a whole; manner of organization or
construction: the structure of the atom, the structure of society
4. something composed of interrelated parts forming an organism or an organization

Here is an example of some parts of a ship structure:

Web Frame under Deck

There are many types of structures, some built by nature, some built by people.
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Tintern Abby (Wexford) stone/wood Franjo Tudjman Bridge (Croatia) concrete/wire

A ship structure is quite a distinct type of structure, especially in the arrangement of

components, but also in the many unique constraints and regulatory context that
influence ship structural design. This course will focus on the technical elements of
structural design and analysis. However, students are encouraged to think about the
wider social, economic and political issues that influence ship structures.

Guesstimation: One of the aims of the course is for the students to develop the
ability to make an educated guess. Such guesses are not wild or random. Educated
guesses are based on sound reasoning, careful approximation and simplification of
the problem. In most cases the 'guess' starts by forming an idea of the problem in its
essential form, or in 'bounding' forms. Basic laws of mechanics are considered to
determine what fundamental principle might govern the outcome. Most problems
are governed by simple conservation laws, such as of forces, moments, momentum
and/or energy. The ability to make quick assessments is the mark of an expert and is
a crucial skill to avoid costly and dangerous mistakes. Such guesses never remove
the need for detailed calculations, but they do improve the quality and efficiency of
the engineering.

A related aim of the course is for the students to develop the ability to sketch a
problem, by hand and clearly. Sketching is a form of symbolic communication, no
less valuable than the alphabet or algebra. A sketch is a kind of ‘construction’ and
serves as a model to examine ideas and develop concepts.

hand drawn sketch

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Background
Humans have been constructing structures for a long time. A structure is a tool for
carrying and protecting. Ship structures have evolved like all other types of
structures (buildings, aircraft, bridges ...). Design was once purely a craft. Design is
evolving as we understand more about the structure itself and the environment that
we subject it to.

Traditional Design
• built by tradition (prior example)
• changes based primarily on experience (some analysis)
• essentially a builders “craft”
• quality assurance (QA) by proof test and use

Gondolas in Venice

Engineering Design
• incorporates analysis based on math/physics
• common designs are codified (building code, class rules..)
• new designs should follow the “Engineering Method”
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Eiffel Tower under construction (public domain - Wikipedia)

Design, analysis, construction and regulation are separate specialties. Design

practice is evolving: In the 1950 tabulated requirements were found in Class Rules.
By the 70s all codes had changed to include prescriptive algebra. New trends are
towards "LRFD - load and resistance factored design", "risk based design" and "goal
based design". Current practice in large (novel) projects make extensive use of
"scenario based" design, with HAZIDs (hazard identification and mitigation).

The future of design will be "design by simulation" in which the many interacting
process and systems will be simulated numerically. In some ways this will represent
a return to the idea of proving a design by a "proof test", except it will be a numerical
proof test and will simulate the life of the design.

Purpose of Ship Structures

The structure of a ship or ocean platform has 3 principal functions:
• Strength (resist weight, environmental forces – waves + )
• Stiffness (resist deflections – allow ship/equipment to function)
• Water tight integrity (stay floating)
•
There are two other important functions
• provide subdivision (tolerance to damage of 1,3 above)
• support payloads

These functions are all interrelated, but should be considered somewhat separately.
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Warship (public domain - Wikipedia)

Bulk Carrier FLARE (from TSB report)

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Shipbreaking on the beach at Chittagong

(Naquib Hossain - Wikipedia)

Structural Arrangement
The particular arrangement of the structure is done to suit a variety of demands;
• Hull is shaped (reduce resistance, reduce motions, reduce ice forces, increase
ice forces, reduce noise)
• holds are arranged for holding/loading cargo
• holds are arranged for holding/installing engines
• superstructure is arranged for accommodation/navigation
• all structure is arranged for build-ability/maintainability
• all structure is arranged for safety
• all structure is arranged for low cost

Future remotely operated ship Modern cruise ship

([Link]) ([Link])

Ships are a class of structures called "semi-monocoque". In a pure monocoque, all

the strength comes from the outer shell ("coque" in french). To contrast, in "skin-on-
frame" construction, the loads are all borne by a structure of framing under the skin.
In ships, the skin is structurally integral with the framing which supports it, with
the skin providing a substantial portion of the overall strength.
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pure framework semi-monocoque pure monocoque

Load Types
We will define four general types of structural loads.
Static Loads (e.g. fixed weights)
Low Frequency Dynamic Loads (e.g. quasi static load, wave loads)
High Frequency Dynamic Loads (e.g. vibrations)
Impact Loads (e.g., blast, collisions)

With both static and quasi-static loads, we do not need to take inertial or rate effects
into account in the structural response. With high frequency loads we need to
consider structural vibrations which includes inertial effects and damping. For
impact loads, we have both transient inertial effects and rate effects in material
behavior. It is important to distinguish between loads affecting vessel rigid body
motions and elastic structural response. Wave forces may cause the vessel as a whole
to respond with inertial effects (heaving motions), but will seldom cause anything
but quasi-static response of the structure. The important determinant is the relative
frequency of the load and response. Local structure will respond elastically at
frequencies in the 100hz to 3000hz range. The hull girder will flex at around the 1 hz
rate. The vessel will heave and roll at around the 0.1 hz range. (large
vessels/structures will respond more slowly).
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launch of MEXOIL, by John N. Teunisson, 14 February 1918 (wikipedia)

In this course we will examine the structural response to quasi-static loads. The hull
girder is sized to resist the combination of self weights and wave forces.

Types of Structural Work

Ship structural specialists are involved in a variety of work;
• Design
• Analysis
• Construction
• Maintenance
• Repair
• Regulation

While almost all Naval Architects get involved in some structural issues, a few focus
on the area and tend to be involved in more advanced issues. This course aims to
have you develop your ‘feel’ as well as your knowledge of structures. In other words,
you should work at developing you “Engineering Judgment” in the area of ship
structures.

Ship Structural Photos

Terra Nova FPSO – Floating Production, Storage and Offloading vessel

(from wikipedia)
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Terra Nova Hull FramingTerra Nova Structural Connection Details

Terra Nova Stringer with web stiffener bracket

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Terra Nova Stringer with web stiffener bracket

Terra Nova Longitudinal angle frames

Transverse flat bar frames through stringer

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Terra Nova flat bar frames

Terra Nova Flare tower

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Terry Fox – Icebreaker

Bow framing in Terry Fox (photo by R. Frederking)

The Terry Fox is ~7000 tons displacement and capable of ramming thick old ice. It
has never been damaged.
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Bow of Supply Boat

Reduta Ordona (Photo credit: Andrew Kendrick).

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Local ice damage

CPF superstructure plating

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Ship Structural Features

Boats are made from a variety of materials, including wood, fiberglass,
composites, aluminum, steel and cement. Ships are built mainly from steel. In this
section we will name and discuss the main structural features of steel ships. Ships
are much longer than they are wide or deep. They are built this way to minimize
resistance (fuel consumption), and yet maintain adequate stability and
seaworthiness. This geometry results in the ship being a girder (a beam built from
compound parts). The figures below show sketches of the structural details of the
midship section of a bulk carrier.

This type of vessel is very common, and has many problems. Single side shell
vessels are being replaced with double hull vessels. The FLARE had this type of
construction. 3d sketches of this type of ship is shown below.
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(from Hughes)
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Topic 1: Problems
1.1 What is the difference between “low frequency dynamic” and “high frequency
dynamic” loads? Give examples.

1.2 Describe the types of loads that you would be concerned with during the launch
of a vessel on a slipway.

1.3 What does LRFD mean?

1.4 What are the key differences between the study of ‘strength of materials’ and the
study of ‘structures’.

1.5 List 5 purposes of structure in a ship.

1.6 When is a load considered to be quasi-static?

1.7 Sketch a X-section of a ship at mid-ships and label all features/elements.

1.8 This sketch of the structure in the double bottom/double side of a ship was made
in Rhino.
- Label the elements.
- how many different dimensional variables would be required to fully describe
this structure?
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Topic 2: Approaching Ship Structural Design

Prefabricated module blocks of HMS Dauntless at BAE's Portsmouth Shipyard. (Wikipedia, Public Domain)

Introduction
In this Chapter we will
Discuss the idea of Engineering.
Describe the general nature and hierarchy of ship structures.
Discuss the way to approach the problem of structural design.
~~~~~~

Design and Assessment in Engineering

Engineering is sometimes defined as applied science. It is sometimes referred to as a
branch of science concerned with the design, building and use of <engineered stuff>.
This definition overemphasizes the scientific aspect of engineering. Science is
certainly important, as is mathematics. Science and math provide engineers with a
rational basis and constraints to solve engineering problems. However, Engineering
is not a science, in the sense that some known, single, true answer exists. Math tells
us that 2 + 2 = 4 and only 4 and always 4. Science tells us that an object subject to a
net force will accelerate at a constant rate proportional to the force and inversely
proportional to the mass. In other words: F = m a, or a = F / m .
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Science is both a methodology to create rigorous knowledge and that body of

knowledge. Math is a special branch science, concerned with numbers, quantities,
shapes and the relationships among them.

A simple outline of the ‘scientific method’ is shown below. One could spend a lifetime
studying science, as a philosophy and an approach to knowledge. A simple, yet
reasonably accurate, description of science would say that scientific knowledge is
meant to be based on observation. We should believe our senses, and our beliefs
should be objectively verifiable by observation. If we believe that objects fall with a
constant acceleration, we should be able to confirm this belief with a careful
observation. While science is changing, and will continue to change, science seeks to
know things that do not change - those truths that can be thought of as ‘laws of
nature’. Beliefs than cannot be objectively verified are not (yet) science, but may be
reasonable hypotheses

Engineering is not primarily focused on knowing. Engineering is focused on making

devices, structures and systems of practical value. And just as there are many people
who gain knowledge who are not scientists, there are many people who make things
that are not Engineers. Engineering, in its modern meaning, has developed into a
profession, meaning that there are professional standards covering the training and
practice of Engineers. A professional engineer must know and use science and math,
just as a professional lawyer uses language and logic in the practice of Law. But we
would no more say that Engineering is a branch of Science than we would say Law is
a branch of English or logic.
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As Engineers work towards making things, their professional standards require the
highest care be taken to ensure that their designs and devices are as safe and
effective as possible. Most engineering problems can be only partially solved
precisely with scientific and mathematical knowledge. Unfortunately, science and
math alone do not ensure an Engineer can produce products with absolute safety
and effectiveness. Almost all the problems that Engineers deal with contain aspects
that can not be solved absolutely. It is then that the Engineering method comes into
play. The Engineering method is a strategy for solving problems where complexity
and uncertainly prevent there being a ‘correct’ answer. In such circumstances, the
proper approach is to explore multiple solutions, and to use multiple means of
assessment to produce an answer that ‘as good as reasonably possible and
practicable’. It’s not a question of finding the one correct answer. It more about
avoiding the many wrong answers. There is no ‘law’ that will ever tell us what the
best ship structure is any more than there is a law describing the best pie recipe.

Engineering is really about offering the best advice in circumstances where many
things are known but many are not. Decisions and risks must be taking carefully
and rationally.
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Structural Behavior
Ship structural behavior, as with all structural behavior, may look complicated, but
is essentially simple because it is a combination of simple behaviors. Structures are
an assemblage of parts. This distinguishes them from objects. A beam or plate is a
structural element, but only a collection of structural elements is called a structure.
The theory of structures builds upon the field of ‘mechanics of materials’ (also called
mechanics of solids, or strength of materials), by considering the interactions and
combined behaviors of collections of structural components. So, much of this course
will focus on techniques for understanding collections of structural elements. We will
also review and expand, somewhat, on the mechanics of individual elements.
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Levels of Structure

As a structure, a ship is an assemblage of components. At the largest scale a ship is a

simple beam, carrying weight and supported by buoyancy. The behavior or the
whole ship as a single beam is referred to as the behavior of the primary structure.

The hull girder is referred to as the primary structure. The strength and stiffness of
the hull girder depend on the properties of the cross sections of the ship. The key
section is the midship section.
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Within the hull, as integral components of the hull, are large structural components
that are themselves made of individual structural members, and yet act as
individual systems. These are called secondary structures. For example, the whole
double bottom, between bulkheads, is a unit that acts as a sandwich panel, behaving
somewhat like a plate.

Locally a ship is comprised of frames and plate. These are called tertiary structures.
The tertiary structure are individual structural members.

Structural Design

The process of ship structural design varies depending on the specific issues.
Structural design occurs after the mission is set and a general arrangement is
determined. The general arrangement allows us to determine both the
environmental loads and the distribution of hull/outfit/cargo weights. The
establishment of scantlings (structural dimensions) is iterative. We assume that a
preliminary set of dimensions is settled upon from experience or by other choice. The
loads will cause a set of responses (stresses, deflections). The response criteria are
then compared to the responses. For any inadequacies we modify the structural
dimensions and repeat the response analysis. When all responses are satisfactory,
we are finished.

In cases where we must satisfy additional constraints (cost, performance..) we add

checks for these items after we have checked the structural response. Again, we loop
until we have met the constraints, and reached optimal values for some measure.
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The sketch of the process below has been slightly modified to show that there are
multiple loads, multiple components and multiple criteria. It is this expansion of the
problem to causes design to change from a trivial ‘look-up’ process to a challenging
exercise of exploring possible options.

As stated above, the structural design can only occur after the overall vessel concept
and arrangement is set, which is done during the preliminary design stage. The
structural design itself is a process that is comparable to the overall design. Just as
the vessels has a mission and a concept to satisfy that mission, so too does the
structure have a mission and concept to satisfy the mission. Prior to deciding on the
structural sizes (scantlings), the designer must decide on the overall structural
concept and arrangement. In rule based design (Classification Society rules), the
loads and response criteria have been combined into standard scantling
requirements formulae. The user can use these formulae to determine minimum
dimensions for members and components. There can then be the need to check
additional criteria (e.g buckling, alternate loads). When this is complete the user has
a complete structural design, but not yet a final detailed design. The final structural
drawings also include detailed design features (e.g. bracket and weld specifications).
The image following is illustrative of a structural drawing of a transverse bulkhead
on an FPSO.
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Example for illustration of a structural blueprint of an FPSO bulkhead.

All the various parts and levels of a ship structure interact. Ships are "all-welded"
structures, meaning that it is all one single, complex, solid elastic body. The main
thing that structures (and all parts of structures) do is “push back”. i.e. across any
interface (across every patch of every plane, everywhere in the universe, always!) the
force acts in both ways. This powerful idea is the key to understanding what
happens in a structure.

Newton's 3rd Law:

action = reaction

Forces (and moments) always sum to zero, whether at a point, or on any body or
partial body.
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Structural Design Thinking

This course is mainly about structural analysis, because analysis is useful in itself,
and is crucial to design. All design requires evaluation of the performance of the
design. Analysis allows that evaluation. But of course design is more than analysis.
Design can involve factors that are difficult or impossible to formally quantify.
Emotion and aesthetics often come in. However, for this course we will be exploring
only strictly quantifiable factors of design.

Even in cases where the design challenge has a single ‘best’ answer, it can be
difficult to find. In more realistic cases, there are multiple best answers, because
there are multiple non-interchangeable goals that we wish to optimize. Lets start
with an example that begins to illustrate the issue.

We are trying to find a value of ‘y’ that is based on the following information:
𝑥2
• A constraint: 𝑦 > 12 − 17 {𝑥 > 0}
• A relationship: 𝑦 = 𝑥 .7434 {𝑥 > 0}
10
• A parameter: 𝑚 = 𝑥 {𝑥 > 0}

The problem is to find a value of x and y that satisfies the relationship and
constraint and minimizes the value of the parameter. How would you go about this
challenge?
The answer is x=17.451 and y=8.379. The solution is shown visually below. The
constraint is shown as an allowable region (in green). All values of the relationship
(orange line) that are inside the green region are allowed, but we want the one that
has the minimum value of the parameter. That value is (in this case) where the
orange line crosses the constraint boundary. It is quite common that optimal values
are on the boundaries of constraints. Assuming that this might be the case can help
you solve the problem quicker.
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Let’s make a small change to the problem. Find a value of ‘y’ for the following
information:
𝑥2
• A constraint: 𝑦 > 12 − 17 {𝑥 > 0}
• A relationship: 𝑦 = 𝑥 .7434 {𝑥 > 0}
10 𝑥
• A parameter: 𝑚 = 𝑥 + 10 {𝑥 > 0}
In this case the minimum value of m corresponds to values of x and y inside the
constraint domain at x=10, y=5.539.

Dealing with multiple relationships, multiple constraints and even multiple

parameters to optimize can create a very challenging situation. But real design gets
even more challenging. The examples above have all relationships, constraints and
parameters in 2D space. This would get much harder in 3D space. But you could still
picture it graphically. But what about 7 dimensional space? This is not a joke.
Design involves many independent continuous and discrete parameters, which really
do constitute a high order space, which could be 5, 10 or ever 20 dimensional.

Luckily it is possible to find acceptable answers in such situations, even though

perfect may be unattainable. As we go through the course, the idea of what a
relationship, a constraint or a parameter is, in structural terms, will become clearer.
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Topic 2: Problems
2.1 Sketch a X-section of a ship at mid-ships and label all features/elements.

2.2 Sketch, free hand, the structure in the double bottom of a ship. Keep it neat and
label the elements

2.3 Discuss the difference between mechanics of materials and structural design.

2.4 Find x,y for minimum m.

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Topic 3: Longitudinal Strength: Buoyancy & Weight

the Iron Bridge

Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss still water bending moments, Bonjean curves,
Prohaska’s method to preliminarily estimate weight distributions.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Overview
Structural design starts from:

Principal Dimensions - L,B,T

Hull Form - CB, CWP, CM
General Arrangement – decks and bulkheads

Which is called preliminary design:

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The first strength consideration is the longitudinal strength of the hull girder. The
hull girder feels vertical forces due to weight and buoyancy. For any floating body the
total weight must equal the total buoyancy, and both forces must act along the same
line of action. However, at each location along the ship, the weight will not normally
equal the buoyancy.

The weights are set by the combination of lightship and cargo weights. The locations
of the weights are fixed (more or less). The buoyancy forces are determined by the
shape of the hull and the location of the vessel in the water (draft and trim). The net
buoyancy will adjust itself until is exactly counteracts the net weight force. However,
this does not mean that each part of the vessel has a balance of weight and buoyancy.
Local segments of the vessel may have more or less weight than the local buoyancy.
The difference will be made up by a transfer of shear forces along the vessel.

Bending Moment Calculations

The ‘design’ bending moment is the combination of Stillwater bending and wave
bending. To calculate these values we will make the following assumptions;
• Ship is a beam
• Small deflection theory
• Response is quasi-static
• Lateral loading can be superimposed
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Still Water Bending Moment (SWBM)

The still water bending moment is calculated from the effect of the weights and
buoyancy in calm water. The buoyancy force is a line load (e.g. kN/m). The local
buoyancy per meter is found from the x-sectional area of the hull at each location.
The x-sectional area depends on the local draft and are found from the ‘bonjean’
curves.

Bonjean Curves – Calculating the Buoyancy Distribution

Bonjean curves show the relationship between local draft and submerged cross-
sectional area. There is one bonjean curve for each station. There are typically 21
stations from the FP to the AP, with 0 being the FP. This divides the Lbp into 20
segments.
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At each station we can draw a bonjean curve of the x-section area;

Bonjeans are drawn on the profile of the vessel. With these curves, we can find the
distribution of buoyancy for any waterline (any draft, any trim).

For hydrostatic calculations we need to know the distribution of buoyancy along the
ship. We need to be able to find this for every possible draft/trim. If we had a wall
sided vessel, it would be relatively easy to solve for the draft/trim (as in Assignment
#1). With shaped hulls, there is a non-linear relationship between buoyancy and
position. We use bonjean curves to find the buoyancies as follows.

For the typical 21 station ship, we divide the ship into 21 slices, each extending fore
and aft of its station. Using the bonjean curve for each station we calculate the total
displacement at our draft/trim;

20
𝐿𝐵𝑃
∇= ∑ (𝑎𝑖 (Ti ) ∗ ) [m3 ]
20
𝑖=0
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For example, the displacement for station 3 is;

L BP
3  A 3  [m3]
20

The buoyant line load for station 3 is;

 3  3    g [N/m]

(assuming that area is in m2, g=9.81 m/s2 and  = 1025 kg/m3)

The above will provide a way of calculating the buoyant forces at each station. We
will now discuss the weights.

Calculating the Weight Distribution

We will discuss three methods for determining weighs.

If the weight distribution is known (even preliminarily), we use them directly. The
steps to follow are;
• Calculate the weight at each station (+- half station)
• (optionally) find the c.g. of weights for each segment
• (optionally) place the weights at the c.g.
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If the weight distribution is unknown and we need to estimate the distribution, we

can use the Prohaska method. Prohaska proposed a method for a ship with parallel
middle body (i.e. most cargo vessels). The weight distribution is a trapezoid on top of
a uniform distribution, as follows;

The weights are distributed according to the pattern above. With the average
Whull
weight/meter of the hull : W  the values of a and b are ;
L

a b
W W
Tankers .75 1.125
Full Cargo Ships .55 1.225
Fine Cargo Ships .45 1.275
Large Passenger Ships .30 1.35
Note that the values of a and b are related, so that the average is W . This gives
b a
 1.5 
W 2W

To move the position of the center of weight (the lcg) the fore and aft ends of the load
diagram are adjusted by equal (and opposite) amounts.
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7 lcg 54
lcg  x  L2 or, x
54 L2 7

If the weight distribution is unknown and we have a vessel without a parallel middle
body (i.e. most sail yachts), we need a smoother distribution. The method below uses
a parabolic distribution on top of a uniform distribution. The two parts each have half
the weight.

The equation for the weight is;

W 3 2x
W  W (1  (  1) 2 )
2 4 L

To shift the total center of weight by ‘x’ we shift the c.g. of the parabola by 2x. This is
done by ‘shearing’ the curve, so that the top center, ‘D’, shifts by 5x. All other points
shift proportionally.
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Topic 3: Problems
3.1 For the three station profiles shown below, draw the bonjean curves in the space provided.

3.2 For a vessel with 4 stations, the bonjean curves are given at the 3 half stations. Lbp is 60m.
for the vessel to float level (no trim), at a 4.5 m draft, where is the C.G.? (Ans: )
What would the Prohaska distribution of weight be to achieve this? (plot)
If the C.G is at midships, and the draft (at midships) is 4.5 m, what is the trim? (Ans:
)
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3.3 For the vessel body plan shown below (left), sketch the corresponding bonjean curves (on the
right).

3.4 For the bonjean shown below (right), sketch the corresponding vessel body plan curve (on the
left).
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3.5 Bonjean Curves The following figure shows 5 potential Bonjean curves. Some of them are
impossible. Identify the curves that can not be Bonjean curves and explain why. For the feasible
Bonjeans, sketch the x-section that the Bonjean describes.

3.6 For the two ship stations shown below, sketch the corresponding bonjean curves on the grid
below.

20 m 20 m

12 m

145 m2
(a) (b)

12
10
z [m] 8
6
4
2
0
0 50 100 150 200
Area [m2]
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3.7 You are supervising a preliminary ship design project. You have asked one of your team to
produce a net load (weight-buoyancy) diagram, so that bending moments can be calculated. The
diagram you are given is ;

Net Load Curve

20

-20
AP ¼ ¾ FP

why is this diagram impossible? Justify your answer. (hint: use SFD and/or BMD)

3.8 For the three station profiles shown below, sketch the corresponding bonjean curves
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Topic 4: Longitudinal Strength: Murray’s Method

Battleship TEXAS

Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss Murray’s Method to estimate still water bending
moments
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Murray’s Method
Murray’s method is based on the idea that forces and moments in a ship are self-
balancing (no net force or moment is transferred to the world). Any set of weight and
buoyancy forces are in balance.

Also, for any cut at x, the moment at the cut can be determined in two ways;
BM ( x)  y1 L1  y 2 L2

 y5 L5  y3 L3  y 4 L4
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Murray applied this idea to a ship:

where
ff,fa are the distances from the to the centers of weight (fore and aft)
gf,ga are the distances from the to the centers of buoyancy (fore and aft)

The bending moment at midships is;

 Wa f a   a g a
or
Wf f f   f g f

These are two ‘estimates’ of the maximum bending moment. We can combine the two,
and increase our accuracy, by taking the average of the two;


1
Wa f a  W f f f   1  a g a   f g f 
2 2
 BM W  BM B
weight - buoyancy
To find the buoyancy part, Murray suggested

BM B 
1
 a g a   f g f   1   x
2 2
where x = average moment arm

Murray suggested a set of values for x , as a function of the ship length, block
coefficient and the ratio of draft to length;

x  L(a  CB  b)
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where

T/L a b
.03 .209 .03
.04 .199 .041
.05 .189 .052
.06 .179 .063

This table for a and b can be represented adequately by the equation;

a = 0.239 – T/L
b = 1.1 T/L – 0.003

Example using Murray’s Method

Ship: Tanker L=278m, B=37m, CB=0.8

Assume wave bending moment is;

WBMsag = 583800 t-m
WBMhog = 520440 t-m

The vessel weights, and weight bending moments are as follows;

I TEM Weigh t lcg Mom en t
( t) (m) ( t -m )
Fwd
ca r go 62000 40 2480000
fu el & wa t er 590 116 68440
s t eel 12000 5 5 .6 667200
3 ,2 1 5 ,6 4 0
Aft
ca r go 49800 37 1842600
m a ch in er y 3400 125 425000
ou t fit 900 120 108000
s t eel 12000 5 5 .6 667200
 140690 t 3 ,0 4 2 ,8 0 0

BM w = 3 ,1 2 9 ,2 2 0

To find the buoyancy moment we need the draft;

W    CB  L  B  T  
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 140690
T 
C B  L  B   0.8  278  37 1.025
 16.68 m

T 16.68
  0.06
L 278

Murray’s table gives;

a=0.179, b=0.063

x  278(.179  0.8  .063)  57.32 m

1
BM B  x
2
1
 140690  57.32  4,032,428 t-m
2

SWBM = BMW-BMB
hog sag
 3,129,220  4,032,428
 903,145 t-m (- is sag)

we need to add the wave bending moment in sag

Total BM = 903,145 + 583,800

= 1,486,945 t-m (sag)

Note that in this case the ship will never get in the hogging condition, because the
SWBM is so large.
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Topic 4: Problems

4.1. Longitudinal strength is a primary concern during the design of a ship. Briefly explain the
idea behind Murray’s Method.

4.2. There is a ‘rectangular’ shaped block of wood, as shown in the image below. The block
weighs 200 N and has uniform density. It is 1 m long and 0.20 m wide. It is 20 cm thick and is
floating in fresh water.

draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the block.

Now consider the addition of a small 50 N weight on the top of the block, at a
distance 2/3m from one end. (hint - a right triangle has its centroid at 2/3 of its
length)

After the block settles to an equilibrium position -

Draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams
What is the max. bending stress on the transverse plane at the middle of the block (ie at 0.5 m from the end)?

4.3. There is a ‘diamond’ shaped block of wood, as shown in the image below. The block
weighs 5.4 kg. and has uniform density. It is 60 cm long and 30 cm wide. It is 12 cm thick and is
floating in fresh water. Resting on the block are 2 weights, each small blocks of steel weighing 1
kg. They are symmetrically placed and are 55cm apart.
• What is the midship bending moment in units of N-cm ?
• What is the maximum bending stress in the wooden block?
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• Draw the bonjean curve for a cross section of the wooden block at a point 15cm from the end.
(show actual units).
• What is the block coefficient for the block?

ANS: a) 171.5 N-cm (hog) b) 23.8 MPa c) Straight and then vertical d) 0.5

4.4. Consider a 100m vessel resting in sheltered fresh waters (see below). The CG of all
weights fwd of midships is 23m fwd of midships (ff=23m). The CG of all weights aft of midships
is 25m aft of midships (fa=25m). The weights fwd and aft are 4200 and 4600 t respectively. Two
bonjean curves are given. Assume each refers to the average x-section area for 50m of ship (fore
and aft). The (fore and aft) buoyancy forces act at the bonjean locations, which are 18m fwd and
20 aft (of midships). The buoyancy force aft is 4650 t.

Using the bonjeans, find

• The vessel drafts at the two bonjeans.
• The buoyancy force fwd.
• The still-water bending moment at midships
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4.5. Murray's Method Consider a 100m long vessel resting in sheltered waters. The CG of all
weights fwd of midships is 20m fwd of midships (ff=20m). The CG of all weights aft of midships
is 25m aft of midships (fa=25m).
• Describe how you would use Murray’s Method to determine the still
water bending moment for this vessel.
• What other info, if any do you need?
Note: you don’t need to remember the specific values for terms suggested by Murray.

4.6. Hull girder strength The hull girder can be viewed as a beam. When floating in still
water, is the beam statically determinate or statically indeterminate? Provide reasons for your
answer.

4.7. You see below a sketch of a ship that is 200 m long. The displacement is made up of the
lightship plus the weight of cargo in two holds. The ship has stranded itself on a submerged rock.
Draw the various curves of load and response for the vessel (weight, buoyancy, net load, shear,
moment, slope and deflection) that are compatible with the information given. The numerical
values don’t matter. The intention is to draw a set of curves that are logical for the ship as shown.

4.8. You see below a sketch of a ship that is 200 m long. The displacement is made up of the
lightship plus the weight of cargo in two holds. The forward cargo hold is empty. Draw the
various curves of load and response for the vessel (weight, buoyancy, net load, shear, moment,
slope and deflection) that are compatible with the information given. The numerical values don’t
matter. The intention is to draw a set of curves that are logical for the ship as shown.

4.9. You see below a sketch of a ship that is 200 m long. The displacement is made up of the
lightship plus the weight of ballast in 4 tanks. The cargo holds are empty. Draw the various curves
of load and response for the vessel (weight, buoyancy, net load, shear, moment, slope and
deflection) that are compatible with the information given. The numerical values don’t matter.
The intention is to draw a set of curves that are logical for the ship as shown.
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4.10. Calculate the still water bending moment (in N-cm) for the solid block of plastic sketched
below. Assume the block has density as given and is floating in fresh water (density also given).
Is the moment hogging or sagging?

4.11. For the example of Murray’s method in the Chapter, remove the cargo weight and add
4000 t of ballast, with a cg of 116m fwd of midship. Re-calculate the maximum sag and hog
moments (both still water and wave).

4.12. For the example of Murray’s method in the Chapter, instead of using the weight locations
as given, assume that the weights are distributed according to Prohaska. Re-calculate the SWBM.

4.13. Consider a 100m long tanker resting on an even keel (same draft fore and aft) in sheltered
waters. The CG of all weights is at midships and is 8000 tonnes.
Use Murray’s Method and Prohaska’s values to determine the still water bending
moment for this vessel (i.e. get both the weight and buoyancy BMs about midships).
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Topic 5: Longitudinal Strength: Wave Bending Moments

Cape Spear

Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss the shape of ocean design waves and the moments
caused by waves.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Design Waves
Design wave forces are considered to be quasi-static. As a wave passes by a vessel,
the worst hogging moment will occur when the midbody is on the crest of a wave and
the bow and stern are in the troughs. The worst sagging moment will happen when
the bow and stern are on two crests, with the midbody in the trough between.

Whether for sagging or hogging, the worst condition will occur when the wavelength
is close to the vessel length. If the waves are much shorter,
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or much longer than the vessel, the bending moments will be less than if the
wavelength equals the ship length.

Consequently, the design wave for any vessel will have a wavelength equal to the
vessel length. The wave height is also constrained. Waves will have a limited height
to length ratio, or they will break. This results in a standard design wave of L/20. In
other words the wave height (peak to trough) is 1/20th of the wave length.

Trochoidal Wave Profile

Note that the waves sketched above did not look like sinusoids. Waves at sea tend to
be trochoidal shaped, rather than simple sine waves. This has the feature that the
crests are steeper and the troughs are more rounded.

A trochoidal wave is constructed using a rolling wheel.

In the case of the design wave;

LW = LBP } for now we assume that this
HW = LBP/20 length and height or wave is
possible
We can see that;

LW = 2  R
HW = 2 r
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Which gives;

L BP L
R  , r  BP
2 40

r 

R 20

To construct a plot of the wave, we start with a coordinate system at the crest of the
wave.

x  R   r sin  }  = rolling angle

z  r ( 1  cos  )

This is a parametric equation (  is a parameter). We can write;

L L
x   sin 
2 40
L
z  ( 1  cos  )
40
To plot the wave, it is a simple matter to calculate x and z as a function of  and then
plot z vs x. This is done in the spreadsheet below.

L 100
H 5

 x z
0 0 0
2
10 2.343657 -0.03798
20 4.700505 -0.15077
0
z

30 7.083333 -0.33494
-2
40 9.504142 -0.58489 -4
50 11.97378 -0.89303 -6
60 14.5016 -1.25 0 50 100 150 200
x
70 17.09521 -1.64495
80 19.7602 -2.06588
90 22.5 -2.5
100 25.31576 -2.93412
110 28.20632 -3.35505
120 31.16827 -3.75
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1.1 L Wave
L/20 waves have been found to be too conservative for large vessels, esp. for vessels
>500 ft. A more modern version of the 1 . 1 L wave. In this case;

as before, LW = LBP

H w  1 . 1 L BP (in feet)
or
H w  0 . 607 L BP (in meters)

For trochoidal waves this gives;

L BP
R  , r  . 55 L BP (feet) or r  . 303 L BP (meters)
2

Calculating Wave Bending Moments

We can now calculate the wave bending moments by placing the ship on the design
wave. We can use the bonjean curves to determine the buoyancy forces due to the
quasi-static effects of the wave;

The steps to determine the wave bending moment are;

Obtain bonjeans
at each station determine the still water buoyancy forces, using the design draft.
Fisw = Aisw li g
at each station determine the total buoyancy forces, using the local draft in that
portion of the wave.
Fiwt = Aiwt li g
The net wave buoyancy forces are the difference between wave and still water.
Fiwave=Fiwt-Fisw
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This gives us a set of station buoyancy forces due to the wave (net of still water).
These forces should be in equilibrium (no net vertical force). We can calculate the
moment at midships from either the net effect of all forces forward, or all forces aft
(the two moments will balance).

There are other ways to do this kind of calculation. 3D cad programs such as Rhino
can be used to find the still water and wave bending moments. Assuming that we
have a hull modeled in Rhino, we can find the still water buoyancy forces for the fore
and aft halves of the vessel by finding the volume and location of the centroids of the
two submerged volumes.
The procedure would be as follows;

1. Produce solid model of hull

2. Cut the model at both the centerline and waterlines.
3. Find the volumes and centroids of the two halves.
4. Calculate the buoyant moments about midships.

A similar procedure would determine the wave values. The only difference would be
the need to draw the trochoidal wave as a surface.

The example below shows use of Rhino to calculate the Buoyant BM for a large
vessel. The centroids of the two half volumes are shown.

BMB = 109,000 x 1.025 x 53.97 (m3 x t/m3 x m = t-m)

= 6,029,798 t-m
or
BMB = 123,000 x 1.025 x 58.58 (m3 x t/m3 x m = t-m)
= 7,385,473 t-m

average: BMB = 6,707,376 t-m (sag)

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The difference between this and the weight moment (hog) will give the SWBM.

Rhino model, showing slices and centroids

Topic 5: Problems

5.1. Using a spreadsheet, plot the design trochoidal wave for a 250m vessel, for the L/20 wave.

5.2. Using a spreadsheet, plot the design trochoidal wave for a 250m vessel, for the 1.1 L.5
wave.
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Topic 6: Longitudinal Strength: Inclined Bending / Section Modulus

a breaking wave in Lisbon

Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss the calculation of bending of an inclined vessel and
the general calculation of hull section modulus/inertia
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Inclined and Lateral Bending
When a ship rolls the weight and buoyancy forces cause lateral as well as vertical
bending. Normally the bending moment vector is aligned with the ship’s y axis. My is
the bending moment that results from buoyancy and weight forces.

When the vessels rolls by an angle q, the moment vector remains horizontal. This is
because the buoyancy and gravity forces are always vertical. This means that the
bending moment is no longer aligned with the y,z axis of the vessel;

Moments are vectors, adding in the same way that force vectors do.
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Mz  M w sin  lateral bending

M y  M w cos  vertical bending

Stresses in the Vessel

Both My and Mz cause bending stresses in the x (along ship) direction.

M yz Mzy
V  H  
I NA I CL

Note: Sign convention: R.H.R., moment acting on +x cut face, compression is positive.

In this case a +My causes tension (-) on the +z part of the vessel. A +Mz causes
compression (+) on the +y side of the vessel.

The total axial stress at any point on the vessel is the sum of the stresses caused by
the two directions of bending.

M yz Mzy
 X  V   H  
I NA I CL
 M w z cos  M w y sin 
 
I NA I CL
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When we have bending moments in both y and z, there will be a line of zero axial
stress that we call the heeled neutral axis. This is not necessarily aligned with the
total moment. To find the heeled neutral axis we solve for the location of zero stress;

 M w z cos  M w y sin 
X  0   ,
I NA I CL

solving for z in terms of y , we get;

I NA
z  tan   y ,
I CL
I NA
where we define: tan   tan 
I CL
z  tan   y

 is the angle of the heeled neutral axis from the y axis;

Peak Stresses

The highest stresses will occur @ y=B/2 , Z=Zdeck

There are 2 section modulus values;

I NA I
Z NA  , Z CL  CL
z deck B 2

So that we can write;

 cos  sin  
 max  M w   
 Z NA Z CL 

This leads to the question: What is the worst angle of heel (cr)?

To find it we use;

d  max   sin cr cos cr 

 0  Mw    ,
d  Z NA Z CL 
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which gives;
Z NA
tan cr 
Z CL

Typically Z NA Z CL  0 . 5 so cr  26 . 6 

Mw
For example, if    0  then
Z NA
cos 26.6 sin 26.6 𝑀𝑤
𝜎𝜃=26.6 = 𝑀𝑤 ( + )= 1.12
𝑍𝑁𝐴 2 𝑍𝑁𝐴 𝑍𝑁𝐴

i.e. for this vessel, there is a 12% increase in stress during the worst roll.

Section Modulus Calculations

Ships are largely built of plates. This means that the moment or inertia and section
modulus calculations normally involve a collection of rectangular parts. For any
individual plate:

Ina = 1/12 b t3

= 1/12 a t2

Ina = 1/12 t b3
= 1/12 a b2
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Ina = 1/12 a d2
= 1/12 t b3 cos2

~~~~~~
For compound sections we need to be able to find the inertia about other axes. We use
the transfer of axis theorem:

Izz = Ina + a c2

The overall neutral axis (NA) is found by equating 2 expressions for the 1st moment of
area;
A hNA =  ai hi

The total area A is just the sum of areas.

A =  ai

This gives;
hNA =  ai hi /  ai = (a1 h1 + a2 h2)/(a1+a2)
The overall NA goes through the centroid of the compound area.
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Moment of Inertia Calculation

Izz =  ai hi2 +  Inai

INA = Izz - A hNA2

or
INA = Inai + ai (hi - hNA)2)
A simple spreadsheet, as shown below, can be used to find the moment of inertia of a
ship;

See Assignment #2 for an application.

Section Modulus for Material Combinations

(e.g. Steel Hull, Al Superstructure)

Consider a section with 2 materials

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When the section bends the sections remain plane, meaning that the strain field is
linear.

To determine the stress/strain/deflection relationships, we convert the x-section to an

equivalent section. The idea is to modify the section so that it is all made of one
material, but retains the distribution of axial force (and bending stiffness). We do this
by adjusting the width of one of the materials, in accordance with the ratio of Young’s
Modulus. For example, Aluminum is converted to steel, but made thinner by Eal/Est.

For the modified section, ITR is calculated in the usual way. The strains and
deflections for any vertical bending moment will be correct.

M
i.e. v  
EI TR

The only error will be the stresses in the transformed region. The stresses in the
unmodified region will be correct, but the modified region will be wrong by the ratio
of modulii. We can correct this as follows;

My My E My
   1  and  2  2
I TR I TR E 1 I TR
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Topic 6: Problems
6.1. Find the moment of inertia of this compound section:

dimensions in mm
6.2. A box steel hull is 4m x 1m with a shell thickness of 10mm. It is inclined at 15 degrees,
and subject to a vertical bending moment of 2 MN-m. Find the bending stress at the emerged deck
edge.

6.3. For a composite beam (Steel plate with Aluminum web/Flange) loaded as show below
a) find the central deflection.
b) find the maximum stress in the Aluminum

6.4. Consider a compound steel-aluminum beam, shown below. Calculate the deflection d
(show steps)

Ans: 0.112m
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Topic 7: Beam Theory

Test Grillage at Memorial University

Introduction
In this Chapter we will develop the elastic behavior of beams and show the
relationship among load, shear, bending, slope and deflection
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Coordinate System and Sign Convention
The standard coordinate system has the x axis
along the neural axis of the beam. The positive y
axis is pointed up. The sign convention for force
and moment vectors follows the right hand rule;

+ Forces and deflections follow the axes.

+ Moments and rotations follow the curl of the
fingers (on the right hand) when the thumb is
pointing along the axis.

Shear strain:

Bending moment:
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To determine the equations for beam bending we

take a small section of the beam (which represents
any part) as a free body. We look at all the forces
and moments on the section and assuming that the
net force and net moment are zero (Newton!) we
derive the equations.

At this point we haven’t specified P,Q or M. They

can have any values. We will examine equilibrium
in SI units: conditions and see how these result in relationships
P : N/m among P,Q,M.
Q:N
M : Nm We start by summing vertical forces, which must
dx: m sum to zero for equilibrium;

𝑄(𝑥) − (𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑑𝑄) + 𝑝(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0

[N]
which is simplified to;
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

and rearranged to give;

𝑑𝑄
𝑝(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥

This is a differential equation that states that the

line load on a beam is equal to the rate of change
(slope) of the shear force. Next we sum moments
about the right hand end, which must also sum to
zero to show equilibrium of the free body.

𝑑𝑥
−𝑀(𝑥) − 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑀(𝑥) + 𝑑𝑀) = 0
2

which is simplified to;

𝑑𝑥 2
−𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − 𝑝(𝑥) + 𝑑𝑀 = 0
2

note that dx is not just small, it is vanishingly

small, so that dx2 is vanishingly small by
comparison (i.o.w. we can remove the second order
terms, in this case with no loss of accuracy).
Therefore;

−𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑀 = 0
or;
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𝑑𝑀
𝑄(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥
This is our second (related) differential equation,
which states that the shear in a beam is the rate of
change (slope) of the bending moment.

We now have two differential equations;

𝑑𝑄
𝑝(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥
and
𝑑𝑀
𝑄(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥
We can re-express these relationships as integral
equations. The shear is;

𝑄(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
In the form of a definite integral with a constant of
integration the shear is;
𝑥
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑄𝑜 + ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
In words, this equation means: shear is the sum of
all loads from the start to x. Similarly, the moment
is;

𝑀(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
which becomes;
𝑥
𝑀(𝑥) = 𝑀𝑜 + ∫ 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0

Aside: The shear difference between any two points

on a beam will be exactly equal to the load applied
to the beam between these two points, for any
pattern of load. This leads to a very easy and
accurate way to measure force;
𝑥2
𝐹 = ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑄2 − 𝑄1
x1
This principle has been used to design load cells,
and to instrument ship frames to measure contact
loads from ice or slamming.
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Adding Deformations
So far we have differential equations for
load/shear/bending relationships. Now we add
deformations.

The shear force and bending moments are causing

stresses and strains in the beam. We make the
assumption that we can ignore the shear
deformations (this is part of what we call simple
beam theory), so that only the bending moments
cause distortions. This means that only consider
the shortening of the compression side of the beam
and the lengthening of the tension side. When this
happens, the beam deforms from being straight to
being a curve. The curve shape for any short length
is an arc of a circle, with a radius R. The local
radius, as we can show, turns out to depend only on
the local bending moment. The figure below show a
short length of a bending beam. The curved shape
is also presented in differential form, meaning
essential or limit shape for a very small value of dx.

The neutral axis (NA) does not stretch or contract.

The upper and lower parts of the beam compress
E5003 – Ship Structures I 66
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and/or stretch. We can use the two ‘known’

relationships, the stress-moment equation;

My
𝜎=
I

and 1D Hooke's law;

𝜎 = Eε

For the top fiber (in the figure above) we see that
the strain is;
∆ dθ
𝜀= =y
dx dx

from the above we have;

My dθ
𝜀= =y
EI dx

which can be re-arranged to give;

dθ M
=
dx EI
or
M
dθ = dx
EI

We also have
dx
dθ =
R

dθ 1
= =κ
dx R

Where R is the 'radius of curvature' and κ is called

the 'curvature' (note the odd naming, and note that
this use of dx = R dis only valid for small
deflections).

Note also that d is both the change in relative

angle of two cross sections separated by dx and also
the change in slope between two points separated
by dx along the beam. (x) is the slope of the beam.
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This gives us;

x
M
θ = θ0 + ∫ dx
EI
0
For prismatic sections, EI is constant, so;
x
1
θ = θ0 + ∫ M dx
EI
0

Similarly, to find deflections v, we use the

relationship, assuming small deflections;

dv
=θ
dx
and
dv = θ dx

which lets us write;

v(x) = ∫ θ(x) dx
and;
𝑥
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + ∫ 𝜃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
This completes the development of the differential
and integral equations for beams.
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Beam Example 1: Cantilever beam with left end free

The cantilever beam is sketched at the left. The left
end is free and the right end is fixed. The shear
force is found by integrating the load. In this case
the initial shear is zero, because there is no
reaction at the left had end (it's a free end) ;
𝑥
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑄𝑜 + ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥
𝑄(𝑥) = 0 + ∫ −𝑝 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑄(𝑥) = −𝑝𝑥

The bending moment is similarly found by

integrating the shear. And again there is no initial
value of moment because the boundary condition
has no moment;
𝑥
𝑀(𝑥) = 𝑀𝑜 + ∫ 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥
𝑀(𝑥) = 0 + ∫ −𝑝 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
−𝑝𝑥 2
𝑀(𝑥) =
2
The shear is a straight line. We did not solve for
the right hand vertical reaction 𝑅𝐵 , but it is 𝑝 𝐿 and
it opposes the shear in the end of the beam (which
we can see is −𝑝 𝐿). The moment is a quadratic
function with a maximum value of −𝑝 𝐿2 /2 as is
easily found from summing moments about the
right hand end.

Next we solve the equation for the slope.

1 𝑥
𝜃(𝑥) = 𝜃𝑜 + ∫ 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0
by inserting the expression for bending moment we
get ;
1 𝑥 −𝑝 𝑥 2
𝜃(𝑥) = 𝜃𝑜 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0 2
which becomes;
𝑝 𝑥3
𝜃(𝑥) = 𝜃𝑜 −
6𝐸𝐼
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At this point we can either carry forward the

unknown initial slope or solve for it. We know the
slope at L is zero, so we can write;
𝑝 𝐿3
𝜃(𝐿) = 0 = 𝜃𝑜 −
6𝐸𝐼

which can be solved to get;

𝑝 𝐿3
𝜃𝑜 =
6𝐸𝐼

therefore the complete equation for slope is;

𝑝 𝐿3 𝑝 𝑥 3
𝜃(𝑥) = −
6𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼

Now we can find the deflection. The integral

equation is;
𝑥
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + ∫ 𝜃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
which becomes;
𝑥
𝑝 𝐿3 𝑝 𝑥 3
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + ∫ − 𝑑𝑥
0 6𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
which becomes;
𝑝 𝐿3 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 4
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + −
6𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼

The deflection at L is zero, letting us write;

𝑝 𝐿4 𝑝 𝐿4
𝑣(𝐿) = 0 = 𝑣𝑜 + −
6𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
which gives;
𝑝 𝐿4
𝑣𝑜 = −
8𝐸𝐼
so the total equation for the deflection is;

−𝑝 𝐿4 𝑝 𝐿3 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 4
𝑣(𝑥) = + −
8𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼

which completes the solution.

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Example 2: Pinned-pinned beam

In this case the initial value of shear is the reaction
at the left end. We can solve for this from static
equilibrium at the start. So the shear is;
𝑥
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑄𝑜 + ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑝𝐿/2 + ∫ −𝑝 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑝𝐿
𝑄(𝑥) = 2

The bending moment is;

𝑥
𝑀(𝑥) = 𝑀𝑜 + ∫ 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥
𝑝𝐿
𝑀(𝑥) = 0 + ∫ − 𝑝 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 2
𝑝𝐿𝑥 𝑝𝑥 2
𝑀(𝑥) = −
2 2

The plot at the left shows the shear and bending

solutions. In this case, we were able to use statics
to solve for one unknown at the start, which
simplified the problem.
Next we solve the equation for the slope, as before,
by inserting the expression for bending moment we
get ;
1 𝑥 𝑝𝐿𝑥 𝑝𝑥 2
𝜃(𝑥) = 𝜃𝑜 + ∫ − 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0 2 2
which becomes;
1 𝑝𝐿𝑥 2 𝑝𝑥 3
𝜃(𝑥) = 𝜃𝑜 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 4 6

At this point we can either carry forward the

unknown initial slope or solve for it. We know, from
symmetry, that the slope at 𝑥 = 𝐿/2 is zero, so we
can write;
1 𝑝𝐿3 𝑝𝐿3
𝜃(𝐿/2) = 0 = 𝜃𝑜 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 16 48

which can be solved to get;

−𝑝 𝐿3
𝜃𝑜 =
24𝐸𝐼
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therefore the complete equation for slope is;

1 −𝑝 𝐿3 𝑝𝐿𝑥 2 𝑝𝑥 3
𝜃(𝑥) = ( + − )
𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼 4 6

Now we can find the deflection. The integral

equation is;
𝑥
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + ∫ 𝜃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
which becomes;
1 𝑥 −𝑝 𝐿3 𝑝𝐿𝑥 2 𝑝𝑥 3
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + ∫ + − 𝑑𝑥
EI 0 24𝐸𝐼 4 6
which becomes;
−𝑝 𝐿3 𝑥 𝑝𝐿𝑥 3 𝑝 𝑥 4
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + + −
24𝐸𝐼 12𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼

The deflection at L is zero, letting us write;

−𝑝 𝐿3 𝑥 𝑝𝐿𝑥 3 𝑝 𝑥 4
𝑣(𝑥) = + −
24𝐸𝐼 12𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼

which completes the solution.

Topic 7: Problems
7.1. Consider a beam made of steel joined to aluminum. The steel is 10 x 10 mm, with 5 x 10
mm of Aluminum attached. Esteel = 200,000 MPa, EAl = 80,000 MPa. The beam is fixed as a
simple cantilever, with a length of 100mm and a vertical force at the free end of 2 kN.

convert the section to an equivalent section in steel and calculate the equivalent
moment of inertia.
What is the deflection of the end of the beam (derive from 1st principles).
What is the maximum bending stress in the Aluminum at the support?
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7.2. For elastic beam bending, derive the equation:

d M

dx EI
where  is the slope of the deflected shape, M is the moment, E is Young's Modulus, I
is the moment of inertia. You can assume the =E and =My/I. Use at least one
sketch.

7.3. Find and draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the following beam. Find
the values at supports and other max/min values.

7.4. There is a 3m beam. The shear force diagram is sketched below.

• Sketch the load, moment, slope and deflection diagrams.
• What are the boundary conditions and discuss whether there can be more than one option
for the boundary conditions?

7.5. For elastic beam bending, complete Figure 1. The shear force diagram is sketched. You
need to infer from the shear what the load (including support reactions) may be, as well as an
estimate of the bending moment diagram, the slope diagram and the deflected shape. Draw the
support conditions and the applied load on the beam, and sketch the moment, slope and deflection
is the areas given.
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7.6. Beam Mechanics. For the beam sketch below:

a) sketch by hand the shear, moment, slope and deflection diagrams

b) Assuming the beam is a 10cm x 10cm square steel bar, solve the problem to find
the bending stress at the fixed support. Use any method you like.
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7.7. There is a length of steel that is 3.1416 m long, 50mm wide. It has a yield strength of 500
MPa (N/mm2), and a Young’s Modulus of 200 GPa. If the steel is thin enough it can be bent into
a perfect circle without yielding.
What is the maximum thickness 't' for the steel to be bent elastically (and not yield)?
If the steel thickness is 1mm, what is the stress when it is bent into a 1m Dia circle.
What would the shear force diagram look like?
(Hint :this relates directly to the derivation of the differential equations for beam
bending)

7.8. Sketch the shear, bending, slope and deflection patterns for the four cases
shown below. No numerical values are required.
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Topic 8: Solving Beam Equations

A Train Station in Lisbon

Introduction
In this section we will review the differential equation set derived in the last section
and discuss solutions using direct integration, the Macaulay functions and Maple.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Family of Differential Equations
Simple beam behavior considers only the
deflections due to bending, and only in 2
dimensions. Torsion, shear and other elastic
distortions are neglected (for now).

Consider a beam between two supports. We

describe the deflections with the variable v(x).

The analysis of bending in Chapter 8, developed the

following differential equations;
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𝑑 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑝(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑀(𝑥)
𝑄(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝜃(𝑥)
𝑀(𝑥) = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑣(𝑥)
𝜃(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥

These can be re-expressed into a set of related (not coupled)

differential equations, of increasingly higher order;

𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛[𝑚]

𝑑𝑣(𝑥)
𝜃(𝑥) = = 𝑣 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 [𝑟𝑎𝑑]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑀(𝑥) = 𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑣 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 [𝑁𝑚]
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 3 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝐸𝐼 3
= 𝐸𝐼 𝑣 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟[𝑁]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 4 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝐼𝑣′′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 [𝑁/𝑚]
𝑑𝑥 4

Seen in this way, the key behavior is deflection, with all

other quantities being derived from it. There is a similar set
of equations, expressed in integral form, starting from load;

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 [𝑁/𝑚]

𝑥
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑄𝑜 + ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 [𝑁]
0

𝑥
𝑀(𝑥) = 𝑀𝑜 + ∫ 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 [𝑁𝑚]
0
x
1
θ = θ0 + ∫ M dx = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 [rad]
EI
0
𝑥
𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + ∫ 𝜃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 [𝑚]
0
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The set of derivative equations show that if the

deflected shape is known, all other quantities can
be determined. In such a case there is no need for
any boundary conditions. (to do: think of a situation
where the deflected shape is fully known, while
other quantities are not.)

Normally we would not know the deflected shape.

Instead we would know the load and would want to
determine the deflected shape. In that case we
would employ the integral equations. One
significant issue with the integral equations is that
the 'constants of integration' must be found. These
are found from the boundary conditions. All types
of end conditions can be represented as some
derivative of deflection being zero. More
specifically, two of the derivatives will be zero at
each end of the beam. This gives four known
boundary conditions for any beam (2 ends!), and so
the four integral equations can be solved.

At this level of consideration, there is no difference

between a determinate and an indeterminate
beam. All beams have 4 integral equations and 4
boundary equations (or it could be said that all
beams are represented by a fourth order ordinary
differential equation with four boundary condition
equations, regardless of the type or loading or
supports).

In the previous chapter we solved two beams by

progressively solving the integral equations. Those
cases were relatively simple, both because they
were determinant systems, and they had simple
load patterns, and in one case was symmetric.
Solving non-symmetric cases of indeterminate
beams with discontinuous loads (patch loads) can
involve a lot of algebra. We will solve one such
system in three different ways; 1) directly with the
integral equations, 2) with Macaulay functions and
3) with the help of the Maple program.
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Example 3: Solving Piecewise Beam Equations

The beam sketched at left is fixed on the left end,
guided on the right and with the loading and
properties shown. A qualitative sketch of the
solution is plotted, indicating that the solution is in
three parts. The load is a patch load, so the solution
must be in parts. The points labeled 'B' and 'C'
represent break points in the solution. The various
quantities at these points represent ending values
for the partial solution to the left of the point and
starting values for the solution to the right of that
point.

The boundary conditions create a set of unknown

loads on the ends of the beam, which are sketched
in the 'Loads' diagram. For a fixed end we know
that the deflection and rotation are zero. For a
guided end we know that the shear (reaction) and
rotation are zero. These conditions give two
unknown loads at the left end of the beam. There
are two known movements (deflection and slope are
zero) at the left end of the beam. At the right end
the moment and deflection are unknown while the
shear and slope are both zero (recall that there are
always 2 known and 2 unknown values at each end,
in some combination of loads and displacements).
In this particular beam we know that RA is the only
vertical support and must balance all the applied
load (which is 4x5=20). We also know that there is
no shear in the right end of the beam (the vertical
force must be zero because the roller has released
it). So the shear solution is as follows;

part 1:
𝑄1 (𝑥) = 20
part 2:
𝑄2 (𝑥) = 𝐶 − 5 𝑥
𝑄2 (2) = 𝐶 − 5 2 = 20 => 𝐶 = 30
𝑄2 (𝑥) = 30 − 5 𝑥
part 3:
𝑄3 (𝑥) = 0
The moment solution is;
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part 1:
𝑥
𝑀1 (𝑥) = 𝑀𝐴 + ∫ 20 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑀1 (𝑥) = 𝑀𝐴 + 20 𝑥
𝑀𝐵 = 𝑀𝐴 + 40
part 2:
𝑥
𝑀2 (𝑥) = 𝑀𝐵 + ∫ (30 − 5 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
5
𝑀2 (𝑥) = 𝑀𝐴 − 10 + 30𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2
𝑀𝐶 = 𝑀2 (6) = 𝑀𝐴 + 80
part 3:
𝑥
𝑀3 (𝑥) = 𝑀𝐶 + ∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑀𝐴 + 80
6

The slope solution is;

part 1:
1 𝑥
𝜃1 (𝑥) = 𝜃𝐴 + ∫ 𝑀 + 20 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0 𝐴
𝜃1 (𝑥) = 0 + (𝑀𝐴 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 2 ) 10−6
𝜃𝐵 = 𝜃1 (2) = (2 𝑀𝐴 + 40)10−6
part 2:
1 𝑥 5
𝜃2 (𝑥) = 𝜃𝐵 + ∫ 𝑀𝐴 − 10 + 30 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 2 2
20 5
𝜃2 (𝑥) = ( + 𝑀𝐴 𝑥 − 10 𝑥 + 15 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )10−6
3 6
920
𝜃𝐶 = 𝜃2 (6) = (6 𝑀𝐴 + )10−6
3
part 3:
1 𝑥
𝜃3 (𝑥) = 𝜃𝐶 + ∫ 𝑀𝐴 + 80 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 6
520
𝜃3 (𝑥) = (− + 𝑀𝐴 𝑥 + 80 𝑥)10−6
3
1880
𝜃𝐷 = 𝜃3 (10) = 0 = (10 𝑀𝐴 + )10−6
3
Therefore
188
𝑀𝐴 = −
3
520 52
𝜃3 (𝑥) = (− + 𝑥)10−6
3 3
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The deflection solution is;

part 1:
𝑥
−188
𝑣1 (𝑥) = 𝑣𝐴 + ∫ ( 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 2 ) 10−6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 3
−94 2 10 3
𝑣1 (𝑥) = ( 𝑥 + 𝑥 ) 10−6
3 3
−94 2 10 3 −296
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣1 (2) = ( 𝑥 + 𝑥 ) 10−6 = 10−6
3 3 3

part 2:
−296
𝑣2 (𝑥) = (
3 𝑥
20 218
+∫ − 𝑥 + 15 𝑥 2
2 3 3
5
− 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥) 10−6
6
−10 20 109 2 5
𝑣2 (𝑥) = ( + 𝑥− 𝑥 + 5 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 )10−6
3 3 3 24
−1384
𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣2 (6) = ( )10−6
3
part 3:
𝑥
−1384 520 52
𝑣3 (𝑥) = ( +∫ − + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) 10−6
3 6 3 3
800 520 26
𝑣3 (𝑥) = ( − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )10−6
3 3 3
𝑣𝐷 = 𝑣3 (10) = (−600) 10−6

Summary of solution:

20 0≤𝑥<2
𝑄(𝑥) = { 30 − 5𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 6
0 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 10
−62.67 + 20𝑥 0≤𝑥<2
𝑀(𝑥) = { −72.67 + 30𝑥 − 2.5 𝑥 2 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 6
17.33 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 10
−62.67𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 0≤𝑥<2
𝜃(𝑥) = 10−6 { 6.67 − 72.67𝑥 + 15 𝑥 2 − .83 𝑥 3 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 6
17.33 𝑥 − 173.3 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 10
𝑣(𝑥) =
−31.33𝑥 2 + 3.33𝑥 3 0≤𝑥<2
−6
10 { −3.33 + 6.67𝑥 − 36.33 𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥 3 − .208𝑥 4 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 6
266.7 − 173.3 𝑥 + 8.67 𝑥 2 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 10

𝑅𝐴 = 20 𝑀𝐴 = −62.67 𝑀𝐷 = 17.33 𝑣𝐷 = (−600) 10−6

This completes the manual integration method for

solving example 3. To check this we will be solving
the same problem in 2 other ways.
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Macaulay Functions
Macaulay functions (also called singularity
functions) are simply a generalization of the idea of
a step function. These functions provide a
convenient way of describing point forces, moments
and piece-wise continuous functions. And when a
few special rules of integration are employed, it
becomes very easy to use Macaulay functions to
solve beam problems.

The fundamental Macaulay functions are shown on

the left. Each function in the sequence represents
the integral of the previous function (with the small
exception noted later). Any of the functions can be
multiplied to a constant to change the magnitude.

For example, a unit moment at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is described

as;
< 𝑥 − 𝑎 >−2
and a moment of magnitude M at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is;

𝑀 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >−2

Similarly, a point for of magnitude 𝐹 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is;

𝐹 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >−1

The triangular brackets are just a way of saying

that the function is meant to be seen as "one sided".
In simple terms :
𝐹 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
𝐹 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >𝑛 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑎

Two examples of how Macaulay functions can be

combined to describe various piecewise curves are
shown below;
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Integrating Macaulay Functions

The integration of Macaulay functions is very
similar to normal functions with an exception. If
the exponent is positive then the normal rules of
integration apply. If the exponent is negative, then
we just add one to the exponent. The rules are
shown at the left.

So for example;

∫ < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >−2 = < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >−1

but
1
∫ < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >2 = < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >3
3

It likely makes sense to the reader that the integral

of a point force is a step and the integral of a step is
a ramp. Does it make sense that the integral of a
point moment is a force? To explore this idea,
consider the functions sketched at the left. In the
first case we have function with a small patch of
load in one direction followed by a small patch of
load in the opposite direction we have no net force
but we do create a small point moment (in the
limit). When we integrate this we get a small
triangle, which when integrated again gives a step.
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To Illustrate Macaulay functions, we start with an

example of a pinned-pinned beam with a central
force:

Example 3: Solved with Macaulay Equations

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Solving Example 3 using Maple

Maple is a computer program that is capable of
solving a wide variety of mathematical problems,
including differential equations.

Here is a very simple example of Maple’s ability to

solve and plot differential equations. This is the
solution of a cantilever beam (EI=1, L=10) under
uniform load (p=-1).

The basic differential equation;

𝑑 4 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝐼𝑣′′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 [𝑁/𝑚]
𝑑𝑥 4

The boundary conditions are;

𝑣(𝑥 = 0) = 0
𝑣′(𝑥 = 0) = 0
𝑣′(𝑥 = 𝐿) = 0
𝑣′′′(𝑥 = 𝐿) = 0

Below is the full Maple input and result, showing

the shape of a deflected cantilever;
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> restart;
The following aliases simplify the definition of loads.
> dist_load := (w,a,b) -> w*Heaviside(x-a)- w*Heaviside(x-b): # distributed force
Length, Stiffness, Load at "a", Load at end, Location of "a"
> L := 10: EI := 10^6:
> wa:=5:we:=[Link]=2: b:=6:
> loads := -dist_load(wa,a,b)-(x-a)/(b-a)*dist_load(we-wa,a,b);

> plot(loads,x=0..L,title=`LOADS`, color=blue);

> supports := {y(0)=0, D(y)(0) = 0, D(y)(L) =0, D(D(D(y)))(L)=0}:

> de := EI*diff(y(x),x$4) = loads; # Form differential equation

> dsolve({de}union supports ,y(x)): # Solve boundary value problem

> yy := rhs(%): # Extract deflection
> th := diff(yy,x): # Extract slope
> m := EI*diff(yy,x$2): # Extract moment
> v := EI*diff(yy,x$3): # Extract shear
> plot(v,x=0..L,title=`Shear`, color=blue);

> plot(m,x=0..L,title=`Bending Moment`, color=blue);

> plot(th,x=0..L,title=`Beam Slope`, color=blue);

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> plot(yy,x=0..L,title=`Beam Deflection`, color=blue);

> evalf(subs(x=0,m));evalf(subs(x=L,m));evalf(subs(x=L,yy));

The manual, Macaulay and Maple solutions are all

the same, as expected.
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Topic 8: Problems

8.1. Solve the following beam by direct integration. What is the maximum deflection (mm)?
What is the maximum stress (MPa) ?

ANS: .000136mm, 140 Pa

8.2. Solve the following beam using Macaulay functions. What is the maximum deflection
(mm)? What is the maximum stress (MPa) ?

ANS: .000484mm, 253 Pa

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Topic 9: Indeterminate Beams – Force Method

part of the superstructure on an FPSO

Introduction
In this chapter we will review the idea of indeterminate beams and one way to solve
them.

Transverse and Local Strength

Most of the local structure in a ship exists to resist lateral loads.

Example: The sketch below shows a bulkhead between the deck and inner bottom,
supported by one intermediate deck. The bulk cargo (liquid or granular) will exert a
lateral pressure on the bulkhead.


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We can model the bulkhead frame as a pinned frame over 3 supports, subject to a
lateral load;

To solve this type of structure we need a method to solve indeterminate structures.

What does indeterminate mean? Determinate structures have a simple set of

supports, such that the support reactions can be found from considerations of rigid
body equilibrium alone. This means that there are just enough supports for
equilibrium to exist. This is normally 3 for 2D structures and normally 6 for 3D
structures. The number of supports is also the number of equilibrium conditions that
need to be satisfied.

The sketch below illustrates the difference between determinate and indeterminate
for a 2D beam.

Determinate Indeterminate

 Find the Reactions  Find the Reactions

 
 Then find the deflections  Then find the deflections

Reactions don’t depend on deflections The reactions depend on the deflections

 Equations for Reactions Equations for Reactions


 coupled
Equations for Deflections Equations for Deflections
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There are two approaches for solving indeterminate systems. Both approaches use
the principle of superposition, by dividing the problem into two simpler problems,
solving the simpler problems and adding the two solutions.

The first method is called the Force Method (also called the Flexibility Method). The
idea for the force method is;

step  release internal forces* or external reactions until we have one or more
determinate systems
step  solve each determinate system, to find all reactions and deflections. Note
all incompatible deflections
step  re-solve the determinate structures with only a set of self-balancing
internal unit forces* (at internal releases) or unit reaction forces at removed
reactions. This solves the system for the internal or external forces removed in .
Observe the magnitude of incompatible deflections that occur per unit force.
step a scale the unit forces to cause the opposite of the incompatible deflections
noted in 
step  Add solutions (everything: loads, reactions, deflections…) from  and
a. Note that this will result in no incompatible deflections.
*note: forces include both forces and moments

Overview of Force Method

The structure: a beam over multiple supports:

step  cut the structure to have one or more determinate systems

step  solve each system. Note  – an incompatible deflection.

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step  re-solve the cut structures with self-balancing internal unit forces*
step a scale these forces (moments) to cause the opposite of the incompatible
deflections noted in 
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step  Add solutions (everything: loads, reactions, deflections…) from  and

a. Note that this will result in no incompatible deflections.

Example of the FORCE Method:

Manual Solution

Problem:
1 - Find MA, RA, RB in terms of w, EI, L
2 – Find maximum displacement

Solution:
Part 1 – solve with MA released (denoted ’ ). The reason
we do this is because the structure is statically
determinate.

The line load function is:

𝑤𝑥
𝑤(𝑥) =
𝐿
Reactions are found from static equilibrium:
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1 𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝐿
𝑅𝐴′ = =
3 2 6

2 𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝐿
𝑅𝐵′ = =
3 2 3

The shear 𝑄 ′ (𝑥) is found by integrating the line load:

𝐿
𝑄 ′ (𝑥)
= 𝑅𝐴′ + ∫ −𝑤(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑤𝐿 𝑤 𝐿 𝑤𝐿 𝑤 𝑥 2
= − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −
6 𝐿 0 6 2𝐿

The moment 𝑀′ (𝑥) is found by integrating the shear:

𝐿
𝑀′ (𝑥) = 𝑀𝐴′ + ∫ 𝑄 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑤𝐿𝑥 𝑤𝑥 3
= −
6 6𝐿

The slope 𝜙 ′ (𝑥) is found by integrating the moment:

′ (𝑥) ′
1 𝐿 ′
𝜙 = 𝜙𝐴 + ∫ 𝑀 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0
′
1 𝑤𝐿𝑥 2 𝑤𝑥 4
= 𝜙𝐴 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 12 24𝐿

And finally the deflection 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) is found by integrating the slope:

𝐿
𝑦 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑦𝐴′ + ∫ 𝜙 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
1 𝑤𝐿𝑥 3 𝑤𝑥 5
= 𝜙𝐴′ 𝑥 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 36 120𝐿

This leaves us with one left unknown to find, 𝜙𝐴′ which is the
slope at A . We use the boundary condition:
1 𝑤𝐿4 𝑤𝐿4
𝑦 ′ (𝐿) = 0 = 𝜙𝐴′ 𝐿 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 36 120
which is solved to give;
′
7 𝑤𝐿3
𝜙𝐴 = −
360 𝐸𝐼
Substituting back gives;

Slope:
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1 −7𝑤𝐿3 𝑤𝐿𝑥 2 𝑤𝑥 4
𝜙 ′ (𝑥) = ( + − )
𝐸𝐼 360 12 24𝐿

Deflection:
′
1 −7𝑤𝐿3 𝑥 𝑤𝐿𝑥 3 𝑤𝑥 5
𝑦 (𝑥) = ( + − )
𝐸𝐼 360 36 120𝐿

The gives us the first half of the solution. Now we need to ‘correct’ the solution, by
removing the rotation at A (in Part 2). This is done by applying a moment at A, of just
sufficient magnitude to cause −𝜙𝐴′ . This moment will be the true reaction moment at
A. All other responses in Part 2 are added to the Part 1 responses (deflections, shear,
moments, etc). Responses can be added because the systems are linear (superposition
holds).

Part 2 – solve with just 𝑀𝐴∗ (the * denotes the corrective solution ). 𝑀𝐴∗ will cause a
rotation opposite to 𝜙𝐴′ , which when added to the results of Part 1 will create a ‘fixed’
condition (no rotation) at A. Initially 𝑀𝐴∗ is unknown.

Reactions are found from static equilibrium:

Σ𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝑅𝐵∗ 𝐿 − 𝑀𝐴∗ = 0

𝑀𝐴∗
𝑅𝐵∗ =
𝐿

Σ𝐹𝑉 = 0 𝑅𝐴∗ + 𝑅𝐵∗ = 0

𝑀𝐴∗
𝑅𝐴∗ = −
𝐿

𝑀𝐴∗ is negative, so 𝑅𝐵∗ is negative. 𝑅𝐴∗ is positive.

The shear 𝑄 ∗ (𝑥) is found by:

𝐿
𝑀𝐴∗
𝑄 ∗ (𝑥)
= 𝑅𝐴∗ + ∫ −𝑤(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −
0 𝐿

The moment 𝑀∗ (𝑥) is found by integrating the shear:

𝐿
𝑀∗ (𝑥) = 𝑀𝐴∗ + ∫ 𝑄 ∗ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
∗
𝑀𝐴∗ 𝑥
= 𝑀𝐴 −
𝐿
The slope 𝜙 ∗ (𝑥) is found by integrating the moment:
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1 𝐿 ∗
𝜙 ∗ (𝑥) = 𝜙𝐴∗ + ∫ 𝑀 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0
𝑀𝐴∗ 𝑥2
= 𝜙𝐴∗ + (𝑥 − )
𝐸𝐼 2𝐿

And finally the deflection y’(x) is found by integrating the slope:

𝐿
𝑦 ∗ (𝑥) = 𝑦𝐴∗ + ∫0 𝜙 ∗ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑀𝐴∗ 𝑥 2 𝑥 3
= 𝜙𝐴∗ 𝑥 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 2 6𝐿

To find *A and M*A , we use:

7 𝑤𝐿3
𝜙𝐴∗ = −𝜙𝐴′ =
360 𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝐴∗ 𝐿2 𝐿2
𝑦 ∗ (𝐿) = 0 = 𝜙𝐴∗ 𝐿 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 2 6
4 ∗ 2
7 𝑤𝐿 𝑀𝐴 𝐿
0= +
360 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 3

−7
𝑀𝐴∗ = 𝑤𝐿2
120

Substituting back gives;

Reactions:
−𝑀𝐴∗ 7
𝑅𝐴∗ = = 𝑤𝐿 (𝑝𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑝)
𝐿∗ 120
𝑀𝐴 −7
𝑅𝐵∗ = = 𝑤𝐿 (𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛)
𝐿 120

Shear:
7
𝑄 ∗ (𝑥) = 𝑤𝐿
120

Moment:
7
𝑀∗ (𝑥) = 𝑤𝐿(𝑥 − 𝐿)
120

Slope:
1 7 −7 7
𝜙 ∗ (𝑥) = ( 𝑤𝐿3 + 𝑤𝐿2 𝑥 + 𝑤𝐿𝑥 2 )
𝐸𝐼 360 120 240

Deflection:
1 7 7 7
𝑦 ∗ (𝑥) = ( 𝑤𝐿3 𝑥 − 𝑤𝐿2 𝑥 2 + 𝑤𝐿𝑥 3 )
𝐸𝐼 360 240 720
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This gives us the second half of the solution.

Now we sum the two parts together for the complete solution:
1 7 27
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑤𝐿 + 𝑤𝐿 = 𝑤𝐿
6 120 120

1 7 33
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑤𝐿 − 𝑤𝐿 = 𝑤𝐿
3 120 120

−7
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐴∗ = 𝑤𝐿2
120

1
𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑤𝐿 𝑂𝐾
2
𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴

𝑤𝐿 2
𝑅𝐵 𝐿 − 𝐿 = 𝑀𝐴
2 3
33 40 7
𝑤𝐿2 − 𝑤𝐿2 = − 𝑤𝐿2 𝑂𝐾
120 120 120

This is the answer to the first question. The maximum deflection is found where the
slope is zero. The full expression for the slope is:

𝜙(𝑥) = 𝜙 ′ (𝑥) + 𝜙 ∗ (𝑥)

1 27 7 𝑤𝑥 4
𝜙 ′ (𝑥) = ( 𝑤𝐿𝑥 2 − 𝑤𝐿2 𝑥 − )
𝐸𝐼 240 120 24𝐿

We can create a new normalized variable 𝑧, which ranges between 0 and 1. This gives
us slope in a simpler form:

𝑤𝐿3
𝜙 ′ (𝑥) = (27𝑧 2 − 14𝑧 − 10𝑧 4 )
240 𝐸𝐼
where
𝑥
𝑧=
𝐿

To find the location of zero slope we set the term inside the brackets above to
zero, which can be simplified to:

27𝑧 − 14 − 10𝑧 3 = 0
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The solution of this equation will be the location of maximum deflection. One way to
solve this (which can be done without derivatives or computers) is to solve the
equation for z iteratively. This can be done on any hand-held calculator. We pick one
of the z terms (the first term here), and express z as a function of z:
14 + 10 𝑧 3 0.62

𝑧= 0.6
27
0.58

This iterative equation might be expressed as:

0.56

0.54

0.52

14 + 10 𝑧𝑖3
𝑧𝑖+1 = 0.5

27 0.48
0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62

Recall, z ranges from 0 to 1. So any value between 0 and 1 is a possible starting value.
We can guess that the maximum deflection will be at z >.5, so we could start with a
guess of 0.6. It doesn't really matter, except that the better the initial guess, the
quicker the solution will converge. Starting with z =0.6, we iterate to 0.5975 in 7
iterations.

Note: there is another possible iterative version of the z equation;

3 27𝑧𝑖 − 14
𝑧𝑖+1 = √
10
Unfortunately, it won’t converge to an answer in the 0-1 range.

The equation for deflection is:

𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑦 ∗ (𝑥)

𝑤 𝐿4 27 3 7 2 𝑧5
= ( 𝑧 − 𝑧 − )
𝐸𝐼 720 240 120

The final step in the solution, is to find 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 , which is at 𝑧 = 0.5975 :

𝑤 𝐿4 27 3
7 2
0.59755
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( 0.5975 − 0.5975 − )
𝐸𝐼 720 240 120

𝑤 𝐿4
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −.00305
𝐸𝐼

This answer can be checked in Roark, which gives the same answer. This completes
the problem.
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Topic 9: Problems

9.1. Solve the below by removing the reaction RB (as shown). This creates ‘cut’ problem that
is a cantilever beam.

9.2. Force Method.

a) Sketch 3 alternative approaches to solving this indeterminate problem using the

force method. For each approach, you will need two sketches of the auxiliary
systems.

b) Using one of the approaches sketched in a) , solve the system to find the reaction
at B (in kN)
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Topic 10: Indeterminate Beams – Displacement Method

Introduction
In this chapter we will introduce the displacement method used to solve structural
problems and introduce the standard stiffness components for a beam in 2D and 3D
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Indeterminate Problem
We start by considering the indeterminate beam as shown below. This could be
described as a fixed-pinned beam or a cantilever with a pinned end.

Find MA RA and RB

To solve this problem with the displacement (stiffness) method we create two sub-
problems, each simpler than the whole problem. Rather than removing a support
(removing a force or moment), we remove a movement (i.e we completely fix the
structure). This becomes the problem marked * below. To the * problem, we add a
second problem, the ** problem, that fixes any errors that we created with the *
problem. In this case we have a moment MB* that should not exist, while we have a
B* that should not be zero. So, in the ** problem, we impose B**, (and only a B**)
sufficiently large to cause a moment MB** that is equal and opposite to MB*.
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fixed-fixed beam applied moment at pin

known solution the moments and forces can be found
MA*=- MB*=pL2/12 from the “stiffness” terms, as shown
RA*=RB*=pL/2 below:
MB**= B** 4EI/L
MA**= B** 2EI/L
RB**= - B** 6EI/L2
RA**= B** 6EI/L2

To solve the problem we use;

MB**+ MB*=0
which gives;
B** 4EI/L - pL2/12 = 0

from this we can solve for B**;

B** = pL3/(48 EI) = 0

from this we can find all other ** terms;

MA**= pL3/(48 EI) 2EI/L = 1/24 pL2
RB**= - pL3/(48 EI) 6EI/L2 = - 1/8 pL
RA**= pL3/(48 EI) 6EI/L2 = 1/8 pL

from this we can find the reactions;

MA =MA* + MA** = pL2/12 + pL2/24 = 1/8 pL2
RB = RB* + RB** = - pL/8 + pL/2 = 3/8 pL
RA = RA* + RA** = pL/8 + pL/2 = 5/8 pL

The terms used to find MB**, MA**, RB** and RA** are called stiffness terms because the
are an ‘action per unit movement’, such as a force per unit displacement or moment
per unit rotation. They can also be a kind of ‘cross stiffness’ such as a force per unit
rotation or a moment per unit displacement. In the case of the example above, with
the equations;

MB**= B** 4EI/L

MA**= B** 2EI/L
RB**= - B** 6EI/L2
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RA**= B** 6EI/L2

The stiffness terms 4EI/L, 2EI/L, -6EI/L2 and 6EI/L2 are forces and moment ‘per unit
rotation’. We will define these stiffness terms in the next section.

Stiffness Terms
When using the stiffness method, we always need to find a set of forces and moments
that occur when we impose a movement at a support. The movement will correct a
situation that involved the suppression of a movement at a support. In our case here,
the structure is a beam, and the supports are at the ends of the beam. The supports
prevent the ends of the beam from moving. There are 3 possible movements at a
support for a 2D problem, and 6 for a 3D problem. Because of this we will define a
standard set of ‘degrees of freedom’ for a beam. A ‘degree of freedom’ can have either
a force or displacement, or a rotation or moment. The standard 2D degrees of freedom
for a beam are shown below;

2D beam = 6 degrees of freedom

The degrees of freedom follow the Cartesian system, with the right-hand rule. These
are essentially x, y, rotation (called rz). In general, to impose a unit movement in one
(and only one) of these degrees of freedom, we need to also impose a set of
forces/moments, The forces/moments must be in equilibrium. These forces/moments
will be ‘stiffnesses’.

The mechanics are linear. This means that the set of forces/moments corresponding
to each movement can be added to those of any other movement. A general solution
for any set of movements of the degrees of freedom can be found by superposition.

For now we will just consider the 2D case and derive the stiffness terms. There are 6
degrees of freedom. For each degree of freedom, there are potentially 6 forces or
moments that develop. This means that there are a total of 36 stiffness terms. Any
single term would be labeled kij, meaning the force/moment at i due to a
displacement/rotation at j. For example;

k11 = force at 1 due to unit displacement at 1

k41 = moment at 4 due to unit displacement at 1
k26 = force at 2 due to unit rotation at 6

All the terms can be written in matrix form as;

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 k 11 k 12 k 13 k 14 k 15 k 16 
k k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26 
 21
k k 32 k 33 k 34 k 35 k 36 
K   31 
k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46 
k 51 k 52 k 53 k 54 k 55 k 56 
 
k 61 k 62 k 63 k 64 k 65 k 66 
We will now derive these 36 terms. Luckily, they are not all unique.

Axial Terms
The axial terms are found by asking what set of forces is required to create a unit
displacement at d.o.f. #1 (and only #1);

For axial compression, the deflection under load is;

F1L F AE
1   1  1  k11 
AE 1 L

the force at d.o.f. #4 is equal and opposite to the force at #1;

F4  AE
F 4  F1   k 41 
1 L

There are no other forces (at #2, 3, 5, 6), so we have;

F2
 k 21  0 and k 31  k 51  k 61  0
1
A displacement at 4 would require a similar set of forces, so that we can also write;
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AE  AE
k 44  , k 14  , k 24  k 34  k 54  k 64  0
L L

This has given us 12 terms, 1/3 of all the terms we need. Next we will find the terms
for the #2 and #5 direction.

Shear Terms
The shear terms are found from the set of forces is required to create a unit
displacement at d.o.f. #2 (and only #2);

For shear of this type, the deflection is;

F2 L3 F 12 EI
2   1  2  k 22 
12 EI 2 L3

Note: to derive this easily, think of the beam as two cantilevers, each L/2 long, with a
point load at the end, equal to F2.

The force at d.o.f. #5 is equal and opposite to the force at #2;

F5  12 EI
F 5  F 2   k 52 
2 L3

Following from the double cantilever notion, the end moments (M3, M6) are ;
L 6 EI
M 3  M 6  F2  k 32  k 62 
2 L2
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There are no axial forces, so;

k 12  k 42  0

A displacement at #5 require a similar set of forces, so that we can also write;

12 EI 12 EI  6 EI
k 55  3 , k 25  , k 35  k 65  , k 15  k 45  0
L L3 L2
This has given us 12 more terms, for 2/3 of all the terms we need. Next we will find
the terms for the #3 and #6 direction.

Rotary Terms
The rotary terms are found from the set of forces/moments required to create a unit
rotation at d.o.f. #3 (and only #3);

For illustration and to find these stiffness terms we will solve the system. We can
draw the shear force, moment, slope and deflection diagrams as below;
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Q( x)  F2

M ( x)  M 3  F2  x

1  2 
 ( x)   3    M 3 x  F2  x 
EI  2 


1  x2 x3 
 ( x)   2  3 x   M3  F2  
EI  2 6 

We can use the boundary conditions (3=1, 2=0, (L)=0,(L)=0) to find M3 and F2.
1  2 
 ( L)  0  1    M 3 L  F2  L 
EI  2 

1  L2 L3 
 ( L)  0  0  L   M  F 
EI  6 
3 2
2

These two equations can be solved to get;

4 EI 6 EI
M3  , F2 
L L2
from these we can find;

2 EI  6 EI
M6  , F5 
L L2

This allows to find the stiffness terms;

4 EI 2 EI 6 EI  6 EI
k 33  , k 63  k 23  2 , k 53  , k 13  k 43  0
L L L L2
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A rotation at #6 require a similar set of forces, so that we can also write;

4 EI 2 EI 6 EI 6 EI
k66  , k36  k 26  2 , k56  2 , k 16  k 46  0
L L L L

We can collect all these terms in the matrix;

 AE  AE 
 L 0 0 0 0 
L
 12 EI 6 EI  12 EI 6 EI 
 0 0 
 L3 L2 L3 L2 
 6 EI 4 EI  6 EI 2 EI 
 0 L2 L
0
L2 L 
K  
  AE 0 0
AE
0 0 
 L L 
  12 EI  6 EI 12 EI  6 EI 
 0 L3 L2
0
L3 L2 
 6 EI 2 EI  6 EI 4 EI
 0 0 
 L2 L L2 L 

Note that the matrix is symmetrical. This means that terms such as k35 (moment at
#3 due to displacement at #5) is equal to k35 (force at #5 due to rotation at #3). This
may seem quite odd that these two items would be equal. We will examine this in the
next Chapter.

The standard 3D degrees of freedom for a beam are shown below;

3D beam = 12 degrees of freedom

The K matrix for a 3D beam is a 12x12 (144 terms).

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Topic 10: Problems

10.1. Solve the pinned-pinned beam by using the displacement method as sketched below. The
solution for the fixed-fixed beam is the same as above. Then it is necessary to show that
MB*+MB**+MB***=0 and MA*+MA**+MA***=0. Note: MA** = ½ MB**, and MB*** =
½ MA***.

10.2. Describe how you would solve the beam shown below by using the displacement method.

10.3. For the simple beam shown below, derive the shear stiffness terms (i.e k15 to k65)

10.4. Solve the beam shown below using the stiffness method. Find the reactions at A and B,
and the deflection at B.
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ANS: MA= 166667 N-m, MB = 83333N-m B = -.2082m

10.5. Stiffness method .

sketch a 2D beam and show the degrees of freedom.
Describe the meaning of the terms (any, all) in the 6x6 stiffness matrix for a 2D
beam, and give 2 examples.

10.6. Explain the difference between the “Force” method, and the “Displacement” method.

10.7. In the stiffness method for a 2D beam, the standard value for the k22 stiffness term is;
𝑬𝑰
𝒌𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝟑
𝑳

Derive this equation (Tables in appendix may be useful).

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Topic 11: Solving Beam Problems using Superposition

The Louvre

Introduction
In this topic we will discuss how to use tabulated solutions for beams to construct
solutions for other cases.

In previous sections we have made use of superposition to help solve problems. In

this section we will discuss how to make use of any known solutions to build a
solution to another problem. In general, because superposition holds, the effect of
any one force is independent of other forces. The response to each force (deflections,
stresses etc) can be determined individually and added to the responses to other
forces. The total response is just the sum of the individual responses.

The most common types of problems that can be solved with superposition are those
where only the loads are different.

Example No. 1: Find the value of the deflection at B for this 2m cantilever beam with
a 1kN load at B and a 2kN load at the center.
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The first part of the solution is found on he first page of appendix 4, using the
problem labeled “cantilever end-force”. The deflection at B caused by the 1kN force
at B is;

The deflection at B caused by a load at C can be found in two steps, by adding the
deflection at C caused by load at C and the slope at C time the length from C to B:

(Note: You can check this result against the formula in the tables). Now the total
deflection is found by adding the two deflections;

In the second type of problem, we can solve the problem by breaking the problem
into simpler parts, and look up those solutions.

Example No. 2: Find the value of the deflection at C for this 3m beam with 2 simple
supports.

The problem can be seen as a cantilever attached to a simply supported beam. The
beam is thus subjected to a moment at its end. The support end of the cantilever
rotates. The deflection at C is the combination of two effects – the deflection of the
cantilever due to bending plus the deflection of the cantilever due to base rotation.
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The rotation of point B is caused by the moment of 3 kNm;

The deflection at C caused by the rotation at B is;

The bending deflection at C is;

The combination of the two effects gives;

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Topic 11: Problems

11.1 Find the moment at A using tabulated solutions #14 and #11.

11.2 Find the reaction at B using tabulated solutions #1 and #4.

11.3 Describe the best way to solve this problem. Are the tables useful?

11.4 Find the reaction at B using tabulated solutions #1 and #6.

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Topic 12: The Moment Distribution Method

Venice

Introduction
In this chapter we will describe the moment distribution method for solving
indeterminate beams
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Overview
The moment distribution method is a type of
displacement (stiffness) method because it makes
use of the stiffness terms we derived earlier. It is
particularly useful for solving problems involving
beams over multiple supports, and frames with
moment connections. It is what can be termed a
‘relaxation’ method. This refers to the iterative way
that errors are ‘relaxed’. The method can be solved
manually on paper with a simple calculator, and
was once the dominant method used in professional
practice. These days it can easily be solved with a
spreadsheet, but is seldom used professionally. Its
current value is in helping students develop an
understanding of structural behavior. The essence
of structures is the interconnected behavior of
structural elements. The moment distribution
method is all about the way neighboring elements
interact.

Hardy Cross The method was developed by Prof. Hardy Cross in

(Wikipedia) the 1920s and 30s. Cross studied at MIT and
Harvard, taught at Brown, Illinois and Yale and
consulted extensively.
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Prof. Hardy Cross described his procedure as follows:

" The method of moment distribution is this:

1. Imagine all joints in the structure held so that they cannot rotate and compute
the moments at the ends of the members for this condition;
2. At each joint distribute the unbalanced fixed-end moment among the
connecting members in proportion to the constant for each member defined as
"stiffness";
3. Multiply the moment distributed to each member at a joint by the carry-over
factor at the end of the member and set this product at the other end of the member;
4. Distribute these moments just "carried over";
5. Repeat the process until the moments to be carried over are small enough to be
neglected; and
6. Add all moments - fixed-end moments, distributed moments, moments carried
over - at each end of each member to obtain the true moment at the end."

Description of Method
The moment distribution method is a way to solve
indeterminate structures comprised of beams. The
method works for continuous beams over multiple
supports and for frames. In its basic form it does
not consider joint translation. All joints are only
assumed to rotate, as would occur at a pin or roller
support, or at a frame connection (beams to
column) where sway is prevented. Subsidence of a
support can easily be handled. An extended version
can treat sway of a frame system.

Fixed End Moments – FEM : To start the procedure, all

joint are considered fixed and all fixed-end
moments are calculated. One example of fixed end
moments is shown below for a beam with a central
point force. The moments are expressed as true
moments acting on the supports. This is an
important point. Note that both end moments in
the sketch cause concave downward bending, and
would this have the same sign in a bending
moment diagram. But here they have opposite true
senses (clockwise on left and counterclockwise on
right) and so have opposite signs. And we keep
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tract of the moments acting from the beam, not the

reactions by the support.

Moment Distribution factors - : At each joint

where two or more beams connect, each beam
provides part of the rotary stiffness. When an
external moment is applied to the joint, it rotates
as a unit, with each of the connecting beams
resisting part of the total moment. The portion of
the total is called the moment distribution factor -
. For each beam the moment will be :

𝑀𝑖 = 𝑘33𝑖 𝜃𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

where 𝑘33 is beam end rotation stiffness (see Ch10);

4 𝐸𝐼𝑖
𝑘33𝑖 = for beam i
𝐿𝑖

The moment distribution factor is;

𝑀𝑖 𝑘33𝑖 𝜃𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)𝑖

𝛼𝑖 = =𝜃 =∑ 𝛼2 =
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∑𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑘33𝑗 𝑎𝑙𝑙(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿 )
(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)2
(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)1 +(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)2 +(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)3
Carry-Over factors - CO: As we saw earlier, when one
end of a bean is rotated, the other end of the beam
experiences a moment as well. This is the 𝑘63
moment. In other words, when a moment is applied
to one end of a beam, and the far end is fixed, that
other end experiences a moment. Because 𝑘63 is
half of 𝑘33 , the far end moment is always half of the
near end moment. Therefore the carry over factor is
always 0.5.

Steps in the Moment-Distribution Method

The steps in the MDM are shown on the left.

The steps are discussed in more detail below.
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Step 1: sketch the structure:

Sketch the structure, show the loads and number

the joints. In the case of two or more members
connected at a joint, there is one 'end' for each
beam. Any correcting moment applied to the joint is
divided among the ends according to the moment
distribution factor.

Step 2: plan the solution strategy and determine if

the structure will sway

In the standard type of problem the joints do not

translate, they only rotate. Axial and shear
deformations are ignored. Only bending
deformations are considered. If the model supports
permit one or more joints to translate, and the load
is such that it will cause such a movement, we need
to consider sway. The example structures at the left
show both types (no-sway and sway).

Note: And 'imposed' joint movement, as would

occur when a support 'settles' a fixed amount, is not
a sway problem. Imposed movements are just as
easy to solve as are applied loads.
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In cases where there are redundant parts of the

structure (a determinant sub-structure), such as
cantilever portions as shown at left, these should be
removed and replaced with the moments or forces
that they cause on the remaining structure.

Step 3: Find moment distribution factors  :

For each joint we find the set of moment

distribution factors. In general;

(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)𝑖
𝛼𝑖 =
∑𝑎𝑙𝑙(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)

The moments will tend to be larger in the stiffer

members, where rotary stiffness is 𝐸𝐼/𝐿. Thus the
shorter members will tend to have the higher
𝛼 factors.

Step 4: Find fixed-end moments:

In this step, we find the fixed end moments for each

beam end. In the example at left, we have 3 beams
connected in a frame. The top two have loads and
so have fixed-end moments. The vertical beam (the
column) is unloaded so its FEM are zero.

Steps 5, 6, 7, 8, 9: Perform iterative calculation to

correct end moments. The fixed-end moments found
in step 4 are the first estimate of the solution. The
moments are in equilibrium with the external
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loads, with the only problem being that some of the

joints are incorrectly fixed, when they should be
free to rotate. We will set up a calculation table
that will allow us to add a correcting moment to
each joint. We will perform the corrections
iteratively and the solution will converge to the
correct answer.

The table with the solution is shown on the next

page. With two beam, there are 4 end and so there
are 4 columns in the table. The first row contains
the moment distribution factors. The second
contains a note describing the target moment (this
is an extra feature normally not included). The
third row contains the fixed end moments. The
fourth row shows the total correction (later
ignored), with the fifth row dividing the correction
among the beam ends. The sixth row adds the
carry-over moments from the neighboring ends.
And then the seventh row add the third, fifth and
sixth row terms to get a new estimate for the end
moments.

The whole process is repeated until the solution is

sufficiently converged.
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Steps 10: Solve for the other reactions and beam

responses.

Once the end moments on a beam are known, the

vertical reactions can be found from static
equilibrium.

Remember that the end moments found in the

MDM are moments acting "on" the supports.
Moment reactions "from" the supports are opposite
to these.

Once the vertical reactions are found, all other

responses (distribution of shear, bending, slope
deflection, stress) can be found using normal beam
theory.
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Example 2: Here is a simple case that solves fully

in 1 iteration. This will happen when there is only
one joint that needs to rotate to bring the problem
into equilibrium.

Also note that this example shows a case of

different EI values.
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Example 3: Here is a case that shows a frame with

two columns. This is a relatively complex case,
though without sway.

with the end moments solved, the full set of

horizontal and vertical reactions can be found using
force and moment equilibrium.
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With the reactions found, the shear force and

bending moment diagrams can be sketched as
follows:

The bending moments above are drawn on the

compression side of the beam. Deflections can be
found by double integration of the moment
diagram.

Exercise: What is the slope at joint #3?

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Topic 12: Problems

12.1. Moment distribution method

12.2. Moment distribution method

12.3. Moment distribution method. For the case shown on the attached page (Figure 1), fill in
the first two cycles of the MD calculations.

12.4. For the statically indeterminate beam shown below, with the loads, properties and end
conditions as given,
a) Solve using the moment distribution method.
b) What is the vertical reaction at the middle support
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12.5. A 3 bar frame is shown below.

Solve for the moments using the moment distribution method.
Sketch the deformed shape.
Find the vertical reaction at the pin (the right hand end).

12.6. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).

12.7. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).
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12.8. For the case shown below, set up and fill in the first two cycles of the Moment
Distribution calculations.

12.9. A 2 bar structure is shown below.

Solve for the moments using the moment distribution method.
Find the vertical reaction at the pin A (the left).
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Topic 13: The Moment Distribution Method with

Sway

Introduction
In this chapter we will extend the application of the
moment distribution method for solving frames with
sway
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

In the previous chapter we dealt with beams and frames

in which joints could not translate due to bending. In
this chapter we all add the possibility of sway motion.
For simplicity we will only consider one sway motion.
a Quadrant

The solution of a sway problem

takes two parts. In the first
part a unit sway sway is
imposed on the structure (call
this the * problem). The
imposed motion causes initial
fixed end moments, which
relax as the solution
progresses, just as happens
with applied forces. The force
required to impose the unit
sway can be found once the
solution is found, just like the
other reactions. In the example
at left this is F*2x .

In the second problem (the 'f'

problem) the sway is
prevented, and the problem
solved.
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To get the total

solution we need to
scale the * problem by
 (we call this the **
problem) and add it to
the 'f ' problem.

How large is  ?

 is chosen so that the

conditions at the "false"
sway support are
corrected.

If there is no direct
force at the false
support, (as in the
example at left), we
want:
F*2x = -F f2x

If there is a direct
force at the false
support, we would
want:
F*2x = F2x - F f2x
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Example of MDM with Sway

To illustrate the moment distribution method with
sway, we will use a problem similar to Example 3
in Topic 13. In this case the problem has a roller on
the left, instead of a pin. As a result the frame can
sway.

To solve the problem we need to split the problem

into two component problems. The first problem
has sway prevented (by a pin on the left support).
The complementary problem has an imposed sway
which will create a reaction of opposite magnitude
to the first problem.

The first problem was solved in Example 3

above. The reaction at the left hand pin was (see
pg. 130);
𝐹1𝑥 = 17.1 𝑘𝑁

Now we solve the second problem with a unit

displacement  applied to the roller. For the
imposed unit displacement, we have the initial
fixed end moments as shown at the left. For
example the moments in the right column are;

6 𝐸𝐼 ∆ 6 ∙ 100 ∙ 1
𝑀= 2
= = 3.84 𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝐿 12.52

Once we have solved the second problem, and found

the reaction at the roller, we scale the whole
solution to match the reaction with the 17.1 kN we
need. The final answer is the sum of the scaled
solution of second problem and the solution of the
first problem. All the solutions needed are
presented below in the form of spreadsheets.
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The solution of Problem #1:

This is the solution of Problem #2:

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This is the solution of Problem #2, scaled to counteract the pin force from problem #1
(call this #2a):

This is the sum of Problem #1 + #2a, which is the frame with roller solution. The
values are moments at the locations indicated.

1 2 3 4 5
A B C D E F G H
MDM 0.0 183.89 -294.13 110.24 127.84 - 82.27 5.59
127.84
BEAM3D 0.0 183.8 -294.4 110.6 127.3 -127.3 83.9 6.47

To confirm these values independently, the same problem was analyzed in the DnV
program BEAM3D. The values shown above correspond very well with the MDM
results. The plots from BEAM3D are shown below;
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1 2 3

Z
4

bending moment diagram, and reactions.

1 2 3

X 4

shear force (red), bending moment and deflections (exaggerated)

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Topic 13: Problems

13.1. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).

13.2. A 3 bar frame is shown below.

Solve for the moments using the moment distribution method.
Sketch the deformed shape.
Find the vertical reaction at the pin (the right hand end).
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Topic 14: Matrix Structural Analysis

Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss a very general method to analyze structures, to give
bending moments and axial forces in general frame structures.

A General concept for structural analysis

The behavior of a structure can be expressed in
matrix form as;

This type of equation is 'discrete'. It represents a

set of relationships among a finite set of degrees of
freedom (dof).
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For a general structure or arbitrary shape, the

behavior can be adequately described by describing
the behavior of a set of points. In such a case, all
forces would have to be applied at the points and
all responses would be determined at the points.
Actions and responses at other points can be
considered, as long as there is a way to gather
actions to points and to interpolate response to
locations between points.

We might define arbitrary degrees of freedom, for

which we could write;

But how would we find the kij terms? For an

arbitrary body (a violin, a rock, a teapot ...) the kij
terms would be hard to find. There would be no
table of standard values.

The kij terms could be found by experiment.

- apply a test force at dof "i", measure all
displacements at dofs "j":

𝐹𝑖
𝑘𝑖𝑗 = ⁄𝛿
𝑗
But is it even possible to apply a force at "i" and
only "i" ? Remember that 𝐹𝑖 includes reactions as
well as applied forces (there is no difference as far
as the structure is concerned!)

Determining 𝑘𝑖𝑗 experimentally is not practical.

The best one can do is to attempt to validate the 𝑘𝑖𝑗
matrix experimentally by measuring responses and
comparing to predictions.

To make the determination of a structural stiffness

matrix practical, we normally describe a structure
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using regularly shaped parts, with standard

degrees of freedom.

For the 3 bar frame at left, we can define the define

local degrees of freedom for each member using the
same standard approach that was described in
Chapter 11. We will start from the local element
stiffness matrices and assemble the full structural
global stiffness matrix, just to illustrate the
process.

The local degrees of freedom follow the individual

members, while the global degrees of freedom are
all aligned to the Cartesian (x-y) system. The other
aspect is that global degrees of freedom refer to
nodes of a structure, rather than to ends of
members. This means that several member ends
can share a single set of degrees of freedom.

The matrices below show the local and global

versions of the stiffness matrix for beam 1. The
difference is the way the degrees of freedom are
defined. In this case the global degrees of freedom
are just versions of the local dofs.
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Aside: There is a general way to find the global

stiffnesses for a rotated bar. The rotation matrix
can be used to find the stiffness terms for a rotated
beam. In a rotated beam dof 1 is partly axial and
partly shear, as is dof 2. But as
superposition holds, any movement along
dof 1 can be expresses as some axial and
some shear, and the resulting axial and
shear forces can be resolved back into the 1
and 2 directions.

The matrix below and the matrix operation

expresses the mix of effects in a concise way.
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(suggestion: derive the rotation matrix using vector

algebra).

In the case of a 90 degree rotation, the rotation

matrix has the effect of doing row-column swaps.
For other angles the effect is more complicated.

Beam 2 has a local [k] that is similar to beam 1

except that area is 2A and modulus is 4I. The
global [k] looks similar to the local [k], except that
the numbering is shifted.
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Beam 3 has a local [k] that is the same as beam 1.

The global [k] also looks similar to the global [k], of
beam 1 because a rotation of +90 produces a similar
effect to -90. The only change is that the numbering
is shifted.

The structural stiffness matrix is just the sum of

the global versions of the member stiffness
matrices. Where two terms share a dof, the two
values are added. This is again reflecting the
simple idea of superposition in linear systems that
Hooke first saw.
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Stiffness matrices are symmetrical. This is a

curious property, especially when you think about
the off-diagonal terms. Some of the terms refer to
forces per unit rotation and moments per unit
translation.

With the whole stiffness matrix assembled, we

have a single equation that relates all actions
(forces and moments) with all movements
(translation and rotations):

To solve the system of twelve by twelve equations

we need to identify the twelve unknowns. It is
(almost) never the case that we would know twelve
deflections and want to know twelve forces. Nor
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would we know twelve forces and look for the

deflections. Typically, we know some forces (mostly
zero) and some deflections (zero at supports):

We should have some combination of unknown

loads and deflections that adds up to twelve. If we
don't, we can't solve the system.

Note that the structure does not know what is an

applied force and what is a reaction. All the
structure know is whether it is in equilibrium.

There are a variety of ways of solving matrix

equations like:

There are various numerical strategies used in

linear algebra that are used to solve such systems.
Gaussian elimination is one common method. We
can assume that if we have N equations in N
unknowns that we can solve it.
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To solve these in Maple (see 3bar_frame.pdf or

3bar_frame.mw), we would just expand the matrix
expression into a set of 12 simultaneous equations;

Maple will solve these equations in either

numerical or algebraic form, giving expressions for
all results in terms of the variable. For example, for
this problem, Maple will give;

Q1: With the above solution for force and

deflections at the nodes (the dofs), how would we
find the stresses in each member?

A1: To find the stresses we have to return to the

individual beams. We use the global stiffness
matrix of a single member. For example, for the
cross beam in the previous example (beam 2), we
find the member forces as follows;

The forces are not the same as found above. They

are only the forces that act on the individual
member.
The beam forces are found as follows:
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Note that there is no axial force (would be F4, F7) in

Beam 2. This is because the roller at bottom of
beam 3 releases all horizontal force. The applied
load of 10 must all be transmitted to ground
through Beam1. With these forces and moments we
can find the shear force and bending moment
diagrams, along with the axial, shear and bending
stresses:
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Because there was no load along the member, the

maximum stresses in the above case occurred at
the ends of the beam.

Q2: How are loads along a beam dealt with?

A2: Loads that are act between dofs are dealt

with in three steps. In step 1, the fixed end forces
and stresses that the loads cause are found. In step
2, the fixed end actions are placed on a full
structural model and solved. All responses,
including deflection, stresses, strains, for the full
structure (including the beam where the loads
acted) can be found for the whole structure.
The complete solution comes from adding the two
solutions (step1 + step2):
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Topic 14: Problems

14.1 Frame Structures can be analyzed by "Matrix Structural Analysis" or by solution of sets
of continuous differential equations. Compare and contrast these two approaches.

14.2 The stiffness matrix for a 2D beam is said to have axial, shear and rotary terms. Give
examples of each of the 3 types of stiffness (i.e. 3 examples of the individual kij terms), with a
sketch of the terms.

14.3 Describe what is meant by the “rotary stiffness terms” in the stiffness matrix of a beam.
Explain which terms in the matrix are rotary terms and how they are derived.

14.4 1For the 4-bar frame shown below, the 2D solution is found by solving 12 equations in
matrix form shown beneath. For the case of the loads and boundary conditions as shown, fill
in the 14 columns (there is 1 column for forces, 1 for displacements and 12 in the stiffness
matrix), with any known values. In the force and displacement vectors, write in a zero (0) for
known zero values and the letter X or variable name for other unknown values. In the stiffness
matrix write a 0 for the zero terms and the letter K for a non-zero stiffness terms. You only
need to fill in the upper half of the stiffness matrix. You don’t need any equations or numbers
(other than 0).

14.5 A 2 part frame is shown below.

Construct the full structural stiffness matrix for the structure. Describe the steps you take to do so.
Write the force-deflection equation for the structure in matrix format, showing all terms (ie include all terms
in the matrices or vectors). Explain which, if any, terms are unknown.
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14.6 Assuming that you are using a program that performs matrix structural analysis, explain
concisely how the global stiffness terms for the joint circled in the sketch below are
determined. You don’t have to solve this frame.
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Topic 15: Overview of Finite Element Theory

Introduction
In this chapter we will introduce the 2D finite element called the constant stress
triangle (cst) and show how to derive the element stiffness and all output values from
energy considerations
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Finite element method
Recall that for a beam, we can relate the end loads
by a stiffness equation in matrix form;

F  K x
We can find the K terms for a beam by solving the
beam bending equation for various end movements.
To find the displacement of some point along the
beam (at x ) we could solve the system for the
displaced shape. We would find that the
displacements would be;

dx  d 1  x ( d 4  d 1 ) (why so simple?)
and
dy  d 2  f ( x , d 3 , d 5 , d 6 ) (why is this more
complex?)
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For this beam element, we made use of what is

called ‘beam theory’, to solve for the loads and
deflections under certain loading conditions.

However, in the case of most finite elements, such

as 2D planar elements, plate elements, and solid
elements, we will not start from some general
analytical solution of a loaded membrane, plate or
solid. These solutions are too complex and will not
give practical results. Instead, we assume some
very simple behaviors, highly idealized, but which
satisfy the basic requirements for equilibrium (i.e.
forces balance, energy is conserved). With this
approach, the single element does not really model
the behavior or a comparable real solid object of the
same shape. This is ok, because the aggregate
behavior of a set of these simple elements will
model the behavior quite well. This is something
like modeling a smooth curve as a series of straight
lines (even horizontal steps). This is locally wrong,
but overall quite accurate.

Constant Stress Triangle

To illustrate the way that finite elements are
formulated, we will derive the full description of an
element called the constant stress triangle (cst). This
is a standard 2D element that is available in most
finite element models.
Consider a 2D element which is only able to take in-
plane stress. The three corners of the triangle can
only move in the plane.

For this element the force balance is;

F  K e
6 x1  6x66 x1

We want to determine the element stiffness matrix Ke

, and we want it to be valid for any triangle;

So, while we have six degrees of freedom, as we did in

the beam case, we don't have any hand analytical
solutions. To create a general solution that will apply
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to all triangles we will make some very simple

assumptions which will allow us to model 2D stress
problems (such as a web in shear, or stresses in plane
around a cutout in a web. .

We will follow the outline in Hughes (p. 245-253).

Step 1 - select a suitable displacement function.

Consider the movement of a general triangle. Each

corner moves differently, and every point inside
moves.

The movement in x is defined as u and the

movement is y is defined a v. Both u and v are
functions of x and y ;

∆𝑥 = 𝑢
∆𝑦 = 𝑣

𝑢 = 𝑓𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑣 = 𝑓𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦)

Assuming that the material in the triangle is

isotropic (no preferred direction), then we would
expect the two displacement functions 𝑓𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦) and
𝑓𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) to look similar.

The functions for u and v can only depend on the 6

nodal displacements (that all the info that we have to
define movement), so we can have no more than 6
unknown coefficients for both functions.

A trial function;
a) lets try: 𝑢 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑦 + 𝑐3 (𝑥 + 𝑦)

is this ok? No! Why? Because it means that at (0,0)

(the origin) there is no movement. It would be as if all
elements are pinned to the origin.

b) lets try: 𝑢 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑦 + 𝑐3 (𝑥𝑦)

is this ok? No! Why? same problem.

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The simplest viable functions for u and v that has 6

coefficients is;
𝑢 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑐4 + 𝑐5 𝑥 + 𝑐6 𝑦

Occam's razor, in latin: "lex parsimoniae " (the law of

simple), is a principle that says: from among
alternative explanations, the one that works, but
makes the fewest new assumptions is usually correct.
The concept is central to rational thought. William
Occam was a 14th century English Friar and writer.

This provides a very simple but viable general

description of the displacement field. We can re-write
the displacement function in matrix form;
𝑐1
𝑐2
𝑢 1 𝑥 𝑦 0 0 0 𝑐3
𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) = { } = [ ]
𝑣 0 0 0 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑐4
𝑐5
{ 𝑐6 }
𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑯 𝑪

Now we have the displacement function.

Step 2 - Find the constants in C

at the corners we can write;
1 𝑥1 𝑦1 0 0 0
𝛿1 = 𝛿(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = [ ]𝑪
0 0 0 1 𝑥1 𝑦1

1 𝑥2 𝑦2 0 0 0
𝛿2 = 𝛿(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = [ ]𝑪
0 0 0 1 𝑥2 𝑦2

1 𝑥3 𝑦3 0 0 0
𝛿3 = 𝛿(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) = [ ]𝑪
0 0 0 1 𝑥3 𝑦3

The total displacement of the corners can be written;

𝑢1 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 0 0 0 𝑐1
𝑣1 0 0 0 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑐2
𝑢2 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 0 0 0 𝑐3
𝜹= 𝑣 =
2 0 0 0 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑐4
𝑢3 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 0 0 0 𝑐5
{𝑣3 } [0 0 0 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 ] {𝑐6 }

or
𝜹=𝑨𝑪
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A is called the connectivity matrix. It contains the

geometric information, the coordinates of the nodes of
the triangle. The terms in the C vector can be found;
𝑪 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝜹

𝑨−𝟏 is a 6x6 matrix;

𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 0
1 𝑦2 − 𝑦3
𝑨−𝟏 =
2 𝐴123
…
[ ]

where 2 𝐴123 is the determinant of the 3x3 coordinate

matrix;

1 𝑥1 𝑦1
2 𝐴123 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 [1 𝑥2 𝑦2 ]
1 𝑥3 𝑦3
where:
1 𝑥1 𝑦1
2 𝐴123 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 [1 𝑥2 𝑦2 ] = 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑦2 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 +
1 𝑥3 𝑦3
𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1

which happens to be 2x the area of the triangle (ie

𝐴123 is the area of the triangle).

We can now go back to;

𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑯(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑪

which we can re-write as;

𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑯(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑨−𝟏 𝜹

where 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) is the displacement of any point in the

triangle, 𝑨−𝟏 contains information on the geometry of
the triangle and 𝜹 contains the displacements of the
corner nodes of the triangle. This lets of find the
displacement anywhere by just tracking the
displacements of the nodes. Remember that the finite
element method lets us model a continuum by
modeling a discrete system of connected nodes.
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Step 3 - Find the strain in the element

We need to find the stress and strain in the element

so that we can determine the stiffness of the element.
The (2D) strains at any point in the element have 3
components;

𝜀𝑥
𝜀(𝑥, 𝑦) = { 𝜀𝑦 }
𝛾𝑥𝑦

where the strains are found from the partial

derivatives of the displacement field:

𝜕𝑢
𝜀𝑥 =
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑣
𝜀𝑦 =
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
recall that;
𝑢 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑐4 + 𝑐5 𝑥 + 𝑐6 𝑦

so that we have;
𝜕𝑢
𝜀𝑥 = = 𝑐2
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑣
𝜀𝑦 = = 𝑐6
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + = 𝑐3 + 𝑐5
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

which allows us to write;

𝑐2
𝜀(𝑥, 𝑦) = { 𝑐6 }
𝑐3 + 𝑐5
Note that the strains in the triangle are just
constants, and do not vary with x and y. This is the
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reason that this element is called the CST or constant

stress triangle.
We can write the strains in matrix form;
𝑐1
𝑐2
0 1 0 0 0 0 𝑐
𝜀(𝑥, 𝑦) = [0 0 0 0 0 1] 𝑐3
4
0 0 1 0 1 0 𝑐5
{𝑐6 }
and simplified to be;
𝜀(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑮 𝑪

We can substitute for C to get;

𝜺 = 𝑮 𝑨−𝟏 𝜹

This is the strain fully described in terms of nodal

coordinates and nodal displacements. We can collect
terms;
𝑩 = 𝑮 𝑨−𝟏

where B is called the strain coefficient matrix, and so

write;
𝜺=𝑩𝜹

G is a 3x6 matrix. A-1 is a 6x6, so B is a 3x6 matrix

that relates the 3 strains to the 6 nodal
displacements.

Step 4 - Find the element stresses (and forces)

Start by defining the stresses;

𝜎𝑥
𝜎
𝝈={ 𝑦}
𝜏𝑥𝑦

We can write Hooke's law in matrix form as;

𝜀𝑥 𝜎𝑥
1 1 −𝜈 0
𝜀
{ 𝑦 } = [−𝜈 1 0 𝜎
]{ 𝑦 }
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐸 0 0 2(1 + 𝜈) 𝜏𝑥𝑦

or in terms of stress;
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𝜎𝑥 1 𝜈
0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 𝜈 1
0
{ 𝜎𝑦 } = 2
[ 𝜀
1 − 𝜈 2 ] {𝛾 }
𝑦
𝜏𝑥𝑦 1−𝜈
00 𝑥𝑦
2
In simpler form we write the stresses as;

𝝈=𝑫𝜺

where D is called the elasticity matrix. Now we can

use 𝜺 = 𝑩 𝜹 to let us write;

𝝈=𝑫𝑩𝜹
or
𝝈=𝑺𝜹

where 𝑺 = 𝑫 𝑩 and is called the stress matrix.

Step 5 - Obtain the Element Stiffness Matrix

Idea: To obtain the element stiffness we will use the

principle of virtual work. The principle of virtual work
states that for a body in equilibrium, the virtual work
done by real forces fi acting through any viable
pattern of virtual displacements * will be zero. In our
case we wish to equate the work done by the real
nodal forces with the work done to distort the
element.

The external work done for a set of 6 virtual

displacements will be;

𝑾𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝜹∗𝑻 𝒇
or
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f1
f2
f
𝑾𝒆𝒙𝒕 = [𝛿1∗ 𝛿2∗ 𝛿3∗ 𝛿4∗ 𝛿5∗ 𝛿6∗ ] 3
f4
f5
{f6 }
Note that, for example, f3 only does work when 3*
moves. And the work is the full amount of, f3 3*, as
f3 is fully active during the whole of 3* . Remember
that f3 does not cause 3*. We just imagine that 3*
occurs even as the nodal forces stay acting.

The internal work done is equal to the integral of

the stress time the strain over the volume;

𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕 = ∫ 𝜀 𝜎 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙

which in the case of the virtual work done one

element becomes;

𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕 = ∫ [𝜀 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑦)]𝑇 𝜎(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙

𝑉𝑜𝑙

which when making use of the strain coefficient

matrix and the elasticity matrix can be written as;

𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕 = ∫ [𝑩 𝜹∗ ]𝑇 𝐃 𝐁 𝛅 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙

In this equation 𝜹∗ refers to virtual displacements ,

while 𝜹 refers to real (existing) displacements.

𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕 = ∫ 𝑩𝑻 𝜹∗𝐓 𝐃 𝐁 𝛅 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙

𝑉𝑜𝑙

So if we say;
𝐖𝐞𝐱𝐭 = 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕
we can obtain;

𝜹∗𝑻 𝒇 = 𝜹∗𝐓 (∫ 𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 ) 𝛅

𝑉𝑜𝑙

which simplifies to;

E5003 – Ship Structures I 157
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𝒇 = (𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁 ∫ 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 ) 𝛅
𝑉𝑜𝑙
and;
𝒇 = (𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁(𝐴123 𝑡)) 𝛅
where t is the element thickness and 𝐴123 is the
element area. The term in the brackets is the
element stiffness;
𝑲𝒆 = (𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁(𝐴123 𝑡))

𝑲𝒆 is a 6x6 matrix ( 𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁 is 6x3 x 3x3 x 3x6 =

6x6)

Numerical Example: Consider this triangular

element with properties shown.

For this case the matrices are;

1 .1 .1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 .1 .1
1 .5 .2 0 0 0
𝑨=
0 0 0 1 .5 .2
1 .1 .3 0 0 0
[0 0 0 1 .1 . 3]

1.62 0 −.25 0 −.375 0

−1.25 0 2.5 0 −1.25 0
𝑨−𝟏 = −5 0 0 0 5 0
0 1.62 0 −.25 0 −.375
0 −1.25 0 2.5 0 −1.25
[ 0 −5 0 0 0 5 ]

𝐴123 = .08

0 1 0 0 0 0
𝑮 = [0 0 0 0 0 1]
0 0 1 0 1 0

𝑩 = 𝑮 𝑨−𝟏
−1.25 0 2.5 0 −1.25 0
=[ 0 −5 0 0 0 5 ]
−5 −1.25 0 2.5 5 −1.25

220000 65900 0
𝑫 = [ 65900 220000 0 ]
0 0 100000
E5003 – Ship Structures I 158
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−1.25 0 −5
0 −5 −1.25
𝑩𝑻 = 2.5 0 0
0 0 2.5
−1.25 0 2
[ 0 5 −1.25 ]

𝑲𝒆 = (𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁(𝐴123 𝑡))

4540 1660 −1100 −2000 −3460 341

1660 9060 −1320 −499 −341 −8540
𝒆
𝑲 = −1100 −1320 2210 0 −1100 1320
−2000 −499 0 1000 2000 −499
−3460 −341 −1100 2000 4540 −1660
[ 341 −8540 1320 −499 −1660 9060 ]

This is the stiffness matrix for a specific CST

element.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 159
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Topic 15: Problems

15.1 The displacement functions of the constant stress triangular element are:
u(x,y) = C1 + C2 x + C3 y
v(x,y) = C4 + C5 x + C6 y

where u represents the x-translation of any point (x,y) and v represents the y-
translation of the point.

15.2 A beam has only one coordinate (x). However, most beam models would allow a
point on the beam to rotate as well as translate. So, construct 3 simple displacement
functions;
u(x),
v(x),
(x),
of a ‘beam element’, using the same logic as was used to create the displacement
functions of the constant stress triangular element.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 160
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Topic 16: Hull Girder Shear Stresses

Italian Stone

Introduction
In this Chapter we will examine vertical shear in a ship and describe the idea of
shear flow.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Ships are made of steel plate. This means that

ships are thin walled shells. Even for the local
components such as individual frames the width of
a plate is much greater than its thickness;

𝐿≫𝑡

Overall, the cross section of a ship contains long

sections of connected plate. Such sections transfer
shear very effectively. Ships are generally very stiff
in shear, and need to be.

We wish to be able to determine the shear forces

and stresses everywhere in the cross section of a
ship. We will start by examining the shear that is
associated with the vertical bending stress. In a
later chapter we will examine torsion.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 161
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Recall from beam theory that shear is the slope of

the bending moment:

𝑑𝑀 = 𝑄 𝑑𝑥

𝑄 = 𝑑𝑀/ 𝑑𝑥

There is significant shear is a ship. How is it

distributed in the cross section? Shear is not just
in the vertical plates. There is shear in all parts of
the vessel. The average shear stress can be found
by dividing the shear force by the cross-section
area;

𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑄/𝐴𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟

How is Q distributed around the x-section of the

ship? Is the shear stress uniform? Is it only in
vertically oriented members? To find the pattern of
stress, we construct a free body diagram of a part
of a slice of the ship's cross section.

To find the shear on the cross section, we cut the

section longitudinally and note that the shear
stress on the cut must be the same as the shear
stress on the cross section at that point. We can
assume;

there is no shear on the centerline

the shear force on the cut is 𝜏 𝑡 𝑑𝑥

We find the force on the cut by integrating all

horizontal forces on out slice atarting from the
centerline (keel). We integrate along the shell
plating, using the path variable 's'.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 162
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Define:

m : 1st moment of area, about the neutral axis, of all

the material from the start to the cut at S (where 
is determined)

Define:

The units of shear flow is N/m.

There is an analogy between shear flow and fluid
flow. At an abrupt change in section, the shear flow
remains constant, while the stress abruptly
changes. This is analogous to water flow where at a
change in pipe size the mass flow rate (kg/s) would
stay constant while the velocity would abruptly
change.

We can combine the above concepts into one

equation;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 163
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Shear Flow Example 1: a rectangular steel bar subject to a shear force Q.

Summary:

Shear flow acts along the cross section of a plate.

There can be no significant shear across a thin
E5003 – Ship Structures I 164
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plate, because there is no shear on the inner and

outer surfaces. The shear flow is found by
determining the value of 'm' (a path integral)
along with Q (the total shear force) and I (the
moment of inertia);

Example 2: Shear Flow in a simple box-girder.

Consider the simple box girder with the dimensions

as show below. This is like a simple barge without
the frames. The overall vertical shear Q is 20 MN.
To find the pattern of shear flow and then the shear
stresses we first calculate the location of the
neutral axis, and I.

g and h are the distances from the deck and bottom

to the neutral axis;

∑ 𝑎𝑦 . 010 ∙ 10 ∙ 12 + .012 ∙ 12 ∙ 6 + 0 2.064

ℎ= = =
∑𝑎 . 010 ∙ 10 + .012 ∙ 12 + .015 ∙ 10 . 394

= 5.24 m

g = 12 − 5.24 = 6.76 m

The moment of inertia about the base can be

approximated by;

𝐵 2 1
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ≅ 𝑡𝐷 ∙ ∙ 𝐻 + 𝑡𝑆 ∙ 𝐻 3
2 3
1
= .01 ∙ 10 ∙ 12 + ∙ .012 ∙ 123
3
= 21.31 𝑚4 (ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝)

The moment of inertia about the neutral axis is;

𝐼𝑛𝑎 = 2 ∙ (𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑆𝐸 − 𝐴 ℎ2 ) = 21 𝑚4 (whole ship)

E5003 – Ship Structures I 165
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Now we can determine m

𝐼𝑛𝑎 = 2 ∙ (𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑆𝐸 − 𝐴 ℎ2 ) = 21 𝑚4

Next we find m. We will start at the centerline on

the bottom, where s1 starts;
𝑠1 𝑠1
𝑚 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑡𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = ℎ 𝑡𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑦 𝑡𝐵 𝑠1
0 0

𝐵 𝐵
@ 𝑠1 = 𝑚 = 𝑦 𝑡𝐵 = 0.786 𝑚3
2 2

Next we find m on the side shell, The initial value

for the side is the same as the final value for the
bottom. The shear flow continues around the
corner. We integrate along s2 (note: y = h - s2 ) ;
𝑠2
𝑚(𝑠2 ) = 𝑚(𝑠1 = 𝐵⁄2) + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡𝑆 𝑑𝑠
0

𝑠2
= 0.786 + ∫ (ℎ − 𝑠2 ) 𝑡𝑆 𝑑𝑠
0
𝑡𝑆 𝑠22
= 0.786 + ℎ 𝑡𝑆 𝑠2 −
2

This is a quadratic equation in s2. To find the

location of the maximum value, we set its
derivative to zero;

𝑑𝑚
= ℎ 𝑡𝑆 − 𝑡𝑆 𝑠2 = 0
𝑑𝑠2
𝑠2 = ℎ
This shows that the maximum shear flow is
occurring at the neutral axis;
2
𝑡𝑆 ℎ2
𝑚(𝑠2 = ℎ) = 0.786 + ℎ 𝑡𝑆 −
2
. 012 5.242
= 0.786 + = 0.951 𝑚3
2
E5003 – Ship Structures I 166
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Continuing the integral to the deck gives;

𝑡𝑆 𝐻 2
𝑚(𝑠2 = 𝐻) = 0.786 + = 0.677 𝑚3
2

Next we continue the integral along the deck, along

s3, to the centerline;
𝑠3
𝑚(𝑠3 ) = 0.677 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = .677 + 𝑔 𝑡𝐷 𝑠3
0

𝑚(𝑠3 ) = 0.677 − 6.76 ∙ 0.01 ∙ 𝑠3

𝐵
@ 𝑠3 = 𝑚 = 0.677 − 6.76 ∙ 0.01 ∙ 10 = 0 𝑚3
2

With the shear force of 20 MN (about 2000 tonnes)

The maximum shear stress is;

𝑄𝑚 20 ∙ 0.951
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 75.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑡 21 ∙ 0.012
Branching Shear:

At a T junction, the shear flow branches. As long as

there are no closed loops between the points of zero
shear (ie. pts A, B and C in the sketch at left) the
shear flow can be found easily. Such situations are
statically determinate.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 167
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Topic 16: Problems

16.1 An open section is shown below. This is the cross section of a long folded steel
plate. The cross section is subject to a shear force of 2 MN

Solve the shear flow, plot it and then also show the shear stress values.
If this is a section of a long cantilever (fixed at one end and free at the other) explain
what types of deformations would you expect to see.

16.2 An open section is shown below. This is the cross section of transverse frame in
a ship. The shear force of 200kN.
Solve the shear flow, plot it and then also show the shear stress values.
The web is welded to the shell plate. What shear force must be resisted at this joint?
E5003 – Ship Structures I 168
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Topic 17: Shear Stresses in multi-cell sections

Croatian Coast
Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss indeterminate shear flow, calculate shear slip in a cut
section and do an example of shear flow in a ship
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Shear in Multi-cell Sections

Consider a tanker with two longitudinal bulkheads;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 169
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There will likely be two spots in the cell where

m=0. The shear flow will look something like the
sketch to the left.

To solve the statically indeterminate problem, we

apply the same kind of technique that we used in
the Force Method to solve indeterminate beams.

We will cut the structure, releasing the shear force

and allowing shear deflection (called 'slip'). We will
then determine how much shear we have to apply
to the cell to remove the slip.

This is qualitatively similar to the correction of

movements in the force method.

For any case where the loops are not adjacent, the
steps in the solution process are;

1) Make n cuts to make the problem into a

statically determinate problem.
2) Solve the statically determinate problem.
3) Find the N incompatible deflections (slips).
4) Apply N internal forces (actually torsions) to
reverse the incompatible deflections
5) Add #2 and #4(s) to get the solution
The above steps are sketched below;

The cuts and the slip at the cuts are in the

longitudinal direction;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 170
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The shear flow occurs on the cross section, which is

a transverse vertical plane. The shear stresses on
this plane will also occur on a longitudinal plane at
right angles to the transverse plane. The
longitudinal plane may be horizontal or vertical or
inclined. The stressed plate will respond to the
shear by distorting into a 'diamond' with relative
movement in the longitudinal direction, which
creates a differential slip over a small part of the
cross section.

The total slip is found by integrating the slip over

the whole loop from one side of a cut to the other.
If the loop is symmetrical , the fore and aft slip will
cancel out and result in no slip. In an
unsymmetrical section there is a net slip.

𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = ∮ 𝛾 𝑑𝑠

s = the path variable (length) around any loop

E5003 – Ship Structures I 171
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𝛾 = shear strain 𝛾 = 𝜏/𝐺

∮ = a cyclic or loop integral

The slip can be found from the shear flow;

1
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = ∮ 𝜏/𝐺 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝑞/𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝐺

To correct the slip in a cut loop, we impose a

correcting shear flow 𝑞 𝑐 , such that;

1 1
∮ 𝑞 ∗ /𝑡 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑞 𝑐 /𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝐺 𝐺

𝑞 𝑐 is a constant so we can find it as;

𝑞∗
− ∮ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑞𝐶 =
1
∮ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑞 𝑐 is constant around the loop and zero elsewhere.
𝑞 ∗ is a determiate solution, found in the usual way.
The total solution is;

𝑞 = 𝑞∗ + 𝑞𝑐
E5003 – Ship Structures I 172
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Shear Flow Example #2

Find the shear stresses in the section below. The
total shear is 10MN (5 MN on the half section.

First we find the section properties:

I D w h I a
t e o
e s
m c
.
1 d 1 . * .
e 0 0 3
c 3
k
2 w 4 . .
. 2 1
t 3 7
p
l
.
3 s 1 2 .
i 0 . 3
d 5
e
4 b 1 . * .
o 0 0 3
t 3
.
Σ 2 1
. .
7 0
3 7

The centroid and moment of inertias are (for half

section) ;
Σ ay 5.86
𝑐= = = 5.48 m
A 1.07

𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = Σ 𝐼𝑜 + Σ 𝑎 𝑦 2 = 2.73 + 48.38 = 51.1 m4

𝐼𝑛𝑎 = Ibase − 𝐴 ∙ 𝑐 2 = 51.1 − 1.07 ∙ 5.482 = 19.0 m4

E5003 – Ship Structures I 173
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The shear flow and stress in the half section can be

found from;

𝑄𝑚
𝑞=
𝐼
𝑞 = .2634 𝑚

𝑄𝑚 5
𝜏= = ∙ 𝑚 = 8.78 ∙ 𝑚
𝐼𝑡 19 ∙ 0.03

where
𝑠
𝑚 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
So to find , we just need to find m. To find m we
need to integrate along the 5 branches of the
problem.

Because we have a loop, the problem is

indeterminate and we need to cut the loop, find the
slip and add a correcting shear flow.

The solution to the cut problem is called q*. The

correcting flow is called qc.

For s1 (along deck);

𝑠1
𝑚 = 0 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
y = 10 - 5.48 = 4.52, y t = 0.1357
m = .1357 s1
= 0.814 (@ s1 = 6)
= 1.357 (@ s1 = 10)

For s2 (side shell above wing tank);

𝑠2
𝑚 = 1.357 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
y = 4.52 - s2 ,
m = 1.357 + .03 (4.52 s2 - s22 / 2 )
= 1.357 + .1357 s2 - .015 s22
= 1.658 (@ s2 = 4) ( at wing tank plate)

For s3 (inclined plate of wing tank);

E5003 – Ship Structures I 174
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𝑠3
𝑚 = 0 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
y = 4.52 - s3/2 , s3 = 0 -> 42
m = .03 (4.52 s3 - s32 / 22 )
= .1357 s3 - .0106 s32
= .428 (@ s3 = 42) ( at side shell)

For s4 (side shell below wing tank);

𝑠4
𝑚 = .428 + 1.658 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
y = 0.52 - s4 , s4 = 0 -> 6
m = 2.086+ .03 (0.52 s4 - s42 / 2 )
= 2.086 + .0156 s4 - .015 s42
= 1.64 (@ s4 = 6) ( at bottom)
= 2.09 (@ s4 = .52) (max value at n.a.)

For s5 (along bottom);

𝑠5
𝑚 = 1.64 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
y = -5.48 , s5 = 0 -> 10
m = 1.64 - .164 s5
= 0 (@ s5 = 10) ( at centerline) ok

Now we can calculate the corrective shear needed

to close the slip that occurs at the wing tank cut;

𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝∗ + 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝𝐶 = 0

1 1
∮ 𝑞 ∗ /𝑡 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑞 𝑐 /𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝐺 𝐺

𝑞 𝑐 is a constant so we can find it as;

𝑞∗
− ∮ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑞𝐶 =
1
∮ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠

In this case t is a constant so;

𝐶
− ∮ 𝑞 ∗ 𝑑𝑠
𝑞 =
S
E5003 – Ship Structures I 175
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where S is the length around the loop. S = 8 + 42.

We can use the definition of shear flow to get;

Q1
𝐶 2
𝑞 = − ∮ 𝑚∗ 𝑑𝑠
I1 S
2

= −.01929 ∮ 𝑚∗ 𝑑𝑠

m*deck = .814 +.1357 s

m*side = 1.357 + .03 (4.52 s2 - s22 / 2 )
m*wt = .03 (4.52 s3 - s32 / 22 )
4
∮ 𝑚∗ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 (.814 + .1357 s) 𝑑𝑠
4
+ ∫0 (1.357 + .03 (4.52 s − s2 /2 )) 𝑑𝑠
4√2
− ∫0 (.1357 s − .0106 s2 ) 𝑑𝑠
= 4.34 + 6.188 - 1.53
= 9.00
Note that the m*wt part is subtracted beacuse we
are integrating in the reverse direction. With m*
we can calculate qC;

qC = -0.1736 [MN/m]

We have m* and qC.

q = q* ± qC = 0.2364 m* ± qC

We can plot q* (solid lines) and q (dashed lines);

and we can plot the shear stress ;

E5003 – Ship Structures I 176
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The values of shear stress have been checked

against an ANSYS model, and show good, though
not perfect, agreement. A sketch of the ANSYS
model is shown below.

See next page for ANSYS results.

E5003 – Ship Structures I 177
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image from ANSYS

E5003 – Ship Structures I 178
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image from ANSYS Workbench

E5003 – Ship Structures I 179
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Topic 17: Problems

17.1 Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker. Ignore the radius of
the bilge.

17.2 Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker.

17.3 Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker.

E5003 – Ship Structures I 180
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17.4 Solve the shear flow in the following frame section. What are the shear forces
transferred through the welds in details A and B (in kN/m)?
E5003 – Ship Structures I 181
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Topic 18: Shear Flow in adjacent Closed Cells

In a double sided or double bottom vessel there are

often many adjacent closed cells. Adjacent close
cells present an added complexity when solving
shear flow. The complexity is that the corrective
shear flow in once cell causes a corrective slip in
the adjacent cell, because of the common side.

When we add a corrective shear flow in one loop we

can't help but get some flow and slip in adjacent
loops.

Consequently, in order to ensure that we have no

net slip at each and all cuts we need to satisfy a set
of coupled equations. For example, in the case of
two adjacent loops we have;

𝑞∗ 𝑞 𝑐1 𝑞 𝑐2
∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 1 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 1 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 1
E5003 – Ship Structures I 182
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𝑞∗ 𝑞 𝑐1 𝑞 𝑐2
∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 2 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 2 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 2

𝑞 𝐶1 and 𝑞 𝐶2 are unknown constants. 𝑞 ∗ is the

determinate shear flow in the cut section. For N
adjacent closed cells, we have to solve N
simultaneous equations.

Topic 18: Problems

18.1 Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker. Ignore the radius of
the bilge.

18.2 Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker.

18.3 Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker.

E5003 – Ship Structures I 183
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Topic 19: Torsion in ships

Ships as a whole and many individual members

within ships experience torsion.

The overall design torsional moment is given in

various classification society rules;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 184
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E5003 – Ship Structures I 185
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Local structural torsion can be found throughout

ships. Bending of a frame can result in a torsion in
a supporting frame.

Torsion Review
Consider a solid circular shaft subject to a torsional
moment. The longitudinal axis of the cylinder x
axis. A torsion is a moment about the x axis. In
such a case we get an ideal torsional response.
Every circular cross section remains plane and
remains centered on the x axis. Each plane rotates
slightly in comparison to its neighboring cross
sections. Assume that two planes (1 and 2) are
separated by a distance dx. In comparison to their
original orientations, the planes are rotated
𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃1 − 𝜃2

𝑀𝑥
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐺𝐽
or

𝑑𝜃
𝑀𝑥 = 𝐺 𝐽
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜃
note similarity to the deq. for bending: 𝑀𝑦 = 𝐸 𝐼 𝑑𝑥

For solid sections like the circular shaft shown at

left, the shear stress is;

𝑀𝑥 𝑟
τ=
𝐽

𝜋 𝑟4
𝐽=
2
E5003 – Ship Structures I 186
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Thin Walled Torsion

Torsion in thin walled sections differs greatly
between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ sections.

To examine the difference between open and closed

sections we first make some simplifying
assumptions;

sections are prismatic

no in-plane deformation (cross sections only rotate)
small out of plane deformations (warping)

Thin Walled Torsion – Open Sections

Consider an open section, built-in at its base and

subject to a torsion at the free end.

The section rotates about a point called the shear

center. Point ‘p’ moves in the y and z direction due
to rotation and in the x direction due to ‘warpage’.

The displacements of point ‘p’

𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑥: 𝑢𝑝 = ⏞
𝑤𝑛 (𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜃′ 𝜃 ′ = 𝑑𝜃⁄𝑑𝑥

𝑦: 𝑣𝑝 = −𝜃 𝑧𝑝
} 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑧: 𝑤𝑝 = 𝜃 𝑦𝑝
E5003 – Ship Structures I 187
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For ideal open sections with no warping restraint;

𝑑𝜃
𝑀𝑥 = 𝐺 𝐽
𝑑𝑥

J = St. Venant torsional constant

For an open section;

1 𝑏 3
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
3 0

For example, for a pipe of thickness t, radius r, cut

longitudinally;
𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑟

1 2𝜋𝑟 3 2𝜋 𝑟 𝑡 3
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = = 2.09 𝑟 𝑡 3
3 0 3

Thin Walled Torsion – Closed Sections

Closed sections carry torsion in an entirely

different way from open sections. Because the loop
is closed, shear can flow around the loop. The shear
stress is uniform over the full thickness of the wall.
The shear flow is also constant over the full loop.
Once again;
𝑑𝜃
𝑀𝑥 = 𝐺 𝐽
𝑑𝑥

We can also write;

2𝜋 𝑟
𝑀𝑥 = ∫ 𝜏 𝑡 ∙ 𝑟 𝑑𝑠
0
E5003 – Ship Structures I 188
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2𝜋 𝑟
=∫ 2𝑞 𝑑𝑎
0
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝜏 𝑡 = 𝑞, 𝑟 𝑑𝑠 = 2 𝑑𝑎
As q is constant we can write;

2𝜋 𝑟
𝑀𝑥 = 2 𝑞 ∫ 𝑑𝑎
0
= 2 𝑞𝐴
where;
A = enclosed area of the loop

For a pipe (a circle);

𝑀𝑥 = 2 𝑞 𝜋 𝑟 2

Using the general formula for torsion;

𝑀𝑥 𝑟 𝑀𝑦 𝑐
𝜏= (𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝜎 = )
𝐽𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑎

We can use this to find 𝐽𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝑀𝑥 𝑟 2 𝑞 𝜋 𝑟 3
𝐽𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = = = 2 𝜋 𝑡 𝑟3
𝜏 𝜏

Compare this to 𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 ;

2
𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑡3
3

For example, consider a pipe of 1m dia., with a

10mm wall thickness;

𝐽𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 2 𝜋 𝑡 𝑟 3 = 2 𝜋 ∙ 0.01 ∙ 13 = 0.062 𝑚4

2 2
𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑡 3 = 𝜋 ∙ 1 ∙ 0.013 = 2𝑥10−6 𝑚4
3 3

𝐽𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = = 29,600
𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛

The difference is so dramatic that it is easily

illustrated by seeing what happens when a
cardboard tube (eg paper coffee cup) is cut open
longitudinally.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 189
© [Link] 2011-18

Thin Walled Torsion – warpage restraint

Warpage is the term to describe axial
displacements due to torsion. In a closed circular
section the axial symmetry prevents all warpage.
In an open circular section, the warpage is
unrestrained (ie. The section is free to warp), so no
warpage stresses arise.

In sections with corners such as a box section, the

twist of one face is, to a degree, incompatible with
the twist of the connecting face. Each face wants to
warp differently, but is constrained at the corner.
This results in stresses on both faces. The
treatment of these effects requires the use of
warpage functions. This topic will not be considered
any further here. We will limit our attention to
simple torsion theory.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 190
© [Link] 2011-18

Topic 19: Problems

19.1 A hollow closed section is made of plate of uniform thickness ‘t’ . A torsional
moment of 80 MN-m is applied. To have the maximum shear stress equal to 135
MPa, what value should t be?
E5003 – Ship Structures I 191
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Topic 20: Shear Center and Shear Lag in Ship Structures

Topsides supports on an FPSO

Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss the idea of the shear center of a frame and describe
the idea of shear lag and the notion of effective width.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 192
© [Link] 2011-18

Consider a channel section. A channel is a common

structural profile, but one that is asymmetric on
one axis. The center of area (centroid) and the
‘shear center’ are not at the same location.

What is the centroid? For one thing, it is a property

of the cross sectional area. But what does it mean
for the channel section? If we were to want to use
the section as a column and apply an axial force
that would only compress (and not bend) the
column, we would apply the force at the centroid ‘g’.
This is because a uniform stress in the cross section
would have a ‘center of force’ at ‘g’.

To find ‘g’ we use the standard formulations;

Σ𝑎𝑦 1800 ∙ 5 + 2000 ∙ 50

𝑔𝑦 = = = 28.7 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 3800

If the end of the column had an end cap, the load

would naturally find its way to the centroid.

However if the end were connected with a bold

through the web, the load would be applied off the
centroid and the axial load would cause bending. In
this case the end load would not only cause
bending, but the bending deflection would increase
the moment arm to further increase the bending.
This is a kind of self-excited response called the p-
delta effect, and is the subject of a special analysis.

The above discussion is about axial loads. What is

the connection to shear? The connection is the idea
of the shear center. When a load is applied at the
shear center of a beam, the load will only cause
shear and bending, and no torsion. If the load is
applied anywhere else, a torsion will result.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 193
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Consider a shear force Q =10000 N applied to the

channel section on the previous page.

1
𝐼𝑦 = (100 ∙ 2003 − 90 ∙ 1803 )
12
= 22,927,000 𝑚𝑚4

We will need Q/I;

𝑄
= 0.0004362
𝐼𝑦
Now we find the values of m. On the top flange;
𝑠1
𝑚1 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 950 𝑠1
0

𝑄
𝑞1 = 𝑚 = 0.4144 𝑠1
𝐼𝑦 1
So at B;
𝑞𝐵 = 0.4144 ∙ 95 = 39.36 𝑁/𝑚

The force on the top flange is;

95
𝐹𝑡𝑓 = ∫ 𝑞1 𝑑𝑠
0
1
or =𝑞 95
2 𝐵
= 1870 𝑁

In the web;
𝑄 𝑠2
𝑞2 = 39.36 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝐼𝑦 0
𝑠2
= 39.36 + .0004362 ∙ 10 ∫ (95 − 𝑠2 )𝑑𝑠
0
𝑠22
= 39.36 + .0004362 ∙ 10 (95 𝑠2 − )
2
The force on the web is;
190
𝐹𝑤 = ∫ 𝑞2 𝑑𝑠
0
1902 1903
= 39.36 ∙ 190 + .004362 (95 − )
2 6

= 9978 (≅ 10,000 ) 𝑂𝐾
E5003 – Ship Structures I 194
© [Link] 2011-18

The lower flange is symmetrical with the upper and

will have a shear flow of the same magnitude but
opposite in direction.

The shear flow as drawn shows the directions of

shear in the direction of the applied force. If we
think instead of the reaction to the applied force,
we have the sketch at left.

In this case the applied force is shown pushing

directly down on the web. In this case the vertical
forces oppose each other and produce no moment.
However, the horizontal forces, while equal in
magnitude, are separated by 190mm and produce a
couple of 1879 x 190 = 355300 N-mm. This couple is
a torsion acting on the section.

In order to eliminate the torsion, we would need to

apply the load Q at the shear center ‘e’ to the left of
the web. We can find the location of ‘e’ as follows;
𝐹𝑡𝑓 ∙ 190 35530
𝑒𝑦 = =
𝑄 10000
= 35.53 𝑚𝑚 (𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑏)

General formula for shear centers of channels

The following derivation is only valid for

symmetrical channels with constant wall thickness.

𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, ≪ 𝑎

1 3
𝑏 2
𝐼= 𝑡𝑏 +2𝑎𝑡 ( )
12 2

𝑄 𝑠1
𝑞1 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝐼 0
𝑄
= 𝑦 𝑡 𝑠1
𝐼

The force in the top flange;

𝑄 𝑎
𝐹𝑓 = ̅̅̅
𝑞1 𝑎 = 𝑦𝑡 𝑎
𝐼 2
E5003 – Ship Structures I 195
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𝑄 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑡
=
4𝐼
Now we can find ‘e’ by setting the sum of the
torsional moments to zero. The flange forces create
one couple and the applied load, opposed by the
reaction in the web, creates another couple. The
two couples will sum to zero when the load is
applied at the shear center.

𝑄 𝑒 = 𝐹𝑓 𝑏 (𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠)

𝑄 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑡 𝑏 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑡
𝑒= =
4𝐼 𝑄 4𝐼

𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑡 1
𝑒= 2
4 1 3 + 2 𝑎 𝑡 (𝑏)
𝑡 𝑏
12 2
𝑎
𝑒=
𝑏
2 (6𝑎 + 1)

For the previous example

𝑎 = 95, 𝑏 = 190

95
𝑒= = 35.6 𝑚𝑚
190
2( + 1)
6 ∙ 95

(Q? – why would there be a slight difference

between the above result and the previous
example? )

Shear Lab / Effective Width

We normally assume that bending in a frame of a
ship or the hull girder can be modeled with what
we call ‘simple beam theory’. This means that we
assume that as the beam bends, plane sections
remain plane. When we make this assumption, we
are implicitly assuming that the flange is uniformly
compressed (or stretched), and that the
E5003 – Ship Structures I 196
© [Link] 2011-18

compressive or tensile stresses are uniform in the

flanges. Recall that ‘standard’ formula;

𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼

This formula says that all stresses at the same

value of y will be the same (i.e. all stresses in the
flange are the same!).

While the simple beam assumption is ok for beams

with relatively narrow flanges, the assumption is
not valid for sections with wide flanges such as are
sometimes found in ships.

In the case of very wide flanges, the compressive

stresses drop off away from the web.

To find the true pattern of flexural stress in a wide

flange beam, and the consequent effective width, is
a complex analysis, easily done in a finite element
model, but difficult to obtain analytically. The idea
of the behavior is presented below.

When we a lateral load (a bending load) to a beam

or ship frame, the web carries the load and tends to
bend. The flange is attached at the edges of the web
and as the web bends, its edge shortens (or
lengthens) and tends to pull the flange with it. To
pull on the flange, a shear stress of applied to the
E5003 – Ship Structures I 197
© [Link] 2011-18

edge of the flange. As shown in the sketch, the

flange is acted upon along its edge. Its as if the
flange is pinched along its edge, causing the flange
to compress more near the web and less away from
the web.

Unfortunately, there are no general analytical

solutions for shear lag and effective width. Certain
approximate solutions have been postulated (see
PNA, VI, pp 247-250)

Shear lag and diminished effective width are most

important in cases of ;
wide flanges (large b)
short frames (small L/b)
proximity to free ends
proximity to concentrated loads

Finite element programs, when shell or brick

elements are used to model the frames, will
naturally show the shear lag effects.
There have been experiments on hull girder models
that have shown not only a variation in deck
stresses, but actual stress reversals. This means
that even when the average deck stress is
compressive, there may be a part of the deck (at
center) where the stresses are tensile, with the
deck edges in exaggerated compression. (PNA p
250)

Classification society rules have various

approaches to account for effective width. We will
consider deck plate buckling in the next ship
structures course (6003). In that case we will
consider another type of effective width of plating,
E5003 – Ship Structures I 198
© [Link] 2011-18

but one that describes a buckled plate’s reserve

capacity.

ANSYS analysis results

E5003 – Ship Structures I 199
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Topic 20: Problems

20.1 The following figure shows 4 x-sections. Identify the location of the shear center
in each case (i.e. which letter?). You should sketch the shear flow to help identify the
location.

20.2 When the vertical force F is applied to this section, how will the cantilever
beam deform? Explain

20.3 Where is the shear center of a 300 x 150 x 15fl x 10w mm ?

E5003 – Ship Structures I 200
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Topic 21: Plate Bending

Wexford Ireland

Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss the mechanics of plate bending
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
E5003 – Ship Structures I 201
© [Link] 2011-18

Plates are the essential structural components in

ships. Almost all the structural weight in ships is
from the shell plating, the bulkheads, decks and
webs of large frames.

This section will examine the lateral deformation of

a single plate panel subject to a uniform pressure.
We will limit our problem as follows;
rectangular plate
constant thickness (t<<a, b)
simple edge conditions (fixed, pinned, free)
linear elastic material behavior
steel material (isotropic, homogeneous)
pressure normal to surface
no membrane stresses (no in-plane stress)
𝜎𝑧 ≪ 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦

Recall that with beams we describe the deformation

and strains as follows;

𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑤

𝑑𝑤
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑 2 𝑤
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝜌𝑥 = = =
𝑟𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
E5003 – Ship Structures I 202
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Plates can bend in 3 ways;

x-bending
y-bending
twist

X and y bending are similar to beam bending.

Recall that there are no membrane stresses,

therefor no x and y stresses at the mid-plane.
Stresses only arise from bending, and are equal,
opposite and maximum on the bottom and top of
the plate.

Twist is a behavior that does not occur in beams,

although it is something like torsion.

Twist causes a shear strain in the top (and bottom)

of the plate, and results in curvature on 45°
diagonals. When we twist a dx x dy portion of a
plate we get;

𝑑𝜃𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∆= ∙ = ∙
2 2 2 2
therefore

𝑑𝜃𝑦 𝑑𝜃𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑤 𝑑 𝑑𝑤 𝑑2𝑤

= = ( )= ( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

The above equation can be stated as;

the change in x-slope with change in y
= the change in y-slope with change in x
𝑑2 𝑤
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
E5003 – Ship Structures I 203
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What about the curvature on 45° diagonals?

𝑑𝜃𝑥 ∆ 𝑑𝜃45 ∆ ∆ 𝑑𝜃𝑥

= , = = √2 = √2
2 𝑙 2 𝑙/√2 𝑙 2

𝑑𝜃45 = √2 𝑑𝜃𝑥 (= √2 𝑑𝜃𝑦 )

Consider a view of the plate normal to the 45°

diagonal.

√2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝜃45 = 𝑟𝑥𝑦 √2 𝑑𝜃𝑥

1 𝑑𝜃𝑥 𝑑𝜃𝑦
= (= )
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑤 𝑑2 𝑤
= ( )=
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

We now have a variety of relationships for

deflection, curvature and strain.

The x direction movement 'u' is the result of

bending deflection w in the y direction.
𝑑𝑤
𝑢 = −𝑧
𝑑𝑥

We can find the strain from derivatives of the

movement;
𝑑𝑢 𝑑2𝑤
𝜀𝑥 = = −𝑧 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

In the y direction the movement is called 'v';

𝑑𝑤
𝑣 = −𝑧
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑤
𝜀𝑦 = = −𝑧 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
E5003 – Ship Structures I 204
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When u and v vary in x and y we can get shear

strains.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝛾= +
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

CONCEPT: displacement field

In solid mechanics it is useful to describe how all
points move relative to their original positions as a
'displacement field'. In the example below we just
consider how points along an x axis move. We call
the movement in the x direction u. A point at some
original position 𝑥𝑜 moves to a displaced position
𝑥𝑑 . The displacement 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑑 − 𝑥𝑜 . we describe 𝑢 as
a function of 𝑥, or 𝑢(𝑥). We could also write this as
𝑢(𝑥𝑜 ) because we think of the displacement as
dependent on the original position.
If all points move the same amount, then 𝑢(𝑥) =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. In such case the derivative of the
displacement field is zero and there is no strain
anywhere. We call this 'rigid body movement'. If
the movement is a linear function of the 𝑥
coordinate, (such as (𝑥) = 𝑐 + 𝑘 𝑥 ) then the
derivative of the displacement field is 𝑘 and the
strain is 𝑘 everywhere. The sketch below
illustrates the concept. The concept can be
extended to 2D and 3D problems.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 205
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ANSYS analysis results

For
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝛾= +
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
we can use our definitions of u and v to get;

𝑑 𝑑𝑤 𝑑 𝑑𝑤
𝛾= (−𝑧 )+ (−𝑧 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝑑2𝑤
= −2 𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
or
1
𝛾 = −2 𝑧
𝑟𝑥𝑦
𝑑2 𝑤 1
𝜀𝑥 = − 𝑧 2
= −𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑟𝑥

𝑑2 𝑤 1
𝜀𝑦 = − 𝑧 = −𝑧
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑟𝑦

We can use the 2D version of Hooke's Law to get

the stresses.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 206
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𝐸
𝜎𝑥 = (𝜀 + 𝜈 𝜀𝑦 )
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑥
𝐸 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
= −𝑧 ( +𝜈 )
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
𝐸
𝜎𝑦 = (𝜀 + 𝜈 𝜀𝑥 )
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑦
𝐸 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
= −𝑧 ( + 𝜈 2)
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥

𝐸 𝐸 𝑑2𝑤
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾 = −𝑧
(1 + 𝜈) 𝑥𝑦 (1 + 𝜈) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

Clearly when z = 0 (middle of plate), all stresses

vanish. Also, there are no average in-plane
stresses, only bending moments and torsion.

𝑡/2
𝑀𝑥 = ∫ 𝜎𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
−𝑡/2

𝑡/2
𝑀𝑦 = ∫ 𝜎𝑥 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
−𝑡/2

𝑡/2
𝑀𝑥𝑦 = ∫ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
−𝑡/2
By using the expressions for 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 we can
write;

𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
𝑀𝑥 = −𝐷 ( 2 + 𝜈 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
𝑀𝑦 = −𝐷 ( 2 + 𝜈 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑2𝑤
𝑀𝑥𝑦 = 𝑀𝑦𝑥 = −𝐷(1 − 𝜈)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
where
𝐸 𝑡3
𝐷=
12 (1 − 𝜈 2 )

The derivation of these equations is as follows;

E5003 – Ship Structures I 207
© [Link] 2011-18

𝑡/2
𝑀𝑥 = ∫ 𝜎𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
−𝑡/2
𝑡/2
𝐸 𝑑2 𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
= ( + 𝜈 ) ∫ −𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2 −𝑡/2

𝑡/2
𝐸 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤 𝑧2
= ( + 𝜈 ) − |
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2 3
−𝑡/2
𝐸 𝑡3 𝑑2 𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
= − ( + 𝜈 2)
12 (1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥

So far we have expressions for stress and strain (2

axial and shear) and for moments (2 bending and
torsion) expressed as the derivatives of the
deflection w.

We now want to derive the differential equation

relating the deflection to load. The load is a
pressure acting normal to the plate. Consider a
small section of the plate subject to a uniform
pressure p.

Summing the vertical forces ;

Σ 𝐹𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 = 0

𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + (𝑄𝑧𝑥 + 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑥 )𝑑𝑦 − 𝑄𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + (𝑄𝑧𝑦 + 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑦 )𝑑𝑥

− 𝑄𝑧𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑦
𝑝+ + =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

Summing moments about x axis (about center of

plate) ;
Σ 𝑀𝑥 = 0

𝑑𝑀𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑀𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑄𝑧𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0

now divide by dy;

𝑑𝑀𝑥
𝑑𝑀𝑥𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑄𝑧𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦
E5003 – Ship Structures I 208
© [Link] 2011-18

and by dx;
𝑑𝑀𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑀𝑥
+ − 𝑄𝑧𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
which gives;
𝑑𝑀𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑀𝑥
𝑄𝑧𝑦 = +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Using the previous expressions for 𝑀𝑥𝑦 and 𝑀𝑥 we
can write;

𝑑 𝑑2 𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑦 = (−𝐷(1 − 𝜈) )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
+ (−𝐷 ( 2 + 𝜈 ))
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑦 = (−𝐷 +𝐷𝜈 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
+ ( −𝐷 2 − 𝐷 𝜈 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑3 𝑤 𝑑3 𝑤 𝑑3𝑤 𝑑3 𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑦 = −𝐷 +𝐷𝜈 2 −𝐷 −𝐷𝜈
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦

𝑑3 𝑤 𝑑3𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑦 = −𝐷 − 𝐷
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3
Similarly;
𝑑3 𝑤 𝑑3 𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑥 = −𝐷 − 𝐷
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 3

Now, using
𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑦
𝑝+ + =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
we can write;

𝑑 𝑑3𝑤 𝑑3 𝑤
𝑝+ (−𝐷 −𝐷 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑 𝑑3𝑤 𝑑3𝑤
+ (−𝐷 − 𝐷 )=0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3
E5003 – Ship Structures I 209
© [Link] 2011-18

which simplifies to;

𝑝 𝑑4 𝑤 𝑑4𝑤 𝑑4𝑤 𝑑4𝑤

= 2 2+ + +
𝐷 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 4

and can be written in the short hand got a general

4th derivative in 2 dimensions;

𝑝
= 𝛥4 𝑤
𝐷

Note the similarity to the differential equation for a

beam of 𝑝 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑤′′′′. Now we need to solve 𝑝 =
𝐷 𝛥4 𝑤 for the appropriate boundary conditions to
get w(x,y) and the other results (stress, moments
etc.)

Example #1:
A long plate, simply supported with a pressure in
the shape of a half sine wave.

Check the pressure equation;

𝑝(𝑦 = 0) = 0 (𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒) 𝑂𝐾

𝜋
𝑝(𝑦 = 𝑏/2) = 𝑝𝑜 sin ( ) = 𝑝𝑜 (𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) 𝑂𝐾
2
E5003 – Ship Structures I 210
© [Link] 2011-18

Note that nothing varies along the x axis, so all

derivatives of x are zero. Therefore, the differential
equation becomes;

𝑝 𝑑4𝑤
=
𝐷 𝑑𝑦 4

assume the solution has the form;

𝜋𝑦
𝑤(𝑦) = 𝐶 sin ( )
𝑏
so

𝜋𝑦 𝑑4 𝜋𝑦
𝑝𝑜 sin ( ) = 𝐷 (𝐶 sin ( ))
𝑏 𝑑𝑦 4 𝑏

which becomes;

𝜋𝑦 𝜋 4 𝜋𝑦
𝑝𝑜 sin ( ) = 𝐷 𝐶 ( ) (sin ( ))
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

and lets us solve for C;

𝑝𝑜 𝑏 4
𝐶= ( )
𝐷 𝜋

which gives the deflection as;

𝑝𝑜 𝑏 4 𝜋𝑦
𝑤(𝑦) = ( ) sin ( )
𝐷 𝜋 𝑏
with
𝑝𝑜 𝑏 4
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( )
𝐷 𝜋

The stress can be found using;

𝐸 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
𝜎𝑦 = −𝑧 ( + 𝜈 2)
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥

which simplifies to;

𝐸 𝑑2 𝑤
𝜎𝑦 (𝑧, 𝑦) = −𝑧 ( )
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2
The stress at the top of the plate , @ z = t/2 ;
E5003 – Ship Structures I 211
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𝑡 𝐸 𝑑2𝑤
𝜎𝑦,𝑡𝑜𝑝 (𝑦) = − ( )
2 (1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑡 𝐸 𝑝𝑜 𝑏 4 𝜋 2 𝜋𝑦
= 2
( ) ( ) sin ( )
2 (1 − 𝜈 ) 𝐷 𝜋 𝑏 𝑏
2
6 𝑏 𝜋𝑦
= 2 ( ) 𝑝𝑜 sin ( )
𝜋 𝑡 𝑏

The stress as the edge is;

𝜎𝑦,𝑡𝑜𝑝 (0) = 0

The stress in the center is;

6 𝑏 2
𝜎𝑦,𝑡𝑜𝑝 (𝑏/2) = ( ) 𝑝𝑜
𝜋2 𝑡

Similarly, we can find;

𝜈6 𝑏 2
𝜎𝑥,𝑡𝑜𝑝 (𝑏/2) = 2 ( ) 𝑝𝑜
𝜋 𝑡

General Plate Problems

The solution for a general plate problem requires

the solution of the 4th order partial differential
equation;

𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 𝛥4 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝐷

Such solutions can be complex, even for simple load

patterns. Even in the case;

𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑝𝑜 (𝑖. 𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)

The solution is found by expressing the load as a

Fourier equation;
∞ ∞
𝑚𝜋𝑥 𝑚𝜋𝑦
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑝𝑜 = ∑ ∑ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 sin ( ) sin ( )
𝑎 𝑏
𝑚=1 𝑛=1
E5003 – Ship Structures I 212
© [Link] 2011-18

where
16 𝑝𝑜 𝑚 = 1,3,5 …
𝑎𝑚𝑛 =
𝜋2 𝑚 𝑛 𝑛 = 1,3,5 …

𝑎𝑚𝑛 = 0 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

For this load pattern and simply supported edges,

the deflected shape can be derived as;
∞ ∞
1 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝜋𝑥 𝑚𝜋𝑦
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦) = 4 ∑ ∑ 2 2 sin ( ) sin ( )
𝜋 𝐷 𝑛 𝑚 𝑎 𝑏
𝑚=1 𝑛=1 ( 2 + 2 )
𝑏 𝑎
Note that a sine pattern of load has been shown to
produce a sine pattern of response. So a group of
sine shaped loads will produce a group of sine
shaped responses. Hence the Fourier approach
should work. It all depends on the elegance of
super-position (hurray for Hooke!)

We will leave the general solution of more complex

problems to a specialized course in plates and
shells. See Hughes for solutions to some typical
problems.

Topic 21: Problems

E5003 – Ship Structures I 213
© [Link] 2011-18

References

1. Evans, J.H., (Editor) 1975, Ship Structural Design Concepts, Cornell Maritime
Press (a second volume of this book was added in 1983; it is subtitled `Second
cycle’)
2. Hughes, O.F., Ship Structural Design, Wiley-Interscience, Published by the
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New York (2010).
3. Lewis, E.V., (Editor) 1975, Principles of Naval Architecture, Vol. I Chapt 4.,
SNAME
4. Rawson, K.J., and Tupper, E.C., 1983 Basic Ship Theory, Volume 1. Publ. by
Longman, 3rd Ed.
5. Okumotu, Y., et. al. 2009 Design of Ship Hull Structures, pub. Springer-Verlag.
6. Willams MS and Todd JD 2000 Structures-Theory and Analysis, Macmillan Press
E5003 – Ship Structures I 214
© [Link] 2011-18

Appendix 1 – Angle Formulas

E5003 – Ship Structures I 215
© [Link] 2011-18

Appendix 2 –Areas and Moments

E5003 – Ship Structures I 216
© [Link] 2011-18

Appendix 3 – Fixed End Moments

E5003 – Ship Structures I 217
© [Link] 2011-18

Appendix 4 – Beam Formulas

E5003 – Ship Structures I 218
© [Link] 2011-18
E5003 – Ship Structures I 219
© [Link] 2011-18
E5003 – Ship Structures I 220
© [Link] 2011-18
E5003 – Ship Structures I 221
© [Link] 2011-18
E5003 – Ship Structures I 222
© [Link] 2011-18

Appendix 5 – Moment Distribution

Typical spreadsheet to solve Moment Distribution problems.

Mome nt Dist ribut ion Me t hod

t able of value s Example #3
param. value unit s 1 problem all E I, no sway
L1 10 m 10m 20m
L2 20 m
L3 20 m
w=8 kN/m
L4 12.5 m 12 21 23 32
EI1 1 rel
1 2 24 3 35
EI2 1 rel
12.5 m
EI3 1 rel
EI4 1 rel 20m 53
w 8 kN/ m 5
all E I
42
4
e 12 e 21 e 23 e 24 e42 e32 e35 e53
 1.0 0 .5 0 .25 0 0 .25 0 0 .0 0 .3 8 4 6 0 .6 15 4 0 .0
FEM -6 6 .7 6 6 .7 -26 6 .7 0 .0 0 .0 26 6 .7 0 .0 0 .0
ne t 6 6 .7 20 0 .0 0 .0 -26 6 .7 0 .0
dist 6 6 .7 10 0 .0 5 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 .0 -10 2.6 -16 4 .1 0 .0
CO 5 0 .0 3 3 .3 -5 1.3 0 .0 25 .0 25 .0 0 .0 -8 2.1
e EM 5 0 .0 20 0 .0 -26 7.9 5 0 .0 25 .0 18 9 .1 -16 4 .1 -8 2.1
ne t -5 0 .0 17.9 -25 .0 -25 .0 8 2.1
dist -5 0 .0 9 .0 4 .5 4 .5 0 .0 -9 .6 -15 .4 0 .0
CO 4 .5 -25 .0 -4 .8 0 .0 2.2 2.2 0 .0 -7.7
e EM 4 .5 18 4 .0 -26 8 .3 5 4 .5 27.2 18 1.7 -179 .5 -8 9 .7
ne t -4 .5 29 .8 -27.2 -2.2 8 9 .7
dist -4 .5 14 .9 7.5 7.5 0 .0 -0 .9 -1.4 0 .0
CO
e
neEM
t
dist 7.5
-7.5
-7.5 19-2.2
6 .6
2.7
1.3 -0
-26 .4
0 .71.2 601.9
.0
.7 3031.0
-3 .7
1.0
.0 18 34.7
-3
-[Link] 0 .0
-18 0 .9
-2.3 -9
9-0 .0.7
001.6.4
.4
CO
e
neEM
t
dist 0 .7
-0
-0 .7 19-3 4.4
42.2 .7.2 -0
-26 .7
1.3 601.1
.0
2.6 .3
3 1.3
-3 1.3 18 03.3
-0 .3.5 0 .0
-18 3.2.2 90
-9 0-1.1
1.6
CO
e
neEM
t
dist 1.1.7
-1.1
-1.1
-0
190
0
.3.1
6.4
.2 -261.1
-0
00 0.1.3
.1 6003.0.7
.1 -3 .0
301.9
.6
1.9 18-0
0
-0
-03.6.1
.6
.2.9 -0
0 .0
-18
-0 3.3.4 -9
9-0 .0.1
1.7
1.7
CO
e EM
ne t
dist 0
-0
-0 .1
.1
.1 -0
19005.0 .6
.7.8
6.3
-0
-260 .0
.2.1.3 0 .0
603.2 .8 -30 .0
3 1.9
1.9
3002.0
.0 180
0
0 3.0
.0
.0 .8 0
-18
0 .0
3 .7
.0 -990
-0 .0.2
1.9
1.9
CO
e
neEM
t
dist 0 .2
-0
-0 .2
.2 19
00 .1 .1 -26 0 .1 6 4.0.0 -3 .1
2.0 03.1
18-0 .8
.1 -18 3 .7 -990 .0
1.9
1.9
CO
e EM
ne t
dist 0
0
0 .0
.0
.0 19-0
0 06.0.1
.0 .1
.0 0
-26 .0
0 .00 .1 60 4.0.0 30
-3 .0
2.0
2.0 180
0 3.0
.0 .8 -0.0
0
-18 3.1.8 -990 .0
1.9
1.9
CO
e
neEM
t
dist 0
0 .0
.0 1906.0 .0 -26 0 .1 604.0.0 0
3 2.0
-3 .0
2.0 0 .0
180 3.0.8 0 .0
-18 3 .8 -9 0
901.9.0
1.9
CO
e
neEM
t 0 .0 190
06.0 .0.0 0 .00 .1
-26 60 4.0.0 30
-3 .0
2.0
2.0 180
0 3.0
.0.8 0 .0
-18 3 .8 -9901.9.0
1.9
dist
CO
e
neEM
t 0
0 .0
.0 190 6.0
.0.0 0 .0
-26 0 .1 604.0.0 302.0.0 0 .0
180 3.0.8 0 .0
-18 3 .8 -9 .0
1.9
dist
CO
e
neEM
t
dist
0
0
0
.0
.0
.0 190
0
0 .0
0 6 .0.0
.0 0
0 .0
-26 .00 .1 6004.0
.0.0
-3
3
-30 2.0
.0
2.0
0 2.0
.0 180
0 3.0
0 .0.8
.0 0
-18 .0
3 .8
0 .0 -9901.9
901.9.0
1.9
.0
CO
e EM 0 .0 19 6 .0 -26 0 .1 6 4 .0 3 2.0 18 3 .8 -18 3 .8 -9 1.9

F21y 5 9 .6 F12y 20 .4 F4 2x 5 F5 3 x -22

F4 2y 14 3 .4 F5 3 y 8 3 .8
F23 y 8 3 .8 F3 2y 76 .2
E5003 – Ship Structures I 223
© [Link] 2011-18

Appendix 6 – Hooke’s Law, Mohr’s Circle and von-Mises

plastic frame response to ice load test

This appendix will outline the material behavior models that are necessary to the
analysis of structures.

Hooke's Law
Hooke's law is a very simple idea. It just states that there is a linear relationship
between force 𝐹 and deflection ∆𝐿 in an elastic body;

𝐹 = 𝑘 ∆𝐿

where k is the 'spring constant' or the 'stiffness'

For a uni-axial state of stress we can also write Hooke's law in terms of stress
(𝜎: normalized force) and strain (𝜀: non-dimensional deflection);

𝜎=𝐸𝜖
where E is Young's Modulus.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 224
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This law may seem to be too simple to deserve the term 'law'. However, this idea was
not easily found. The world, especially in the time of Hooke and before, was so full of
variability, inaccuracy and non-linearity that this idea was not obvious. Many things
were made from natural materials (stone and wood) and the idea of linear behavior
was radical. Hooke first communicated the discovery in code as “ceiiinosssttuv”, an
anagram to allow him to later prove he had discovered the ‘law’. Hooke was a
contemporary, and rival, of Newton. He developed a coil spring for use in a pocket
watch. In 1678 he published a discussion of the behavior of his spring, saying: "ut
tensio, sic vis" meaning "as the extension, so the force". Hooke worked in many fields
including architecture, astronomy, human memory, microscopy (see below) and
palaeontology, but it is only in mechanics that his name is associated with a
fundamental law.

Dronefly close-up sketch by Robert Hooke (Wikimedia Commons)

E5003 – Ship Structures I 225
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How important is Hooke's contribution? For structural analysis it is the fundamental

idea, as important to structural analysis as is Newton's 2nd law (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎) to the field
of dynamics.

Hooke's law is important because linearity of behavior permits the use of

superposition. And only with the idea of superposition can we divide problems up
into parts, solve the parts and add them back together to get a total solution. The
whole field of structural analysis depends on Hooke's law.

Hooke's law can be expanded to describe 2D and 3D behavior. Consider a 2D sample

of elastic material. When a force is applied in one direction (x) the material stretches
in that direction and contracts in the lateral direction(y). So for a stress in the x
direction we get strains in x and y. This is Hooke's law in 2D for the case of uni-axial
stress;

𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐸
𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑦 = −𝜈
𝐸
E5003 – Ship Structures I 226
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When we consider a general state of stress, comprised of a combination of x and y

direction stresses(𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 ), as well as shear stress (𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) we can write the relationship
amoung the stresses and strains Hooke's law in 2D for the general case;

𝜀𝑥 𝜎𝑥
1 1 −𝜈 0
[ 𝜀𝑦 ] = [−𝜈 1 0 ] [ 𝜎𝑦 ]
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐸 0 0 2(1 + 𝜈) 𝜏𝑥𝑦

or equivalently;

𝜎𝑥 1 𝜈 0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 𝜈 1 0
[ 𝜎𝑦 ] = 2
[ 𝜀
1 − 𝜈] [ 𝑦 ]
𝜏𝑥𝑦 1−𝜈 𝛾𝑥𝑦
0 0
2

The above equations are used to describe isotropic materials (materials that are
similar in all directions, such as steel), which have the same value of E and n in all
directions.
Note: Anisotropic materials, such as wood and fiberglass have different values of E
for each axis. Hooke's laws for anisotropic materials have many more terms.

Hooke's law can be expressed in 3D as well, but 2D is sufficient for the problems that
we will examine.
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Consider a small element of material with normal and shear stresses on vertical and
horizontal planes. We refer to these stresses as engineering stresses, 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . Now
consider what the stresses would be on any other plane, so one that is rotated by the
angle 𝜃𝑐 from the vertical (from the plane for 𝜎𝑥 stress). Mohr showed that the
stresses on all planes, when plotted, will form a circle in 𝜏 vs. 𝜎 coordinates.

The stresses on the vertical plane, 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , are plotted on the Mohr's circle (point
A). The stresses on the horizontal plane, 𝜎𝑦 and −𝜏𝑥𝑦 , are plotted at point B. These
two planes are physically 90 degrees from each other, but are 180 degrees apart on
the Mohr’s circle.

state of stress in 2D

The line joining A, B is a baseline. To find the stresses on a cut plane at angle  from
the vertical plane (the plane of A), we must move 2 from the 'A' direction around the
Mohr’s circle. This lands us at point C, where the stresses are , 𝜎𝑐 and 𝜏𝑐 .

The general equations to find the stresses on a plane at angle 𝜃 from the plane of 𝜎𝑥
are;
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1 1
𝜎𝑛 = (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2

1
𝜏𝑛 = − (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2

principal stresses

You can see from the drawing of Mohr's circle, that the largest value of 𝜎 occurs
where 𝜏 is zero. The largest and smallest values of 𝜎 are called 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 . They are
sufficient to define the circle, and are called the principal stresses.

We do not need to solve for 1 and 2 graphically. We can use the following
equations:
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𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 2
σ1 = + √[𝜎𝑥 − 2
] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 2
σ2 = √
− [𝜎𝑥 − 2
] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

or
σ1 = σ + r

σ2 = σ − r

large strain behaviors

At low strains steel is a linear elastic material. However, when steel is strained to
large levels, the linear behaviour ends. Typical ship steels will follow a stress-strain
curve as shown at the left. After yielding the stress plateaus while the strains
increase significantly. At larger strains the stress begins to rise again, in a
phenomenon called 'strain hardening'. At even larger strains the material starts to
E5003 – Ship Structures I 230
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'neck' and eventually ruptures. Typical yield stresses are in the range 225 to 400
MPa. Typical ultimate stresses are in the 350 to 550 MPa range.
The initial slope is the Young's modulus which is about 200,000 MPa (200 GPa). So
the strain at yield is about 1200 to 2000 x10-6 strain (-strain). Rupture occurs at
around 25% strain (300,000 -strain).

yield criteria and equivalent stresses

In ships structures, made almost entirely of plate steel, most stress states are
essentially biaxial. In this case we need to have a criteria for any 2D state of stress.
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The 2D von Mises criteria is plotted at left. The curve is normally represented in
terms of principal stresses and forms an oval. The oval crosses the axes ay the
uniaxial yield stress 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 . The equation for the yield condition is;

2
𝜎12 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎22 = 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

The criteria can also be expresses in terms of engineering stresses;

2
𝜎𝑥2 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦2 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
= 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

To show whether a general 2D stress is at yield, the concept of an equivalent stress

is used (the von-mises equivalent stress). The equivalent stress is a uniaxial stress
that represents the same % of yield as the biaxial stress. In this way any 2 states of
stress can be compared. The equivalent stress is;

𝜎𝑒𝑞𝑣 = √𝜎12 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎22

or
𝜎𝑒𝑞𝑣 = √𝜎𝑥2 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦2 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦
2

We will make use of equivalent stresses in the ANSYS labs.

Appendix 6 Problems
1. A column is made of steel pipe with OD of 8", and ID of 7". It is 8 feet tall. The
column supports a weight of 300kips (300,000 lb). How much does the column
shorten under load?
(E for steel is 29,000,000 psi) (Ans: 0.843”)

2. A 2D state of stress (𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) is (200, -20, 45) MPa. What are the strains
(𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 )? (Ans: 1030,-400,585 e)

3. For a 2D state of stress (σx , σy , τxy ) of (180, -25, 40) MPa, plot the Mohr's circle.
What are the principal stresses (σ1 , σ2 ) ? (Ans: 187.5,-32.5 MPa)
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4. For a 2D state of stress (σx , σy , τxy ) of (100, -100, 60) MPa, what is the von-mises
equivalent stresses σeqv ? (Ans: 202 MPa)

5. For a 2D state of stress (σx , σy , τxy ) of (150, 100, 30) MPa, what is the von-mises
equivalent stresses σeqv ? (Ans: 142 MPa)

6. For a small cube of material with (σx , = 100, σy = 100) what is the maximum shear
on any plane? (Ans: 50 MPa)
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Appendix 7 - Energy Methods in Structural Analysis

Colosseum
This appendix will discuss application of energy methods in structural analysis.

Energy Methods
Structural analysis is concerned with forces, deflections, stresses and strains. All
these involve energy. An analysis of energy can be a way to simplify structural
analysis. Energy is a scalar, and must be conserved, somehow. In some cases the
mechanical work done by a force is converted to heat by friction:

In some cases the mechanical work done by a force is converted to elastic potential
energy in a spring. Potential energy (in a spring or in a gravitational field) can later
be recovered:

Consider a body subject to a simple axial load:

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The above is correct for situations where axial stresses dominate, as in column
compression or simple beam bending. This does not take shear strain energy into
account.

Example: derive formula for Cantilever beam deflection using energy methods.

Consider a simple cantilever with rectangular cross section.

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Start with Energy Balance equation:

External Work (EW) done by the applied load P is balanced by the elastic potential
energy (EPE) stored in the beam;

𝐸𝑊 = 𝐸𝑃𝐸

1⁄ 𝑃∆= 1 ∫ 𝜎 2 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
2 2𝐸
𝑉𝑜𝑙

In this case we assume that the stress is the result of bending and we find the stress
from;
𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼
and
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑥
which lets us write;

𝑃2 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝜎2 =
𝐼2

𝑃
∆= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝐸𝐼 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙

We can re-write dvol as w dx dy and use :

𝑃
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑤 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 2
𝐿 ℎ

The last part of the above equation is the moment of inertia:

∫ 𝑤 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐼
ℎ

This simplifies the problem to:

𝑃
∆= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
𝐿
𝐿
𝑃 𝑥3
∆= ]
𝐸𝐼 3 0
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Which gives the final and correct answer:

𝑃𝐿3
∆=
3𝐸𝐼

Betti-Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem

The Betti-Maxwell theorem states that for any linear elastic body (also called a
Hookean body), that the movement at a d.o.f. A, caused by the application of a
force/moment F at a d.o.f. B, is exactly the same as the movement at a d.o.f. B, caused
by the application of a force/moment F at a d.o.f. A. In the sketch below, ∆𝑖𝑗 refers to
the movement at 𝑖 due to the application of a force at . So we can write the Betti-
Maxwell theorm as;

𝐹 ∆12 = 𝐹 ∆21

Proof:
As a linear system, superposition will hold. The structure will assume the same final
position regardless of the order of application of the forces. This means that the same
stored elastic energy will exist in either case. These are ‘conservative’ systems,
meaning that all work done by the loads is converted to elastic potential energy (and
is ‘conserved’ to be recovered later). We will apply F to the structure in two places,
and compare the work done when we change the order in which we apply the forces.

When F is applied at both 1 and 2, the total deflection at 1 and 2 will be;

∆1 = ∆11 + ∆12

∆2 = ∆21 + ∆22
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If we imagine applying F at 1 first, and then at 2, the work done will be;

𝐹 ∆11 𝐹 ∆22
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = + + 𝐹 ∆12
2 2

If we imagine applying F at 2 first, and then at 1, the work done will be;

𝐹 ∆22 𝐹 ∆11
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = + + 𝐹 ∆21
2 2

The work done will be the same, so;

𝐹 ∆12 = 𝐹 ∆21

Hence Betti-Maxwell is proven.

Example 1 of Betti-Maxwell

For a simple cantilever, the deflection at x2 caused by a force F at x1 should be the

same as the deflection at x1 when F is applied at x2 :

Solution:
The beam deflection tables (see Appendix) can be used to find 12 and 21 .
To find 21 we first find the deflection at x1 . The beam to the right of x1 has no shear
or bending. Consequently it is perfectly straight. It slopes downward at the same
angle as the slop at x1 , which is 11 . The addition deflection past is just equal to the
slope angle times the distance. The total deflection at x2 found as follows:

𝐹 𝑥13 𝐹 𝑥12
𝛥11 = 𝜃11 =
3 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼

𝛥21 = 𝛥11 + 𝜃11 ∙ (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

𝐹 𝑥13 𝐹 𝑥12 𝑥2 𝐹 𝑥13

= + −
3 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼

𝐹 𝑥12
= (3 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
6 𝐸𝐼
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To find 1 2 we use the general equation for the deflections in a cantilever of length x2
and solve for the deflection at x1 .
𝐹 𝑥12
𝛥12 = (3 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
6 𝐸𝐼

The two results are identical, as Betti-Maxwell predicted.

Example 2 of Betti-Maxwell

For a simply supported beam, the rotation at the right hand end caused by a unit
vertical force F in the center should be the same as the vertical deflection at the
center caused by a unit moment at the right hand end :

Solution:
The beam deflection tables (see Appendix) can be used to find 12 and 21 .
The rotation 21 is as follows:
𝐹 𝐿2
𝜃21 =
16 𝐸𝐼

𝐿2
=
16 𝐸𝐼

To find 1 2 we use the general equation for the deflections in a simply supported
beam with an end moment and solve for the deflection at L/2 .

𝑀𝑥
𝛥12 = (𝐿2 − 𝑥 2 )
6 𝐸𝐼 𝐿

𝐿/2
= (𝐿2 − 𝐿2 /4)
6 𝐸𝐼 𝐿

𝐿2
= (1 − 1/4)
12 𝐸𝐼

𝐿2
=
16 𝐸𝐼

The two results are identical, as Betti-Maxwell predicted.

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Appendix 7 Problems

A7.1 Find the location of the force F so that  is a maximum. Hint: you can use the symmetry of
Betti-Maxwell.

A7.2 Illustrate the Betti-Maxwell theorem using the beam load cases shown below. Use the beam
tables in appendix 4.