P.S.

V COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 1- CONDUCTION

ME 8693 HEAT AND

Important Questions and Answers

Heat transfer:

MASS TRANSFER
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
K.UDHAYAMOORTHY

Assistant Professor/Mechanical

CONDUCTION CONVECTION RADIATION

2020

[DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING]

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

UNIT 1 - CONDUCTION

HEAT TRANSFER:

Heat transfer is concerned with the estimation of rate at which heat is

transferred with in a medium, across an interface or from one surface to
another due to temperature difference. Heat transfer takes place according
to second law of thermodynamics.

Examples: Analysis of heat transfer in heat exchangers such as

boilers, heaters, refrigerators and radiators, modern electric and electronic
plants.

Mechanism or Modes of Heat transfer:

The energy transfer takes places by three basic modes are:

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Heat Conduction:
Heat conduction is the mode of heat transfer accomplished in two
mechanisms:
 By molecular interaction whereby the heat exchange takes place by the
kinetic motion or direct impact of molecules at a relatively high
temperature to adjacent molecules at lower temperature in a system
comprising molecules f a solid, liquid or gas.
 By the drift of ‘free’ electrons as in the case of metallic solids, the
metallic alloys have a different concentration of free electrons and
their ability to conduct heat. Pure conduction is found only in solids.

Heat Flux:

 The quantity of heat transferred per unit time per unit area of
isothermal surface is defined as the heat flux determined by the
relation,

 - Heat transfer rate in W,

 – Surface area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow in m2
 – Coefficient of thermal conductivity in W/m K

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 2

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Fourier’s law of Heat Conduction:

The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured

normal to the direction of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in that
direction.

Where,
 – Coefficient of thermal conductivity in W/m K.
 - Heat transfer rate in W,
 – Surface area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow in m2.

Thermal conductivity ( ):
Thermal conductivity is a physical property of the substance and is
defined as an ability of a substance to conduct heat. Its unit is in W/m K.
Pure metals have the highest values while gases and vapours have the
lowest values of thermal conductivities. The thermal conductivity of liquids
and gases is smaller than that of solids because their molecular spacing is
much larger and so there is less effective transport of energy.

Factors affecting the Thermal Conductivity:

 Pressure
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Structure of material
 Density of material

3- Dimensional Heat conduction equation in Cartesian Co-ordinate system

– Coefficient of thermal conductivity in W/m K

α –thermal diffusivity in m2/s

Diffusion Equation

In a three Dimensional Heat conduction equation in Cartesian Co-

ordinate system, absence of any heat generation or release of energy within
the body.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 3

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Thermal Diffusivity (α):

 The physical significance of thermal diffusivity is that it tells us how

fast heat is propagated or it diffuses through a material during
changes of temperature with time.
 The larger the thermal diffusivity, the shorter is the time required for
the applied heat to penetrate deeper into the solid.

Thermal Diffusivity (α) = m2/s

Poisson’s Equation
In a steady state condition, the temperature at any point in the
material does not change with time i.e. = 0. The heat conduction
equation becomes,

Laplace’s Equation

In a steady state condition, the temperature at any point in the material

does not change with time i.e. = 0 and absence of any heat generation or
release of energy within the body. The heat conduction equation becomes,

3- Dimensional Heat conduction equation in Cylindrical Co-ordinate system

– Coefficient of thermal conductivity in W/m K

α –Thermal diffusivity in m2/s
- Heat flux in W/m2

Initial and Boundary Conditions:

 The initial conditions describe the temperature distribution in a

medium at the initial moment of time, and these are needed only for
the time dependent (transient) problems.
 The boundary conditions specify the temperature or the heat flow at
the surface of the body. The types of boundary conditions are
 Prescribed surface temperature
 Prescribed heat flux
 Convective condition

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 4

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction

If the temperature field in a system can be described in terms of only

one space co-ordinates, the system is called one – dimensional system.

 1 – Dimensional steady state with heat generation equation becomes,

 1 – Dimensional steady state without heat generation equation

becomes,

Heat Conduction through Plane walls:

Heat transfer,

Where R = L /kA – Thermal Resistance in K/W

– Coefficient of thermal conductivity in W/m K
T1 & T2 – Inner and outer surface Temperature in K

Heat Conduction through Hollow Cylinder:

Heat transfer,

Where – Thermal Resistance in K/W

– Coefficient of thermal conductivity in W/m K
T1 & T2 – Inner and outer surface Temperature in K
L – Length of the cylinder in m
Note:
, where Am – logmean Area of the cylinder

The thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder is of exactly the same form

as that for a slab except that the logarithmic mean area is used for the
cylinder.

Heat Conduction through Hollow Sphere:

Heat transfer,

Where – Thermal Resistance in K/W

– Coefficient of thermal conductivity in W/m K

T1 & T2 – Inner and outer surface Temperature in K
L – Length of the cylinder in m

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 5

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Note:
, where Ag – geometric mean Area of the sphere =

(A1A2)1/2
The thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder is of exactly the same form
as that for a slab except that the geometric mean area is used for the sphere.

Mean thermal Conductivity (km):

Mean thermal conductivity is defined as km = k0 (1+β Tm)

Where k0 –Thermal conductivity at T = 0

β – Temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient:

 Overall heat transfer by the combined modes is usually expressed in

terms of an overall conductance or Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
‘U’.
 The overall heat transfer coefficient is a quantity such that the rate of
heat flow through a configuration is given by taking a product of U,
the surface area and the overall temperature.
 The value ‘U’ depends upon the geometry of the separating wall, its
thermal properties and the convective coefficients at the two surfaces.
 Overall heat transfer, in W/m2K
Where Q – Heat transfer in W
A - Surface area IN m2 and - Temperature difference
between surfaces in K

Thermal Resistance:

Thermal resistance is the temperature difference between two surfaces

of thickness L per amount of heat conducted through the surface of area A.
then the heat flow is given by,
in W, where Rth – Thermal resistance in K/W

For plane wall Rth = is known as conduction resistance.

Thermal Conductance:

The inverse of thermal resistance is known as thermal conductance,

K, and is equal is to the amount of heat flow conducted through a solid of
area A and thickness, per degree temperature differences.

in W/K

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 6

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Fins or Extended Surfaces:

 Heat transfer by convection between a surface and the fluid

surroundings it can be increased by attaching to the surface thin
strips of metals called fins.
 The fins increase the effective area of the surface thereby increase the
heat transfer by convection. The fins are al referred as ‘Extended
surfaces’.

Application of fins are Cooling of electronic components, cooling or

motorcycle engines, compressors, electric motors, transformers, refrigerators,
high – efficiency boiler super heaters.

Types of fins:

 Longitudinal fins – Ribs are attached along the length of a tube

 Circumferential fins – Concentric annular discs around a tube
 Pin fins or Spines – Rods protruding from a surface.
 Plate fins – long fin, fin with insulated end.

Fin Efficiency:

 The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of the actual heat

transferred by fin to the maximum heat transferable by fin, if the entire
fin area were at base temperature.
 The maximum heat transfer would occur if the temperature of the
extended surface was equal to the base temperature, T0 at all points.

Fin Effectiveness:
It may be defines as the ratio of heat transfer rate from a surface with
fin to that which would be obtained without the fin. It is dented by ‘E’.

Biot Number:
It is defined as the ratio of internal conductance resistance to the
surface convective resistance. It is denoted by Bi and it has a non-
dimensional parameter.

, where Lc – Characteristic length

Significance of Biot Number is used to test the Lumped heat capacity

approach, i.e Bi < 0.1.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 7

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

STEADY STATE HEAT TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION

CONDUCTION
 Conduction of heat in Steady  Conduction of heat in
state refers to the condition in unsteady state refers to the
which a heat conducting transient conditions wherein
medium when temperatures at the heat flow and temperature
fixed points do not change with distribution at any point of the
time. system vary continuously with
time.
 It depends only on space co-  It depends both on time and
ordinates. space co-ordinates.
 It occurs in heat flow through  It occurs in heating or cooling
a plane and composite wall, a of metal billets, cooling of IC
hollow cylinder and spherical engines, cooling and freezing of
shell. food.

PERIODIC HEAT FLOW NON - PERIODIC HEAT FLOW

 Periodic heat flow problems are  In non – periodic heat flow, the
those in which temperature temperature at any point
varies on a regular basis. within the system varies non –
linearly with time.
 The profile of temperature  The profile of temperature
variation with crank angle for variation is neither according
one cycle called temperature to any pattern nor is in
wave. repeated cycles.
 Eg: Temperature variation in  Eg: Heating of an ingot in a
surface of earth during period furnace.
of 24 hours.

Lumped Heat Analysis:

 In a Newtonian heating or cooling process the temperature throughout

the solid is considered to be uniform at a given time.
 Such an analysis is known lumped heat capacity analysis, because
the whole solid, whose energy at any time is a function of its
temperature and total heat capacity is considered as one lump.
 Lumped heat capacity approach, Bi < 0.1.

Application of lumped heat analysis is measurement of temperature by a

thermocouple or a thermometer.

 The response time of a temperature measuring instrument is defined as

the time taken by it to reach the source temperature.
 The time required to reach 63.2 % of the value of the initial
temperature difference is called its sensitivity.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 8

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Infinite solids:

A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space is

known as infinite solid. A Biot Number value is in between 0.1 and 100.

For infinite solid,

Semi – Infinite Solids:

 If an infinite solid is split in the middle by a plane, each half is known

as Semi – Infinite Solid.
 In a Semi – Infinite Solid, at any instant of time, there is always a
point where the effect of heating or cooling at one of its boundaries is
not felt at all. At this point temperature remains unchanged.
 In a Semi – Infinite Solid, biot number is .

Fourier Number:

 It is defined as the ratio of characteristics body dimension to

temperature wave penetration depth in time.
 It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect
through a solid.
 It has a non-dimensional parameter, F0 = α τ/ l2

Heisler Charts:

 Heisler charts are extensively used to determine the temperature

distribution and heat flow rate when both conduction and convection
resistances are almost of equal importance.
 The values of Biot number and Fourier number, as used in the Heisler
charts, are evaluated on the basis of characteristics parameters which
are the semi-thickness in plates and surface radius in case of
cylinders and spheres.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 9

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

UNIT 2- CONVECTION

Important Questions and Answers

Convection

 Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid

moving over it. The energy transfer in convection is predominantly due
to the bulk motion of the fluid particles; through the molecular
conduction within the fluid itself also contributes to some extent.
 Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid
surface and a fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.

Free or Natural Convection

 If the fluid motion is mainly due to the density variations associated

with temperature gradients within the fluid, the mode of heat transfer
is said to be due to free or natural convection.
 Examples: Designers of furnaces, house heating systems,
architectural projects, roads and concrete structures.

Forced Convection

 If the fluid motion is principally produced by some superimposed

velocity field (like a fan, a blower or a pump), the energy transport is
said to forced convection.
 Examples: cooling of internal combustion engines, air conditioning
installations and nuclear reactors, condenser tubes and other
exchange equipment.

LAMINAR FLOW TURBULENT FLOW

1. The fluid moves in layers and 1. A distinct irregular flow is
each fluid particle follows a frequency observed in nature.
smooth continuous path.
2. Laminar flow is sometimes 2. Laminar flow is called non-
called stream line flow. stream line flow.
3. The fluid particles in each 3. The path of any individual
layer remain in an orderly particle is zig – zag and
sequence without mixing with irregular.
each other
4. For a fluid flow through a pipe, 4. For a fluid flow through a pipe,
low Reynolds number upto Reynolds number upto 2300 to
2300 is laminar flow. 6000 is turbulent flow.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 10

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Hydraulic or Equivalent Diameter

In many flow situations, the duct is not circular but is rectangular,

trapezoidal or even an annulus formed by a tube within another tube.

Equivalent (hydraulic) diameter which is defined as four times the

cross-sectional flow area divided by the wetted perimeter,

 For a duct or rectangular cross section with length l and breadth b,

 If the annulus has an inner diameter of d1 and an outer diameter d2

then the Equivalent diameter, de = d2 – d1.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

The rate equation for the convective heat transfer between a surface
and an adjacent fluid id prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling as

Where Q is the convective heat flow rate in W

A is the surface area exposed to heat transfer in m2

Ts is the surface temperature of the solid in K

T∞ is the fluid surface in K

h is heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K

Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is essentially the equation for the

conservation of mass, that is, the matter my neither be created nor be
destroyed. It is derived by taking a mass balance on the fluid entering and
leaving a volume element in the flow field.

this is known as continuity equation for two - dimensional steady

incompressible flow in rectangular coordinates.

Continuity equation in terms of axisymmetric cylindrical polar coordinates

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 11

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Momentum Equation or Navier Stokes Equation

x- Momentum equation as,

y- Momentum equation as,

where, = inertia force

& = body force

& = Pressure force

= Viscous force

Boundary Layer Thickness:

 The thickness of the boundary layer has been arbitrarily defined as

the distance from the surface at which the local velocity (or temperature)
reaches 99 percent of the external velocity (or temperature).
 In general, both the velocity layer and thermal boundary layer will exit
simultaneously.

Concept or Significance of Boundary Layer:

The concept of boundary layer as proposed by Prandtl forms the

starting point for the simplification of the equations of motion and energy. In
this concept the flow field over a body is divided into two regions,

1. A thin region near the body called as the boundary layer, where the
velocity and temperature gradients are large and
2. The region outside the boundary layer where velocity and temperature
gradients are very nearly equal to their free stream value.

Velocity Boundary Layer

 In Velocity boundary layer, velocity of the fluid is less than 99% of free
stream velocity, u = 0.99 u∞.
 Velocity boundary layer on a flat plate, due to fluid mixing resulting
from the macroscopic motions, the turbulent boundary layer is thicker
and velocity profile is flatter than that in laminar flow.
 In flow over a flat plate, velocity is uniform in front of the leading edge
and reduced to zero relative to the surface of the plate.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 12

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Thermal Boundary Layer

 In thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less than 99% of

free stream temperature.
 A thermal boundary layer will develop if the surface temperature (Ts)
and free stream temperature (T∞) are different.
 In flow over a flat plate, at the leading edge the temperature profile is
uniform and at the surface there is no motion, the energy transfer takes
place only by conduction and boundary layer increase.

Critical Reynolds Number

The critical distance xc, beyond which the flow cannot retain its
laminar character is usually specified in terms of a critical Reynolds
number Rex, c.
Depending upon surface and turbulence level of free stream the
critical Reynolds number varies between 105 and 3 x 106.

For flow over a flat plate, Rex, c = 5 x 105

For flow through a pipe, Rex, c = 2300

Reynolds number (Re)

 Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous

force.
 Large values of Re denote high inertial forces whereas small values of
Re are obtained with highly viscous fluids.
 The significance of Reynolds number determines the nature of flows,
whether laminar or turbulent.

Inertia force
Re 
Viscous force
Prandtl number (Pr)
Prandtl number is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity of the
thermal diffusivity.
Momentum diffusivity
Pr 
Thermal diffusivity

Nusselt number (Nu)

It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under

an unit temperature gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction under an
unit temperature gradient through a stationary thickness (L) of metre.

Qconv
Nusselt number (Nu) = .
Qcond

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 13

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Grashof number (Gr)

It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force

to the square of viscous force.

Inertia force  Buyoyancy force

Gr 
(Viscous force)2

Stanton number (St)

Stanton number is the ratio of nusselt number to the product of

Reynolds number and prandtl number.

Nu
St 
Re Pr

Newtonian and non – Newtonian fluids

The fluids which obey the Newton’s Law of viscosity are called
Newtonian fluids and those which do not obey are called non – Newtonian
fluids.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 14

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

UNIT - 3

PHASE CHANGE HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS

Important Questions and Answers

BOILING CONDENSATION
 Boiling is a convection process  Condensation refers to the
involving a change in phase process when a fluid changes
from liquid to vapour. from vapour to liquid phase.
 Boiling may occur when a  Condensation occurs whenever
liquid is in contact with a a saturated vapour comes in
surface maintained at a contact with a surface at a
temperature higher than the lower temperature.
saturation temperature of the
liquid.
 Boiling occur in following  Condensation may occur in
forms: pool boiling, Forced two modes are: Film wise
convection, Subcooled or local condensation and Dropwise
boiling and saturated boiling. Condensation

Pool Boiling:
If heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface, the boiling
process is referred to as pool boiling. In this process, the vapour produced
may form bubbles, which grow and subsequently detach themselves from
the surface, rising to the free surface due t buoyancy effects.

Example: Boiling of water in a kettle on a stove.

Flow or Forced Convection Boiling:

 Flow boiling may occur when a liquid is forced through a channel or

over a surface which is maintained at a temperature higher than the
saturation temperature of the liquid.
 This phenomenon is generally associated with two phase flows
through confined passages. The free convection and the bubble
induced mixing also contribute towards fluid motion.

Different Regions/Regimes of Boiling curve:

 Free Convection Zone or Interface Evaporation

 Nucleate boiling
 Bubbles condenses in super heated liquid
 Bubbles rise to surface
 Film boiling region
o Unstable Film
o Stable Film
o Radiation coming into play

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 15

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Burnout point in Boiling:

The maximum heat flux known as critical heat flux will occur on the
boiling curve at which transition occurs from nucleate to film boiling. The
peak heat flux point is called Burnout point and the corresponding
temperature as critical temperature difference and most material may burn
at this temperature.

FILM WISE CONDENSATION DROP WISE CONDENSATION

 Filmwise condensation in  Dropwise condensation in
which the condensate wets the which the vapour condenses
surface forming a continuous into small liquid droplets of
film which covers the entire various sizes which fall down
surfaces. the surface in a random
fashions.
 It occurs on clean  It occurs on highly polished
uncontaminated surfaces. surface or on contaminated
surfaces with impurities.
 Making heat transfer rate is  Making heat transfer much
smaller than Dropwise. higher (5 to 10 times) than
those of filmwise.

Promoters in Dropwise Condensation:

Dropwise condensation gives the heat transfer coefficient generally 5 to

10 times larger than with filwise condensation. Because of potential
performance gain, dropwise condensation is provoked artificially by surface
coatings called Promoters that inhibit wetting.

The various types of promoters are Silicons, Telfons and an assortment of

waxes and fatty acids.

Heat Exchangers:

 A heat exchanger is any device used for effecting the process of heat
exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures.
 Heat exchangers are useful in many engineering processes like those
in refrigerating and air-conditioning systems, power systems, food
processing systems, chemical reactors and space or aeronautical
applications.

Types of Heat Exchangers:

 Direct and Indirect contact heat exchangers

 Surface heat exchangers or Recuperators
 Parallel flow, Counter flow and Cross flow heat exchangers
 Shell and tube heat exchangers and Compact heat exchangers

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 16

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Direct Contact Heat Exchangers:

A heat exchanger in which two fluids exchange heat by coming into

direct contact is called direct contact exchanger.

Example: open water heaters, desuper heaters and jet condensers.

Surface Heat Exchangers or Recuperators:

 Recuperators are heat exchangers in which the fluids are separated by

a wall. The wall may be a simple wall or tube or a complex
configuration involving fins, baffles and multiple passes of tubes.
 These units are also known as Surface heat exchangers are more
commonly used because they can be constructed with large heat
transfer surfaces in a relatively small volume.
 Applications: Heating, cooling, evaporating and condensing.

Regenerators:

 A periodic flow type of heat exchanger is called a regenerator. In this

type of heat exchanger, the same space is alternately occupied by the
hot and cold gases between which heat is exchanged.
 Applications: Preheaters for steam power plants, blast furnaces,
oxygen producers.

Parallel flow heat exchangers – if hot and cold fluids move in the same
direction and Counter flow heat exchangers – if hot and cold fluids move
in parallel but opposite direction

Cross flow heat exchangers – fluids move at right angles to each other

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers:

The fluid flowing through the tubes is called tube fluid whereas the
fluid flowing outside the tubes is called shell fluid.
Flow conditions for shell and tube type heat exchangers are neither
parallel flow nor counter flow type.
Examples: shell and tube exchanger with a bundle of tubes arranged
in one shell pass with two tube passes and baffles.

Compact Heat Exchanger:

 Special types of heat exchangers used in industrial applications, some

of them have tubes with fins, pins or spiral grooves on the outer
surfaces.
 Normally a liquid flows through the tubes and a gas with a low heat
transfer coefficient over the extended surfaces. Such special types of
heat exchangers called as Compact heat exchanger.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 17

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Fouling Factors:

 The surfaces of a heat exchanger do not remain clean after it has been
in use for some time. The surfaces become fouled with scaling or
deposits which are formed due to impurities in the fluid, chemical
reaction between the fluid and the wall material, rust formation etc.
 The effect of these deposits is felt in terms of greatly increased surface
resistance affecting the value of U. This effect is taken care of by
introducing an additional thermal resistance called the fouling
resistance Rf.

LMTD Method of Heat Exchangers:

If we denote the temperature difference between the hot and cold

fluids by . Since is varying with position in the heat
exchanger.
The actual heat transfer rate will be

where is a suitable mean temperature difference across the heat

exchanger. Since the final expression obtained by this method will be in the
form of a logarithmic relation, this method is referred to as Logarithmic Mean
Temperature Difference (LMTD) method of analysis.

Effectiveness of heat exchangers:

The effectiveness method is based on the effectiveness of a heat

exchanger in transferring a given amount of heat. To obtain an expression
for the rate of heat transfer without involving any of the outlet temperatures
let us first introduce the term .

NTU – Method:

 NTU is a dimensionless parameter. It is a measure of the heat transfer

size of the exchanger. The larger the value of NTU, the closer the heat
exchanger reaches its thermodynamic limit of operation.
 Number of transfer units (NTU) =

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 18

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

UNIT-4 RADIATION

1. Define Emissive power and Monochromatic Emissive Power

Emissive power:
 The emissive power [Eb] is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted
by a body per unit time and unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
 It is dependent upon a number of parameters among which are the surface
material and roughness.

Monochromatic Emissive Power:

 The energy emitted by the surface at a given length per unit time per unit
area in all directions is known as monochromatic emissive power [Eb].
=

2. Define the term Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity:

Absorptivity is defined as the ratio between radiation absorbed and incident

radiation.

Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the incident

radiation.

Transmissivity is defined as the ratio of radiation transmitted to the incident

radiation.

3. Define Black Body and gray body.

 Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties. A black body
absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wave length and direction. For a
prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can emit more energy
than black body.

 If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation irrespective of

their wave length, the body is known as gray body. The emissive power of a
gray body is always less than that of the black body.

4. Name the laws of variation used in heat transfer analysis.

 Planck’s law
 Wien’s displacement law
 Stefan – Boltzmann law and
 Kirchoff’s law

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 19

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

5.. State Planck’s Distribution Law

The relationship between the monochromatic emissive power of a black body
and wave length of a radiation at a particular temperature is given by the following
expression, by Planck.
C1 5
Eb 
 C2 
 
e   T  1

Where Eb = Monochromatic emissive power W/m2

 = Wave length – m
c1 = 0.374  10-15 W m2
c2 = 14.4  10-3 mK

6. State Wien’s Displacement Law.

The Wien’s law gives the relationship between temperature and wave length
corresponding to the maximum spectral emissive power of the black body at that
temperature
Where C3 = 2.898  10-3
mK

7. State Stefan – Boltzmann Law

The emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth

power of absolute temperature.

Eb  T4
Eb =  T4
Where Eb = Emissive power, w/m2
 = Stefan. Boltzmann constant
= 5.67  10-8 W/m2 K 4
T = Temperature, K

8. Define Emissivity

 It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. It is also

defined as the ratio of emissive power of anybody to the emissive power of a
black body at the same temperature.
 Emissivity of a material varies with temperature and wavelength of the
radiation.

E
Emissivity  
Eb

9. State Kirchoff’s Law of Radiation

This law states that the ratio of total emissive power to the absorptivity is
constant for all surfaces which are in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings.
This can be written as

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 20

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

E1 E2 E3
 
1 2 3

It also states that the emissivity of the body is always equal to its
absorptivity when the body remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
1 = E1; 2 = E2 and so on.

10. Define Intensity of Radiation (Ib).

The radiation emitted in any direction is defined in terms of the radiation

intensity. The radiation intensity of a surface is defined as the rate of heat flux
emitted by it per unit projected area normal is the direction of radiation per unit of
solid angle.

11. Define total hemispherical power.

If Eb is the sum total of the energy per unit area radiated in all possible
directions of the hemispherical space, then it is called total hemispherical power of
the surface.

12. Explain the two types of radiation intensity.

Spectral radiation intensity (Ibλ):

 The spectral radiation intensity refers to radiation in an interval dλ around a

single wavelength propagating in a given direction at any position(r).
 It represents the amount of energy streaming through a unit area projected
normal to a given direction per unit time per unit solid angle about the
direction and per unit wave length about the wavelength (λ)

Total radiation intensity (Ib):

It is used to characterize the amount of energy emitted over the entire

wavelength spectrum from λ = 0 to in a beam and is related to Ibλ by,

13. State Lambert’s Cosine Law.

It states that the “a diffuse surface radiates energy in such a manner that
the rate of energy radiated in any particular direction is proportional to the cosine
of the angle between the direction under consideration and normal to the surface”.

(Or)

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 21

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

14. Define solid angle.

The solid angle (dw) is defined as the ratio of the area of the surface of a
sphere enclosed by the conical surface forming the angle to the square of the
radius of sphere. Its unit is steradian (Sr).

15. Mention the Purpose of Radiation Shield:

 Radiation shields constructed from low emissivity (high reflective)

materials.
 It is used to reduce the net radiation transfer between two surfaces.

16. Define Irradiation (G) and Radiosity (J)

It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per
unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a
surface per unit time per unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.

17. What is meant by Shape factor / view factor?

 The shape factor is defined as the fraction of the radiative energy that is
diffused from on surface element and strikes the other surface directly with
no intervening reflections.
 It is represented by Fij.
 Radiation shape factor are also known as view factor, angle factor and
configuration factor.

18. What do you mean by infra red and ultraviolet radiations?

 Infra red and radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation.

 Infra red radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum
to 100 mm to 1mm. the frequency range of 430 THz to 300 GHz.
 Ultraviolet radiation is in form of radiation which is the portion of
electromagnetic spectrum between x-rays and visible light. The wavelength is
40 to 400 nm.

19. What is the greenhouse effect? Why is it matter of great concern among
atmospheric scientists?

The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a

planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases and re-radiated in
all directions. Greenhouse effect has significant role in climate change.

20. What is thermal radiation and what is its wavelength band?

The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is
known as radiation or thermal radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave
phenomenon.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 22

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Wavelength band, λ = 0.1 to 100µm

21. What are the assumptions involved in radiation exchange between

surfaces?

 All surfaces are considered to be either black or gray

 Radiation and reflection process are assumed to be diffuse or equal
 and independent of Temperature of incident radiation

21. Find the temperature of the sun assuming as a black body, if the intensity
of radiation is maximum at the wave length of 0.5µm.

22. Assuming the sun to be a black body emitting radiation with maximum
intensity at λ = 0.49, calculate the surface temperature of the sun.

23. Two parallel radiating planes 100 x 50 cm is separated by distance of 50

cm. what is the radiation shape factor between the planes?

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 23

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

UNIT 5 MASS TRANSFER

Important Questions and Answers

Mass Transfer:

 In a mixture consisting of two or more components whose

concentrations vary from point to point, there would be a natural
tendency for the transport off different species from region of high
concentration to those of low concentration.
 This process of transfer of mass as a result of the species
concentration difference in a mixture called as mass transfer.

Examples of mass transfer:

 Dissolution of sugar added to a cup of tea

 Separation of components of a mixture by distillation or absorption
 Transfer of water vapour into dry air (humidification)
 Drying and evaporation.

Mechanism or Modes of Mass Transfer:

The mechanism of mass transfer depends greatly on the dynamics of the

system in which it occurs. The different modes of mass transfer are

Diffusion Mass Transfer

 Molecular Diffusion
 Eddy diffusion
Convective Mass Transfer – Free and forced Convective Mass Transfer

Molecular Diffusion Mass Transfer:

 The molecular diffusion is the transport of matter on a microscopic

level as a result of diffusion from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration in a system of a mixture of liquids or
gases.
 The diffusion mass transfer occurs when a substance diffuses through
a layer of stagnant fluid. The molecular diffusion is further categorized
into
 Ordinary diffusion, Thermal diffusion, Pressure diffusion and
Forced diffusion

Eddy Diffusion Mass Transfer:

The eddy diffusion occurs when one of the diffusing fluids is in

turbulent motion. The eddying motion greatly increases the speed of mass
transfer as it is in addition to molecular diffusion. Mass transfer is more
rapid by eddy diffusion than by molecular diffusion.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 24

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Convective Mass Transfer:

It is ma mode of mass transfer that will occur between a moving fluid

and a surface or between two relatively immiscible moving fluids. The
convective mass transfer depends both on the transport properties and on
the dynamic (laminar or turbulent) characteristics of the flowing fluids.

Example: Evaporation of alcohol and evaporation of water from an ocean

when air blows over it.

Concentrations:

The concentrations of a species in multi component mixtures can be

expressed in a number of ways.

Mass Concentrations (ρ)

Mass Concentrations or mass density of a species may be defined as

the mass of species per unit volume of the mixture. It is expressed in kg/m3.

Mass Concentrations (ρa) =

Molar Concentrations (C)

Molar Concentrations or molar density of a species may be defined as

the number of moles of species per unit volume of the mixture. It is
expressed in kg/m3.

Molar Concentrations (Ca) =

Since the number of moles equals the mass divided by the molecular weight,
the mass and molar concentrations are related by the expressions.

where, Ma – Molecular weight of a component A

Mass fraction (ma)

Mass fraction may be defined as the ratio of the mass concentration of

species A to the total mass density of the mixture.

Mass fraction (ma) =

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 25

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Mole fraction (ma)

Mole fraction may be defined as the ratio of the molar concentration of

species A to the total molar density of the mixture.

Mass fraction (ma) =

In a binary mixture of A & B, and

and

Velocities:

Since different components in a mixture may have different mobilities,

the bulk velocity of the mixture would be some sort of an average velocity.

 Mass average velocity and molar average velocity

 Mass diffusion velocity and molar diffusion velocity

Mass average velocity (v)

The bulk velocity of a mixture, in which different components may

have different mobilities is computed on Mass average velocity. In a fluid
mixture of two components A and B,

Molar average velocity (V)

The bulk velocity of a mixture, in which different components may

have different mobilities is computed on Molar average velocity. In a fluid
mixture of two components A and B,

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 26

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Mass diffusion velocity

The mass diffusion velocity of a component is the velocity of that
component relative to the mass – average velocity of the mixture.

Mass diffusion velocity of species, i = vi - v

Molar diffusion velocity

The molar diffusion velocity of a component is the velocity of that

component relative to the molar – average velocity of the mixture.

Molar diffusion velocity of species, i = vi - V

Fluxes:

The mass transfer flux of a given species is a vector quantity and is

defined as the amount of that species, in either mass or mole units, which
crosses a given area per unit time. We identify four types of fluxes here, two
with reference to fixed coordinates in space (stationary surfaces) and two with
respect to coordinates which are moving with mass average velocity or
coordinates moving with molar-average velocity.

 Mass flux, ni = ρi vi
 Molar flux, Ni = Ci vi
 Mass-diffusion flux, ji = ρi (vi - v)
 Molar-diffusion flux, Ji = Ci (vi - V)

Fick’s law of diffusion:

It states that molar flux of an element per unit area is directly

proportional to concentration gradient. The fick diffusion rate for the transfer
of species A in x direction in a binary mixture of A and B can be expressed
as

– Molar flux in the x direction relative to the molar average velocity in kg-
mole/ s-m2
– Concentration gradient in the x direction in kg/m3
– Diffusion coefficient or mass diffusivity for component A diffusing
through component B in m2/s

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 27

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Diffusion coefficient:

The mass diffusion coefficient or diffusivity is a property of a

specific system and depends upon its temperature, pressure and
composition. The unit of mass diffusivity is m2/s.

Liquid mass diffusivities are considerably smaller than those for the
gases due to high molecular density in the liquid phase. However, increase
in with increase in temperature has been observed. Diffusion in solids is
even slower than in liquids. ) gas > ) liquid > ) solid

Mass Transfer Coefficient (hm):

 The mass transfer is a diffusion rate constant that relates the mass
transfer rate, mass transfer area and concentration gradient as a
driving force. Its unit is m/s.
 It also determines the rate of mass transfer across a medium in
response to a concentration gradient.

Free Convective Mass Transfer:

If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from

concentration gradients, the mode of mass transfer is said to be free or
natural convective mass transfer.

Example : Evaporation of alcohol.

Forced Convective Mass Transfer:

If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external force

like a blower or fan, that type of mass transfer is known as convective mass
transfer.

Example: The evaluation if water from an ocean when air blows over
it.

Schmidt Number:

It is defined as the ratio of the molecular diffusivity of momentum to

the molecular diffusivity of mass. The Schmidt number is important in
problems involving both momentum and convection mass transfer.

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 28

 ME 8693 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2019

Sherwood Number:
It is defined as the ratio of concentration gradients at the boundary. It
is a non-dimensional mass transfer number.
where , x is a characteristic length.

Lewis Number:

lewis number is of significance in problems involving both heat and

mass transfer and may be defined as the ratio of and Diffusion coefficient.

Stanton Number:

Fick’s Second law of diffusion:

It is applicable to gases. It states that and

Mr. K. Udhayamoorthy, Assistant Professor/Mechanical Page 29