PARTMHAR

ENGR. KRISTIAN 1 DE PADUA

 MODULATION

It is a process of transforming information from its

original form to a form that is more suitable for
transmission.
It the process of having a BASEBAND signal modify
another higher frequency signal called the CARRIER.

Modulation allows the use of practical antennas.

 MODULATION

INFORMATION
AMPLITUDE
BASEBAND CARRIER
MODIFIES THE FREQUENCY OF THE
MODULATING UNMODULATED
PHASE
INTELLIGENCE
 MODULATION

MODULATION

ANALOG DIGITAL

AMPLITUDE ANGLE DIGITAL PULSE

AM FSK PAM PPM

FM PM
ASK PSK PWM PCM
QAM
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

It is the process of CHANGING the AMPLITUDE

of a relatively high frequency CARRIER SIGNAL in
accordance with the magnitude of the modulating
signal (information).
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

AM Signal Parameters:
fc = carrier signal m = modulating index
fm = modulating signal Pc = carrier power
fUSB = upper sideband PUSB = USB power
fLSB = lower sideband PLSB = LSB power
Vc = carrier signal amplitude PT = Transmitter Power
Vm = modulating signal amplitude = Total AM power
VSB = sideband signal amplitude
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Information signal
MODULATOR Modulated signal

Carrier signal
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

fLSB fUSB
VUSB = VLSB

The carrier is 90 out of phase with the upper and lower
sideband and the sidebands are 180 out of phase with
each other.
 MODULATION index

For undistorted AM to occur, the modulating signal voltage

Vm must be less than the carrier voltage Vc. Therefore,
the relationship between the amplitude of the modulating
signal and the amplitude of the carrier signal is important.
This relationship is known as the modulation index m (also
called the modulating factor/coefficient or the degree of
modulation.
𝑉𝑚
𝑚= 𝑉𝑚 < 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑐
 MODULATION index

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑐
Vm
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑚
Vmax
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Vc
Vm 𝑉𝑚 =
2
Vmin
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐 =
2

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚= =
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
 MODULATION index

Over-modulation occurs when m>1, meaning Vm > VC. In

this case, the information signal is distorted.
 MODULATION index

For simultaneous modulation with multiple modulation

index, m1, m2, m3,…mn, that is when more than one
modulating/information signal is to be transmitted. The
total modulation index is:

𝑚𝑇 = 𝑚1 2 + 𝑚2 2 + 𝑚3 2 + ⋯ 𝑚𝑛 2

𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 2 + 𝑉2 2 + 𝑉3 2 + ⋯ 𝑉𝑛 2
 Am SIGNAL COMPONENTS

The balanced modulator (AM modulator) produces

two sidebands (upper and lower). The frequency of the
upper sideband is greater than the frequency of the
carrier signal, and the frequency of the lower sideband is
smaller than the frequency of the carrier signal. Take note
that the INFORMATION/INTELLIGENCE signal is contained
in one of the sidebands. Ideally, transmitting only ONE
sideband is enough to transmit the information but has a
disadvantage of having more complex circuitry.
 Am SIGNAL COMPONENTS

CARRIER POWER: SIDEBAND POWER:

𝑉𝐶 2 𝑚2 𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 =
2𝑅 4
TOTAL SIDEBAND POWER:
𝑚2 𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵 =
2

NOTE: All powers are in RMS

 Am SIGNAL COMPONENTS

PEAK ENVELOPE POWER:

𝑉𝑇 2
𝑃𝐸𝑃 =
2𝑅
AVERAGE POWER:
𝑃𝐸𝑃 𝑃𝐸𝑃
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜
4 3
NOTE: All powers are in RMS
Am SIGNAL COMPONENTS
 Am SIGNAL COMPONENTS

Conventional AM Frequency Spectrum

fc

fm
fLSB = fc – fm fUSB = fc + fm
fm fm


0 Hz
BW = 2fm
 Sample problem no. 1:

Find the modulation index if a 10V carrier is

amplitude modulated by three different frequencies
with amplitudes of 1V, 2V, and 3V, respectively.
 Sample problem no. 2:

What is the carrier frequency in an AM wave when

its highest frequency component is 850 Hz and the
bandwidth of the signal is 50Hz?
 Sample problem no. 3:

A 100 MHz carrier is simultaneously modulated

with 300 Hz to 3 kHz audio sine waves. What will
be the total bandwidth and the bandwidth of the
upper and lower sidebands?
 Sample problem no. 4:

An SSB transmitter produces a 400 V peak-to-peak

signal across a 52 ohms antenna load. The PEP and
range of average power are:
 Am techniques
Common techniques used in systems employing AM
transmission of information are:
1. Double Sideband-Full Carrier (DSB-FC)
2. Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
3. Single Sideband-Full Carrier (SSB-FC)
4. Single Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC)
5. Single Sideband-Reduced Carrier (SSB-RC)
6. Independent Sideband (ISB)
7. Vestigial Sideband (VSB)
 DOUBLE SIDEBAND-FULL CARRIER

The modulated signal is composed of the CARRIER, the

UPPER and LOWER SIDEBAND. Also known as Conventional
AM (A3E).
𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶 1 +
2

𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶 1+ 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 1+
2 2
DOUBLE SIDEBAND-suppressed CARRIER

The modulated signal is composed of the UPPER and

LOWER SIDEBAND.

𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶
2

𝑚2 𝑚𝑉𝐶 𝑚2 𝑚𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 =
2 2 2 2
 singLE SIDEBAND-FULL CARRIER

The modulated signal is composed of the CARRIER and

ONE of the SIDEBAND (either upper or lower). Also known
as H3E technique.
𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶 1 +
4

𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶 1+ 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 1+
4 4
singLE SIDEBAND-suppresses CARRIER

The modulated signal is composed of only ONE of the

SIDEBAND (either upper or lower). Also known as J3E
technique.
𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶
4

𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶
4 4
singLE SIDEBAND-REDUCED CARRIER

The modulated signal is composed of the REDUCED

CARRIER and ONE of the SIDEBAND. Also known as R3E
technique.
𝑚2
For 90% suppression: 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶 0.1 +
4

𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶 0.1 + 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 0.1 +
4 4
 Sample problem no. 5:

The modulated peak value of a signal is 125V and

the unmodulated carrier value is 85V. What is the
modulation index?
 Sample problem no. 6:

An AM broadcast transmitter with a carrier power

of 50kW is 88 percent modulated. Find the power
components and the total power.
 Sample problem no. 7:

A transmitter radiates modulated signal power

measured at 1500 W, while the unmodulated value
is 1000 W. What is the modulation index?
 Sample problem no. 8:

A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by

two audio waves with modulation % of 65 and 55,
respectively. What is the total sideband power
radiated.
 Sample problem no. 9:

When a broadcast AM transmitter is 50 percent

modulated, its antenna current is 12 A. What will
the current be when the modulation depth is
increased to 0.9?
 Sample problem no. 10:

An AM transmitter operates into a 50 ohm resistive

load. The RMS voltage measured at the output is
240V without modulation and 260V with modulation,
calculate the modulation index.
 Sample problem no. 11:

The output current of a 60% modulated AM

generator is 1.5 A. To what value will this current
be raised if the generator is modulated
additionally by another audio wave whose
modulating index is 0.7?
 Sample problem no. 12:

A modulated signal is transmitted over ground wave

whose wave equation is given as:
v(t) = 10sin(12.6x10^5 πt) + 2.5(cos12.55x10^5πt
– cos 12.65x10^5 πt). What is the frequency of the
intelligence signal?
 INDEPENDENT SIDEBAND

The modulated signal is composed of REDUCED CARRIER

and the TWO SIDEBANDS with DIFFERENT information but
same bandwidth. The sidebands are used as two different
channel that both carries information.
 vestigial SIDEBAND

The modulated signal is composed of the CARRIER and the

TWO SIDEBANDS with DIFFERENT bandwidth. Common
application is transmission of TV Video.
 SINGLE SIDEBAND MODULATION

SSB Advantage
✓ Power Conservation
✓ Bandwidth Conservation
✓ Selective Fading
AM Broadcasting and
✓ Noise Reduction
TV Video uses DSB.
SSB Disadvantage
✓ Complex Receivers
✓ Tuning Difficulties
 POWER SAVING

It is the percentage saved in using modulation

techniques in comparison with the use of conventional AM.

𝑃𝐶𝐴𝑀 − 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = × 100%
𝑃𝐶𝐴𝑀
 Sample problem no. 13:

What would be the percentage power saving if the

carrier and one of the sidebands were suppressed
before transmission took place at 80% modulation?
 PARTMHAR
ENGR. KRISTIAN 2 DE PADUA
 Angle modulation

An alternative to amplitude modulation due to

the disadvantage of AM. It results whenever the
phase or frequency of a sinusoidal wave is varied
with respect to time.
Two forms:
i. Frequency Modulation (FM)
ii. Phase Modulation (PM)
 frequency modulation
Varying the frequency of a constant amplitude
carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal.
𝛿 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚
 = frequency deviation
kf = modulator sensitivity
Vm = amplitude of the modulating signal
 frequency MODULATION

FM Signal Parameters:
fc = carrier signal fmin = minimum frequency
fm = modulating signal fmax = maximum frequency
Vc = carrier signal amplitude
Vm = modulating signal amplitude
m = modulating index
 = frequency deviation
PT = transmitter power
 frequency MODULATION

Information signal
MODULATOR Modulated signal
𝑣𝑓𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))

Carrier signal
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
 frequency MODULATION

𝑣𝑓𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))

VC
 frequency MODULATION

Carrier signal

Modulating signal

Modulated signal
 MODULATION index

In FM, it is the ratio of the actual frequency deviation to

the modulating frequency.
𝛿
𝑚𝑓 = 0<𝑚<∞
𝑓𝑚
 MODULATION percentage

The percentage value of the ratio of the ACTUAL and

MAXIMUM FREQUENCY DEVIATION.
𝛿𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑀= × 100%
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥

max = 75 kHz for FM broadcasting

= 25 kHz for TV audio
= otherwise, this will be given in the problem
 Deviation ratio

It is the ratio of the maximum deviation over the maximum

demodulating frequency.
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷=
𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
 Carrier swing

It is the peak-to-peak value of the frequency deviation.

𝐶. 𝑆. = 2𝛿 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛
Fm bandwidth
 Fm bandwidth

Theoretically, FM has INFINITE number of sidebands

making its bandwidth INFINITE also. But system designers
analyzes that the number of SIGNIFICANT sidebands can
be considered in an FM signal based on the modulation
index m.
 Fm bandwidth
1. NARROWBAND FM (0 < m < 0.25)
BW = 2fm(max)
2. WIDEBAND FM (m > 100)
BW = 2max
3. Carson’s Rule (Approximate)
BW = 2(max + fm(max))
4. Bessel’s Rule (Practical)
BW = 2Nfm(max) N = no. of significant pairs of SB
 PHASE modulation
Varying the phase of a constant amplitude carrier
directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the modulating
signal.
𝜙 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚
 = phase deviation/shift (radian)
kp = modulator sensitivity
Vm = amplitude of the modulating signal
 PHASE modulation
The phase deviation/shift can also be computed as
𝑁
𝜙 = sin−1
𝑆
 = phase deviation/shift (radian)
N = noise power
S = carrier signal power
 PHASE modulation

A certain phase deviation/shift also produces frequency

shift by relation:
𝛿 = 𝜙(𝑓𝑚 )

 = frequency deviation/shift
 = phase deviation/shift (radian)
fm = modulating frequency
 phase MODULATION

Information signal
MODULATOR Modulated signal
𝑣𝑓𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))

Carrier signal
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
 PHASE MODULATION

𝑣𝑓𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))

VC
 PHASE MODULATION

Modulating signal

FM signal

PM signal
 PHASE modulation

The only difference between the modulated signal of FM

and PM is:
✓ The maximum frequency in FM OCCURS AT THE
MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE of the modulating signal, while
the maximum frequency in PM OCCURS AT ZERO
CROSSING POINT FROM THE NEGATIVE PEAK of the
modulating signal.
 PHASE modulation

The only difference between the modulated signal of FM

and PM is:
✓ The minimum frequency in FM OCCURS AT THE
MINIMUM AMPLITUDE of the modulating signal, while
the minimum frequency in PM OCCURS AT ZERO
CROSSING POINT FROM THE POSITIVE PEAK of the
modulating signal.
 MODULATION index

In PM, it is the ratio of the actual frequency deviation to

the modulating frequency.
𝛿 𝜙 ∙ 𝑓𝑚
𝑚𝑝 = = = 𝜙𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚
 Sample problem no. 14:

A modulating signal v(t)=10 cos6000t is applied

to an FM modulator with deviation sensitivity of 3
kHz/V. What is the resulting modulation index?
 Sample problem no. 15:

An FM broadcast transmitter produces a carrier

swing of 60 kHz when modulated by a 10 kHz
signal. What is the percentage of modulation
produced by the information signal?
 Sample problem no. 16:

An FM broadcast transmitter produces a carrier

swing of 60 kHz when modulated by a 10 kHz
signal. What is the deviation ratio of the system.
 Sample problem no. 17:

An FM system uses a maximum modulating

frequency of 5kHz, and a maximum deviation of
+15 kHz. Determine the bandwidth of the system if
it is (a) narrowband (b) wideband.
 Sample problem no. 18:

What is the bandwidth of an FM system with

modulating frequency of 1kHz and deviation of 9
kHz using Carson’s rule?
 Sample problem no. 19:

In an FM system, when the audio frequency is 500

Hz and the AF voltage is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8
kHz. If the AF voltage is now increased to 7.2 V,
what is the new deviation?
 Sample problem no. 20:

A carrier wave of frequency 91 MHz is frequency

modulated by a sine wave of amplitude 10 Volts
and 15 kHz. The frequency sensitivity of the
modulator is 3 kHz/V. Determine the approximate
bandwidth of FM wave using Carson’s Rule.
 Am vs fm

ADVANTAGES OF FM:
✓ The main benefit of FM over AM is its superior immunity
to noise, made possible by the clipper limiter circuits in
the receiver, which effectively strip off all the noise
variations, leaving a constant-amplitude FM signal.
✓ Another major benefit of FM is that interfering signals
on the same frequency are effectively rejected.
✓ Third advantage of FM over AM is its efficiency.
 Am vs fm

DISADVANTAGES OF FM:
✓ The greatest disadvantage of FM is that it simply uses
too much spectrum space. The bandwidth of an FM
signal is considerably wider than that of an AM signal
transmitting similar information.
✓ One major disadvantage of FM in the past involved the
complexity of the circuits used for frequency modulation
and demodulation in comparison with the simple circuits
used for amplitude modulation and demodulation.