avian g) Mathematics 2 Edexcel AS and A Level Modular Mathematics i ! p POSE Omeo ths eeedexcel advancing learning, changing lives This CD-ROM has been created to make it even easier for you to study Further Pure Mathematics 2 and to revise for the unit examination. Every question in the textbook has its worked solution in Solutionbank. Exam Café is a unique resource with comprehensive exam practice and guidance from examiners. Edexcel AS and A-level Modular Mathematics arate tM lalate ace— Use LiveText to view the textbook onscreen and access the additional resources. <> Use these buttons to turn the pages. Ss S Use the hotspots on the pages themselves to launch extra content. Or click on the ‘Resources’ button to | Resources | explore the resources for the lessons. vaiiaye This product requires MathPlayerTM or other MathML renderer to be installed. More helpala dala el gd Mathematics 2 Edexcel AS and A-level Modular Mathematics ‘advancing learning, changing lives Greg Attwood Lee Cope urence Pateman Keith Pledger Geoff Staley Dave WitkinsContents About this book 1 Inequalities 1d 1.2 Solving inequalities by manipulation Solving inequalities graphically Series 21 Using the method of differences to sum simple finite series, Further complex numbers 3:1. 3.2 33 34 35. 3.6 37 38 39 ‘The modulus~argument form Euler's relation Multiplying and dividing two complex numbers De Moivre’s theorem De Moivre's theorem applied to trigonometric identities Using de Moivre's theorem to find the nth roots of a complex number Using complex numbers to represent a locus of points on an Argand diagram Using complex numbers to represent regions on an Argand diagram Applying transformations that map points on the z-plane to points on the w-plane by applying a formula relating z = x + iy tow =u + iv Review Exercise 1 First order differential equations 41 42 43, 44 Solving first order differential equations with separable variables and the formation of differential equations and sketching members of the family of solution curves Solving exact equations where one side is the exact derivative of a product and the other side can be integrated with respect to x Solving first order linear differential equations of the type - + Py = Q where P and Qare functions of x, by multiplying through the equation by an integrating factor to produce an exact equation Using a given substitution to reduce a differential equation into one of the above types of equation, which you can then solve iv Na ul 12 18 19 20 24 28 32 36 40 SI 53 66 72 73 7 78 81Second order differential equations Sl 53.2 5.3 34 5.5. 5.6 Finding the general solution of the linear second order differential equation ), where a, b and care constants and where b? > 4ac Finding the general solution of the linear second order differential equation & dy at SE + oy = 0, where a, band cate constants and where b* = 4ac Finding the general solution of the linear second order differential equation a 2 +f © + cy = 0, where a, band c are constants and where b? < 4ac Finding the ae solution of the linear second order differential equation ate athe Y 4 oy = tg), where a, band c are constants, by using y ne function + particular integral Using boundary conditions, to find a specific solution of the linear second order wy differential equation a 5% + ow + cy = fix), where a, b and care constants, or initial conditions to find a specific solution of the linear second order differential equation a © ate & + ex = f(0), where a, b and ¢ are constants Using a given substitution to transform a second order differential equation into one of the above types of equation, and solving it Maclaurin and Taylor series 6.1 6.2 63 64 Finding and using higher derivatives of functions Expressing functions of x as an infinite series in ascending powers of x using Maclaurin’s expansion. Finding the series expansions of composite functions using known Maclaurin’s expansions. Finding an approximation to a function of x close to x = a, where a # 0, using ‘Taylor's expansion of the function Finding the solution, in the form of a series, to a differential equation using the Taylor series method Polar coordinates 7A 7.2 73 7.4 75 Polar and Cartesian coordinates Polar and Cartesian equations of curves Sketching polar equations Areas using polar coordinates Finding tangents parallel and perpendicular to the initial line Review Exercise 2 Examination style paper Answers Index 87 88 90 1 93 97 100 105 106 108, 112 115, 118 127 128 130 132 136 139 145 155 157 185About this book This book is designed to provide you with the best preparation possible for your Edexcel FP2 unit examination Brief chapter overview and ‘links’ to underline the importance of mathematics: to the real world, to your study of further units and to your career * This is Edexcel's own course for the GCE specification. * Written by a senior examining team at Edexcel: the chair of examiners, chief examiners and principal examiners + The LiveText CD-ROM in the back of the book con! even more resources to support you through the unit. Finding your way around the book Every few chapters, a review exercise helps you consolidate your learning. Detailed contents list shows which parts of the FP2 specification are covered in each section Each section begins with a statement of what is covered in the section Concise learning points Step-by-step worked examples ~ they are model solutions and include examiners hints Past examination questions are marked ‘I Each section ends with an exercise ~ the questions are carefully graded so they increase in difficulty and gradually bring you up to standard Each chapter has a different Each chapter ends with _—_At the end of the book there is, colour scheme, to help you find | a mixed exercise and a an examination-style paper. the right chapter quickly summary of key points.LiveText software The LiveText software gives you additional resources: Solutionbank and Exam café. Simply turn the pages of the electronic book to the page you need, and explore! DORIS a0) Unique Exam café feature: * Relax and prepare - revision planner; hints and tips; common mistakes * Refresh your memory — revision checklist; language of the examination; glossary * Get the result! — fully worked examination-style paper with chief examiner's commentary aay Solutionbank * Hints and solutions to every question in the textbook * Solutions and commentary for all review exercises and the practice examination paperPublished by Pearson Education Limited, a company incorporated in England and Wales, having its registered. office at Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex, CM20 2JE. Registered company number: 872828 Edexcel is a registered trademark of Edexcel Limited ‘Text © Greg Attwood, Lee Cope, Bronwen Moran, Laurence Pateman, Keith Pledger, Geoff Staley, Dave Wilkins 2009 [Link] 1009 10987654321 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is avallable from the British Library on request. ISBN 978 0 438519 21 6 Copyright notice All rights reserved. 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Edited by Catherine Riches ‘Typeset by Tech-Set Lid Illustrated by Tech-Set Ltd Cover design by Christopher Howson Picture research by Chrissie Martin Cover photo/illustration © Edexcel Printed in the UK by Scotprint Acknowledgements The author and publisher would like to thank the following individuals and organisations for permission to reproduce photographs: Getty Images / Lester Letkowitz pl; Alamy / Chris Howes / Wild Places Images p11; Science Photo Library / Victor Habbick Visions p18; Alamy / Roger Bamber p72; Alamy / Stefan Hunziker ~ [Link] p8 Alamy / Andrew Paterson p108; Science Photo Library / Dr. John Brackenburg p127. Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of material reproduced in this book. Any omissions will be rectified in subsequent printings if notice is given to the publishers. Disclaimer ‘This Edexcel publication offers high-quality support for the delivery of Ecexcel qualifications. Edexcel endorsement does not mean that this material is essential to achieve any Edexcel qualification, nor does it ‘mean that this is the only suitable material available to support any Edexcel qualification. No endorsed material will be used verbatim in setting any Fdexcel examination/assessment and any resource lists produced by Fdlexcel shall include this and other appropriate texts. Copies of official specifications forall Edexcel qualifications may be found on the Edexcel website - [Link],After completing this chapter you should be able to: manipulate inequalities * determine the critical values of an inequality * find solutions of algebraic inequalities. Inequalities In manufacturing or business you will want to know what level of price will ensure that Most aphifaifions of mathematics I your profit is greater than your production requite the solution of inequalities | costs ~ this means solving inequalities. at some stage‘CHAPTER 1 1.1 You can manipulate inequalities to solve them In C1 you learnt how to solve simple quadratic inequalities by rearranging them. The inequality sign can be treated like an equals sign as long as you do not divide or multiply both sides of the ‘Step 1 is to find the critical values. Rearrange the expression and then replace the inequality symbol with an equals sign and solve. Step 2 is to draw a sketch, or use a table of values to determine which sets of values satisfy the inequality. Step 3 is to write down the answer by Using the graph to interpret the inequality. In FP2 you will be dealing with algebraic fractions, and care must be taken when rearranging the cus Solve the inequalit Multiply both sides by (x — 2) @-2ex = (x - 22x (x +1) expression by a negative number. There are three steps to solving inequal era Cy Solve 2x? 3) zi?! 15 pm | 1.2. You can use graphs to solve inequalities. Ea] 7x ‘a On the same axes sketch the graphs of the curves with equations y = 7*— and y = b Find the points of intersection of y = =-7%— andy = 4 ~ x. 3x+]1 Wg © Solve 37% 5 =aInequalities a y = 4 — xio.a straight line croesing the axes at (4,0) and (0, 4), a Ye There is a vertical asymptote ab x = — hae a root at (0, 0). 1 3 There io a horizontal asymptote at y = 2 So the sketch looks like this Tx. bar Tx = NOx + 4 — Bx? — x 3x2 - 4x -4=0-——————____ | ooo Cx+Qe-2=O-— So x= —Zor2 © Marking these points on the graph So the solution is ¢ Zor lend x<—2or-tex<2a 1 : sketching approach is particularly useful if the inequality involves the modulus function. Ea: Solve |x? — 4x] <3 A sketch of y = |x? — 4x| and y = 3 looks like: Since there is a modulus function sketch y = |x? ~ 4x| andy = 3 on the same axes. To find the critical values, remember patie eee eres when solving |x? ~ 2-4 =3 => x?-4x-3=0 ‘Sometimes the quadratic formula may be required. -(? - 4x) = 3 - 4x +3=0 = 3-1) =0 You need to identify where the points 1 ers of intersection are on the sketch. x=1or Marking these values on the sketch: See eta ones Finally write down the solution to the ae Pee ____ inequality ~ the points where the line 2-VI x° + Sx - 24=0 (x + 8)(x- 3) =0 x= Bord Solving the equations gives four values but the graphs only have two crossing So the valid critical values are x = 3 and x = 7. The line is above the curve when Finally write down the solution. 35x57 Solve the following inequalities: 1. |x — 6) > 6x 2) t-3|>2 3) \@-2@+ <9 4| le +1/=3 5) 2x|+2>3 atk <2 Bat” 8) real<1-* 9 a On the same axes sketch the graphs of y = andy = 7-5, x x42 vel> b Solve 5-> 10 a On the same axes sketch the graphs of y = ;-Lg andy = 44x — al. ete jen : eae b Solve, giving your answers in terms of the constant a, = < 4lx — alInequalities NIN Reigate 1 Solve the inequality |x? — 7| < 3 + 1) 2) Solve the inequality <1 kel +6 3| Find the set of values of x for which |x — 1| > 6x — 4| Find the complete set of values of x for which |x® ~ 2| > 2x x+] 1 2x 3 5 | Find the set of values of x for which 6| Solve @+3)e+9 4 g-1 7 | a Sketch, on the same axes, the graph with equation y = |2r ~ 3), and the line with equation y = Sx — 1 b Solve the inequality [2x — 3| < Sx — 8| a Use algebra to find the exact solution of |2x? + x — 6| = 6 — 3x bb On the same diagram, sketch the curve with equation y = |2x? +x ~ 6| and the line with equation y = 6 ~ 3x © Find the set of values of x for which |2x? + x — 6| > 6 — 3x e 9) a On the same diagram, sketch the graphs of y = |x? ~ 4| andy = |2x ~ 1|, showing the coordinates of the points where the graphs meet the x-axis. b Solve |x? — 4| |2x — 1), giving your answers in surd form where appropriate. ¢ Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which |x? ~ 4| > |x ~ 1 eAfter completing this chapter you should be able to: * sum simple finite series using the method of differences when © the differences do not involve fractions © the differences involve fractions which are given © you will use partial fractions to establish the difference. The following standard results from FP1 raat : Dra 4243..4¢02 2041) \ ft . Dy P= 12422432 tm = Bn 4 1)2n + 1) = © Do pa 433., += Fine iy a can be proved using the method of difference. y This chapter continues the use of summation > NNN notation as introduced by Euler in finding yi the sum of a finite series, The method used 1! inthisiehaptet/does not felyon the use of the E standard results established in FP1. Ly2.1 You can use the method of differences to sum simple finite serie: If the general term, u, of a series can be expressed in the form £() - f(r +1) then > w= >> (iy fr+ 1) edt so =f(1)-4(2) u, = £2) - 16) uy = f(3) - (4) a, = f(r) ~f(n+ 1) =f (1) - f(n +1) Then adding D> a a Show that 4 = Pr + 1)? = (r = 1)? bb Hence prove, by the method of differences that > m1 = drt tien +1) = (r= 19? 2 + 2p +1) = (2 = Br + Ne _ + 2 + = A + 2/8 — 2 ——— = 4° = [Hg ——_______________—_ Simplify. Start with RHS. Expand brackets. r+ = (r= 1927) take r=1 Beye (Oo) @y7=0 r=2 DBP =] r=3 Baye — (opem All the terms except two cancel out. S ran Wn +12 tit | ren +e So adding Then 2 = ren +1)? 2 Fn +1Series Verify that —1 r+) and hence find )> Fa ep ting the method of differences, 1 1 Jrti-r 5 5 ; G i= =aftiar Consider RH 7 — Fg = Ey Write as a single fraction. eee r+) = LHS Simplify. 1 Aqr+t) All terms cancel except first and last. = 24 1 ut over common denominator. Find > ja" wsing the method of differences. rt 4 Use the difference of two squares Ba Sea to factorise the numerator. 1 Aas Split the fraction into partial (@r+)@r—1) 241” 2r—i7_______) fractions. A(2r = 1) + Br +1) @r+ )@r=1) 1= A(@r— 1) + B(2r +1) Consider + Add fractions. Set numerators equalCHAPTER 2. __ Put values of rin to find A and 8. Let r= So All terms cancel except first and last. a Express 2 rss b Hence prove by method of differences that in partial fractions. _ wlan + by where @ and b are constants to be found. 20 ¢ Find the value of ‘) ~ yy 105 decimal places,Series ee Set up partial fractions, A(r + 3) + B(r +1) ea ee A(r +3) + B(r +1) Add the fractions ‘Compare numerators. whenr=—-3 2=-2B=> ce | when r= —1 2A>A=1 Therefore 2 __ = __1___1 FFIe+3) FF) FS) Using method of differences whenr =1 4-# r=2 $-# Cancel terms. r=3 0-H paeeata = il eit as = pela eee et mr Wei ato Put these four terms over a : ys ed pene common denominator. 1 (+ Ir +3) n+3 _ B(nt (n+ 3) + An + 2(n + 3) — O(n + 3) - O(n + 2) — G(n + 2)(n + 3) ‘Simplify. Gn + 2\(n + 3) = 5+ 13n _ _ _n(Gn + 15) ~ 6+ 2yn+3) ont ant 3) Factortse: S0a=5andb=15 2 2 a 2 Sy) pi Subtract 7 Cera) 2 FNrFs) LFF IFS) 2 _ 30(5X 30 +13) _ _20(5 x 20 + 13) trom GGO+ 2A(SO+S) G(204+ 220+ oS = BS — 565 Evaluate. 1056 759 = 988 _ = 0.02738 105 dp. Give answer to 5 d.p. / 24288‘CHAPTER 2 4 a Express 1 a Show that r= rr + 1) ~ nr ~ 1). b Hence show that r= Be + 1) using the method of differences. 2] Given rir + T) Bir F Ir 2 1 ne + Ir + 2) CCE i we DerD using the method of differences. 1 3) a Express toy in partial fractions. b Hence find the sum of the series > using the method of differences. rr +2) 1 Fire a it Pattial fractions. b Hence find the sum of the series )> — 5. Use the identity 4r° =r? (r+ 1? ~ (r—1P P to find )> 6 Given that r cn 7) Given that 20+ 1, Prt 1) > 2rd oa) ieAfter completing this chapter you should be able to: * write down a complex number, z, in modulus argument form as either z = r(cos @ + isin @) or z= re”, where ris the modulus of z and is the _ argument of z, and —7< @< © apply de Moivre’s theorem © to find trigonometric identities © to find the nth roots of a complex number represent loci and regions in an Argand diagram apply transformations from the z-plane to the w-plane. Z“IrTTaar CAMmMhpaAaY BOGE SEED VWI IUAMN - aa ry pre GEGGEEE wis DDL The image of a Mandell in 1980, is a set of point using complex numbers. These points are plotted on an Argand diagram to give an image whose bound: fer how many times you magnify In this chapter you will build on and develop further the work learnt on complex numbers in FP1. You will be applying complex numbers to both trigonometry and coordinate geometry.Further complex numbers 3.1 You can express a complex number in the form r(cos 0 + isin 6) The modulus-argument form of the complex number z= x + iy is where * 1,2 positive real number, is called the modulus and * 0, an angle such that when —2 < 0< z, is called the principal argument. From the right-angled triangle, x = 10s 0,y = rsin Oand r= |z| =x? +9? So, z= x + iy = rcos 0 + irsin@ = r(cos @ + isin 0) Note that 0, the argument, is not unique. The argument of z could also be 0+ 2x, 0+ 4, etc. To avoid duplication of 0, we usually quote 0 in the range =< 0< wand refer to it as the principal argument, ‘arg’, ie. @ = arg z. 2 1(cos + isin 6) is correct for a complex number in any of the Argand diagram quadrants. Express z = —V/3 + i in the form r(cos @ + isin @), where ~7< 0< 7. r= (CBRE R = VE =2 @ = arg z= 1 — tan” ( a oz 6 ola eae Therefore, z = 2(coo SF + i cin SFcarrer 3 Express z = —1 ~ i in the form r(cos @ + i sin 6), where —7< 0< 7. (APF = v2 r= 3.2. You can express a complex number in the form z = re”. In chapter 6, (and in your formula book), you will find the series expansions of cos 0 and sin 0. They are cos 8 = fini cyent sin g= @spl @ Also, for. € R, the series expansion of e* is a gia ealtet hee It can be proved that the series expansion for e* is also true if x is replaced by a complex number. If you replace x in e* by id the series expansion becomes Gio)? , GO", GO* ia) | (0) fete aie ghee allt SIE alt eeFurther complex numbers By comparing this series expansion with those of © and ® you can write eas cose + isn o> int yen acne re.) You can now use Euler's relation to rewrite z = r(cos 6+ i sin 6) as oe — eee where r= |z\ and 6 = arg z. Beas Express z = 2 — 3iin the form re”, where —7 < 0< 7. (2)? + (—3)? = vB 0 = argz = —tan" (3) = -0.98 (2dp) 0.981 Therefore, 2 = v15 & In Chapter 8 of Core 2, you learnt the following properties which will be helpful to you in this chapter: cos(-6=cos@| and | sin(~6) = -sin@ Example EJ Express =v2 2 4+isin 2’ = =z sin Z ) ii 0 “ a z= V2 (cos + isin 75) b 2=5 (cos F isin & | in the form re", where —7< 0< 7. Therefore, z = V2 el?‘CHAPTER 3 b 2=5(cos ¥ - isin) o(eoe(-B) +190(-§) 50,r=5 and 6= | a Therefore, z= Ge > eee vm _Set Express z = 2 e# in the form x + iy, wherex € Randy ER. Sai zav2er G0, r= v2 and @ = 32, (cos 22 V2 (cos 82 + isin Eee Sen Therefore, z= —1+i ee Za Express z = 2e © in the form (cos 0+ i sin 6), where ~ 2 < 0 x. So, r= [Link] @= 28 2a, 6 2(cos 3 5Further complex numbers Use e!” = cos 6 + i sin 6 to show that cos = 5(e” +e"). é = cos 8+ isin d ® cos (—0) + isin (-8) eee eee a ———— Ee entail Hence, cos @ = 4 (e" + 6°), as required. 1 Express the following in the form r(cos @ + i sin 6), where —7< @= 7. Give the exact values of rand 6 where possible, ot values to 2 d.p. otherwise. a7 b -Si ce v3 +i d 242i eli f-8 g3-4i h -8 + 6i 4 2-V3i Express the following in the form x + iy, wherex € Randy €R. 2+ isin 2) Veos F + isin) a S{cos 5 + isin 5) bb a(cos F + isin 2) 5m 4 j sin 52 22) {2 © 6{cos 57 + isin 57) 4 3(cos (-2) + isin (-22)) I m in (—2 = 2m i sin 22) © 22 (cos (—F) + i sin (-F)) £ ~4{cos 7 + isin 2) Express the following in the form re", where ~a< 6 = 7. Give the exact values of rand @ where possible, or values to 2 d.p. otherwise. a-3 Db 6i © —2v3 - ad -8+i e2-Si £ ~2y3 + 231 \B(cos + isin 2 isin 2 _isinZ) 8 vB(cos T+ isin T hh 8{cos & — isin Z) 4 2(cos F— isin Z) Express the following in the form x + iy where x € Randy € 8. 5 a ae b 4c" © 3v2e4 a 3 Sai d ee e3e? fee at “tet gem hh 3V2e # ise i Express the following in the form r(cos @ + i sin ), where -7< 6 7. 16s, os 5 1 95, ael b de> © 5e8 Use e” = cos # + isin # to show that sin @ = 5carrer 3 You need to know how multiplying and dividing affects both the modulus and argument of the resulting complex number For the following proofs you need to apply the following identities found in the Core 2 and Core 3 sections of your formula book: sin (0, = 0) = sin 6; cos @ * cos sind, © cos (8, * #4) = cos 6, cos @ = sin a sind @ cos? 6 + sin? 6 = 1 ® Multiplying complex numbers z, and z, If 2, = ry(cos 8, + isin 9,) and z, = r,(cos 6, + isin @,), then 2,2, = N(COS 8, + isin 6) x r3(COS 6, + i sin 6) nyre{cos 6, + i sin 6,)(cos 6 + i sin 4) rz{COS 6, COS 6, + 1 COS 8, sin B, + i sin 6, cos @, + i sin 4, sin 6) = ryr{cOs 8, Cos A; + i cos 6, sin 8 + isin A, cos 6; ~ sin 6, sin 4) yrs{(Cos 6, Cos 6, ~ sin 8, sin @2) + isin , Cos & + cos 6 sin &)) = ryr(cos(9, + 6) + i sin(#, + 6,)), using identities Q and @. Therefore the complex number 223 = ryF3(cos(#, + 0) + isin(6, + 64) argument form and has modulus rr, and argument 4, + 6. a modulus- Also, if 2; = ne” and z) = ne" then nyt = (nel) (r2e) rr = ret Therefore the complex number 422 = ryne~ is in an exponential form and has modulus rfp and argument 8, + 02. Dividing a complex number z, by a complex number z, If 2, = r(cos 6, + isin &,) and z, = r,(cos 6, + i sin @,), then 4 _ r(cos 0 + isin 0) 2 r,(cos 6, + isin 6) (cos 0 + isin 64) ,. (Cos 4 ~ isin 3) 7,{(COS 8 + isin 8) ~ (COs A, — isin 6.) 1,(COS 6; COS 6; ~ i cos 6, sin @, + i sin A, cos 8 ~ i? sin 6, sin 4) 1,(COS 0; COs 6; — i COS 0 sin 0; + isin 0; cos 0, — i? sin 0, sin 0;) Ty((COS 8, COS Hy + sin 6, sin 93) + i(sin 0, Cos & — cos 4, sin 0,)) 12{cOs? 0, + sin? 0) =F (cos(, ~ 04) + 1sin(o, ~ 6), using identities , ® and ®,Further complex numbers ‘Therefore the complex number 7! = 1 (cos (0, ~ ¢3) + isin(®, ~ ¢)) is in modulus-argument n form and has modulus 8 and argument 0; ~ 6. Also, if z, = ne" and z, = re" then a _ rem 2” pe eligi aN gin-ie ne Therefore the complex number 7! 2 el js in an exponential form and has modulus Zz and argument 6 ~ @2. In summary, you need to learn and apply the following results for complex numbers z; and 72: © lz:2) = lallzcd Marg (2:2) = arg (2) + arg (2) Jal. ea arg (7!) = arg (2) ~ arg (22) Example Ei Express 3{cos 3 35m 4 j sin 52) x 4(cos 3 + isin a a 7 in the form x + iy. ox 5r) y a 3(cos SF + i vin SB) x 4(cos + i sin aoe) (ool 5E + 3) tren Zt a4 = 12 (cos F + isin) =12(0 + i(1)) = 12i‘CHAPTER 3 Example EJ) Express 2{cos 7% m T tick % cos + isin E a 6 ) a m m sig t ising 2m isin 20 cos 2 — isin Jal zl cos SF — i sin 22 2a = 2 cos + isin -Z) x 3(cos (22) + 161 = 209 (2 (5- + 1om( 8-84) eo) y2(cos 75 + isin Express 2 cos 57 + isin Pee ene coo 5 + isin 75) oa 2 coe SF + i sin AA -Flomls = 2 (cos (- =B(-4 2\ v2 in the form x + iy. 3a] al )—F ae in the form + iy.1 Express the following in the form x + iy. a (cos 20 + i sin 26)(cos 30 + i sin 36) w (cos 32+ isin $2 cos 8F sin $2) yx 2{cos oD + isin 2) 7) nee isin) £ 6{cos sh + isin 5 a0 Bese x 3 3) & (cos 40 + isin 46\(cos 6 ~ isin hh 3(cos 75 + isin 75) x v2 (cost = x 2 12 3 tsin3) 2) Express the following in the form x + iy. cos 50+ isin 50 cos 20 + isin 26 2(cos® + isin b Teos® 41s p{cos + isin sain ; 3(cos F + isin T Saran] 4(cos 52 + isin 52 cos 20 ~ isin 26 cos 30+ isin 36 3) zand ware two complex numbers where = —9 + 3V3i, |w| = v3 and arg w = 75. Express the following in the form r(cos 6 + i az, bw, where —7< 0< 7.Harter 3 If z= r(cos @ + isin 6), then P=2X z= 1(cos 0+ isin 6) X r(cos 0+ isin 0) = (cos 26 + isin 26), B= 2X 1= r%(cos 20 + isin 26) x r(cos 6 + isin 0) = (cos 36 + isin 36) z= 2X 2= (cos 36+ isin 36) X r(cos 0 + isin 0) = r(cos 40 + isin 46) The above results show that 2) = [n(cos @+ isin )] 2 = [r(cos 6 + isin 6} © z= [rcos @ + isin O)} © z= [x(cos 4+ isin r(cos 6+ isin 6) P(cos 26 + i sin 20) P(cos 36 + isin 36) (cos 46 + i sin 40) Therefore it follows that the general statement for any positive integer, n is ‘This is de Moivre’s theorem. It is important for you to remember this result. M2" =[r(cos 0+ isin OJ” = P(cos n0 + i sin nd) It will be shown that de Moivre’s theorem is true for any integer 1. Proof of de Moivre’s theorem when nis a positive integer You can use the method of proof by induction (found in FP1) to prove that [r(cos @ + isin @)J" = "(cos nd + i sin nd) is true for all positive integers. n=: 1S = (e089 + Lala 6}! = feu 0+ Isa =D RHS = r'(cos 16 + i sin 16) = r(cos 6 + i sin As LHS = RHS, de Moivre's theorem is true for 1 = 1. Assume that de Mois theorem iste for = REZ === ie. [r(cos 6+ isin 6) = P(Cos k6 + i sin k6) 3 de Mo acre bea =D [r(cos @ + i sin #7? = [ricos 6 + isin #)]* x r(cos 6 + isin A) (cos K9 + isn Ko) X 100s 6+ i sin LB SRN PD ‘1(cos kO-+ isin kO\(cos 0 + isin 8) (c05(k0-+ 0) + isin (k0-+ 0)» Fromm section 33, V(cos(k + 1) + isin (k + 1)0) ‘Therefore, de Moivre’s theorem is true when n = k + 1.Further complex numbers If de Moivre's theorem is true for = k, then it has been “4. Conclusion step shown to be true form = k + 1 As de Moivre’s theorem is true for n = 1, it is now also true for all n > 1 and n € Z* by mathematical induction. Proof of de Moivre’s theorem when nis a negative integer ‘We will now prove that [r(cos @ + i sin @)]" = r"(cos né +i sin n6) is true for all negative integers. If n isa negative integer, it can then be written in the form m = —m, where m is a positive integer. LHS = [r(cos @ + isin @)]" = [r(cos 6 + isin @-" A T(cos 0+ isin Oy” Ernie eettarrnnaarr 1 (cos mé ~ i sin mé) (cos mo + isin m0) ~ (Cos mo — isin mB) cos mé isin moa (cos? md — i? sin? mo). 1 (cos m6 ~ isin mé) (cos? m + sin? mé): r " (cos md — i sin ma) =r" (cos n+ i sin n6) = RHS*——— Applyingm=-m Therefore, we have proved that de Moivre's theorem is true when 1 is a negative integer. Also for, n= 0; LHS = [r(cos @ + i sin )]? = RHS = r (cos 0 + isin 0) = 1(1) =1 As LHS = RHS, de Moivre’s theorem is true for 1 = 0. ‘Therefore we have proved that de Moivre's theorem is true for any integer 1. de Moivre's theorem can also be written in exponential form. Itz = r(cos 0 + isin @ = re", then Z" = [ricos # + isin @)]" = [re"']" et)" = fet —_______________ applying ("== P(cos nO + isin n6) This is de Moivre's theorem, stated in an exponential form. Therefore [re”}" = re”carrer 3 ica 1} on Onis (cos 92 + isin 92 2a 2c) Simplify (cos 2 — i sin 22 (c06 SF + 1 in on? ipo tena) (co 216m ee (cof-99) + 09(-49)) 45m 4on coo tion tee _ 6m 7 een) er (ees) 7 7 (7a Ta = coe SM + j cin 7 Bt = cos 3a + isin 3: =cosm+isina 22180) eye tanto, On’ eal +isi = coo( 48H on 2 (coe 9+ ian Therefore, Express (1 + \3i)” in the form x + iy wherex € Randy ER.Further complex numbers oe 5 , roue(B)-g S14 i= alsoe $+ on 8) apse nn) (1+ vi)’ = (cos F + isin 2) 2i(coe 2F + ion ZZ) 2) Therefore, (1 + VBi)’ = 64 + G4vBi. = 128(1 = r20( 2+ rand pop denonnesvenem, = 100(co $+ 1snZ)-——— stat tom rumen) 1) Use de Moivre’s theorem to simplify each of the following: a (cos @ + isin 0) isin 2 © (cos + isin Z) (con 22+ 15102) cos 50 + isin Sé (cos 26 +i sin 267 ieee (cos 20 + isin 26) 50 ‘in 36)" cos 50+ (cos 30 (cos in + isin By 4m 4a 2) Evaluate = cos 47 — isin $2) Bb (cos 38+ isin 36)* (cos F + isin F) iin )'5 f (cos 35 isin 3G) (cos 20 + isin 20)" (cos 46 + isin 49)? (cos 26 + isin 20)" 4 (00s 30+ 1sin 307 cos 6 (cos 20 — isin 20) 3) Express the following in the form x + iy where x € Randy ER. a(itis b (-2 + 218 a (1 v3i° e (3-4v3i)’ 4) Express (3 + v3i)° in the form a + by3i wher © (1-i)® (~2v3 - 2i)° fe a and b are integers.carrer 3 3,5. You can apply de Moivre’s theorem to trigonometric identities. You need to be able to apply the following binomial expansion found in the Core 2 section of your formula book. (a+b =a" + "Cab + Ca 2 + Ca + Example [BL Express cos 30 in terms of powers of cos 8. (cos @ +1 ¢in 0° = cos 30+ 1 6in 36 = cos? # + °C, cos® (isin 6) a mel + °C: cos 8(i sin 8? + (icin 8)° = 605? 6 + Bi cos O sin 8 + Bi? cos Osin® +i? sin? 8 = cos? 6 + 3i cost 8 sin @— 3 cos O ein? 6 — isin? @-—1 Equating the real parts gives 08150 = cos” 8 — 3 cos O sin’ @ = coe @= B00 8(I— coo )e—__ = 009? 8 ~ 3.003 0+ 3.003 = 4002 6 3.008 8 Therefore, cos 30 = [Link]” (ea ee eee i Express cos 60 n terms of powers of cos 6, b 52-6 9 + nn, n EZ, in terms of powers of cos 6. sin (coe @ + ‘ein 8) = cos 68 + i ain 68 = cost 6 + °C, cos? I ain 6) + °C; cost Bi cin 6)? + %y cos? &{i sin 6)° + &C, cos* 6 sin 6)* + Ce cos Wi sin O° + (isin 6)% = cos! 8 + Gi cos? O sin 0 + 157 cos! O sin? 0 + 20! cos? 0 gin? 6 + 15i* cos? 6 win’ 0 + GE cos Bin? @ + i? cin? = cos® @ + Gi cos? @ sin @ — 15 cos* @ sin? 6 — 201 cos* @ sin? @ + 15 cos* 8 sin* 8 + Gicos Bsin® 8 — sin? @a Equating the real parts gives cos 60 = cos® 0 — 15 cos* O sin? 6 + 16 cos? @sin* 8 — sin? 6 Further complex numbers = cos® @ — 16 cos 0 (1 — cos? 6) + 15 cos? WI — cos? B? — (1 — cos? 6)? = cos 8 — 15 cost M1 — cos? 6) 15 cos? I~ 2 cos? 8+ cos! #) 1 Mulipjing out brackets) = (I= 3 cos? 0 + 3 cos* 8 — cos® 6) {i sacs = cos® @— 15 cos* 8 + 15 cos? @ Qe! + 15 coe? @ — 30 cos* 0 + 15 cos® 0 — 1+ [Link]? 8-3 cost 8 + cos® 6 = 32 cos® 6 — 48 cos’ 0 + 18 cos* 8-1 —§ i ‘Therefore, cos 60 = 32 cos” 0 — 48 cos 8 + 18 cos" A — 1. b Equating the imaginary parts gives sin 6 = 6 cos? Asin 6 — 20 cos® @ ein? 8 + 6 cos Ocin® 8 80 2.8 = 6 cos? 8 ~ 20 cos? 8 sin? 8+ 6 cos B sin* @ = 6 cos® 6 — 20 cos* I — cos? 8) + 6 cos AI — cos? O-4 = 6 cos’ 8 — 20 cos? (1 — cos? 6) + 6 cos &1 — 2 cos* @ + cos* 6) = 6 cos? 0 — 20 cos* 8+ 20 cos® 0+ 6 cos — 12.co9* 8 + Expand brackets. | + 6 cos? @ 32 cos # — 32 cos @+ 6 cos @. + Therefore, 9in 60 39 cos® 6 — 32 cos? + 6 cos 0. sin 8cuarter 3 ‘Now we will investigate finding trigonometric identities for sin" @ and cos" @ where nis a positive integer. Itz = cos 0 + isin @, then 1 71 = (cos 0+ isin A? = (cos(-16) + isin (-10) = cos 0 ~ isin d It follows that : 2+1=cos 6+ isin 6 + cos 9— isin @=2cos 6 2 F= cos 0+ isin 0 (cos 0 ~ isin 0) = 2isin 0 Also, T= 2" = (cos a + isin 8)" = (cos(—nd) + i sin(~n8)) = cos nd ~ isin nd. 2 It follows that 2+ J. = cos + isin nd + cos nd ~ isin nd = 2 cos nd #~ J,= cos n0 + isin nd ~ (cos nd ~ isin nd) = 2i sin nd To summarise, youneed | 4. 1_ acon g to be able to apply a these results: z Express cos @ in the form a cos 54 + b cos 30 + ¢ cos 6, where a, b and c are constants. 2 cos =P +52 + 102+ 10 z =(2+ $5) + 6(2° + 4) + 10(2 + 4) —_ = [Link] 50 + 5(2 cos 30) + 10(2 cos é)-—— So, 32 cos @ = 2 cos 50 + 10 cos 30 + 20 cos 0 and cos" @= bcos 50 + [Link] 30 + 3cos 6Further complex numbers Prove that sin’ @ = —1 sin 30 + 3sin 6 = 2i sin 30 — 3(2i in 8) and sin? @=—46in30+26in@-—__| a Express sin‘ @ in the form d cos 40 + ¢ cos 20 + f, where d, e and fare constants. bb Hence find the exact value of f * Sint ad. a (2—2)'= (isin 6) = 161" sin* 0 = 16 int 8 =244462(-1) +4q2(-1) zi = [Link] 46 — 4(2 cos 26) + 6 So, 16 sin’ @ = 2 cos 40 - 8 coe 20 + 6 on a ce 40-4 coe 20+ 3carrer 3 So ie sint ad0 = 52, cen Use applications of de Moivre’s theorem to prove the following trigonometric identities: 1) sin 30 = 3sin 0~ 4sin*0 2) sin 56 = 16 sin’ @— 20 sin? 6 + Ssin @ 3) cos 70 = 64 cos’ 0 112 cos’ + 56 cos* 6 ~ 7 cos @ 4 3 (cos 40 + 4 cos 26 + 3) (sin 50 ~ 5 sin 34 + 10 sin @) 6 6] a Show that 32 cos? = cos 60 + 6 cos 40 + 15 cos 20+ 10. b Hence find { © cos* addin the form az + by3 where a and b are constants. 7) a Use de Moivre's theorem to show that sin 49 = 4 cos} @sin @ ~ 4 cos @sin® 6. 4tan 0~ 4 tan’ 6 1 6 tan? 0+ tan’ 0 © Use your answer to part b to find, to 2d.p., the four solutions of the equation att dx? — 6x? — de + 1=0. 3.6 You can use de Moivre’s theorem to find the nth roots of a complex numbe: In this section we will apply the following results: b Hence, or otherwise, show that tan 40 = 1 As the argument @ is not unique, the complex number z the form z = r(cos(@ + 2k) + isin(#+ 2km)), where k € Z. 2 de Moivre’s theorem states that [r(cos @ + i sin #))" = r"(cos nd + isin nd), where m € Q. (cos 6 + i sin @) can also be expressed in Note that it can be proved (but is beyond the scope of the FP2 unit) that de Moivre’s theorem is also valid when mis a rational number (i.e. 7 © Q).Further complex numbers a Solve the equation z* = 1. b Represent your solutions to part a on an Argand diagram. | a Simply r=1and @=0 7 : So, z= 1(cos O + isin 0) 2 = (coo(O + 2km) + i sin(O + a=) | Fao Hence, z = [(cos(2km) + i sin(2kz))]* +} Tike the nth root.) 0, =~ coe (242) +i in (242) k=0, 4 =cos0t+isinO=1 |, z= cos SE + i oin BE =2a i =1, 25 = c08 ( Therefore, z We can also write ‘the three cube roots of 191, wand wo, where eo eee vee o at hs . = oxe=(-t Eyles = nm 4v3i Peco) 2 2 Also note further that © w= oand eo ttmtor=itHarter 3 Example [—) Solve the equation z* = 2 + 2v3i. r= (2)? + (2/3) = vat = 4 roe (2) <5 So, 24 = 4(cos F + icin). 2 = 4(coo (F + 2km) + isin (F + 2kx)) -—— Hence, z= [4 (cos (J + 2ker) + isin (F + 2eer) )) — 2+ 2kq' (E a a) oi 5 a Jt ion), v2 (coo ZF + iin 72), 0 (cs) | ae ana cos (=t2) + sn (=212)) at pl Wom ata or z= V2el, V2e, Ze @ andv2e @ .Further complex numbers Example 2) Solve the equation z' + 4/2 + 4V2i-0. | 2+ + avZi-0. P= Ave — 4V2i (-4V2, ~4 v2) (-4V2)" + (-4v2)" = VBE F 82 = VEE = 8 (42) =n B= Be we |++en[-38)} 2 aay 2 = (cos (-37 + 2km) + 16m (-32 + 2kx)) 2 (- 0=—m+ tan 80, 2 = 6(co8 i Hence, z = [2 (<0 + 2k) +1 in (32 + ake te Bn, a —30 + oka - 32 + ake a +iein| = (8)? (cl 80, 2= 2 cos (—Z + 2k) + ton (— + 24z)) __ k=O, z= na tisin a 8m 4 jon DT cos SF + icin SH), sao ue or z= 20%, 200 a pie 7 1 ta i OS BE me) + 2 g al 1 =cuarter 3 1) Solve the following equations, expressing your answers for z in the form x + iy, where x€Randy eR. az-1-0 bz-i-0 ©2=27 d+ 64=0 e74+4=0 £ 2+8i=0 2| Solve the following equations, expressing your answers for z in the form r(cos 6 + i where 7 < 0 7. agv=l b z+ 161=0 © + 32=0 dA=24+2i © A+ W3i=2 £ 2+ 32V3 + 321 3) Solve the following equations, expressing your answers for z in the form re’, where r > 0 and ~7< 0 nm. Give Oto 2d.p. av=34+4i b#=V11 -4i © = V7 4 3i 4 a Find the three roots of the equation (z + 1) = -1. Give your answers in the form x + iy, wherex € Randy € R, b Plot the points representing these three roots on an Argand diagram. © Given that these three points lie on a circle, find its centre and radius. 5] a Find the five roots of the equation z° — 1 = 0. Give your answers in the form r(cos @ + isin @), where —7 < 0= 7, b Given that the sum of all five roots of 25 ~ 1 = 0 is zero, show that cos (27) + cos (47 (3) + 0s(4 6| a Find the modulus and argument of —2 ~ 2v3i. b Hence find all the solutions of the equation z* + 2 + 2v3i = 0. Give your answers in the form re", where r > O and —w < @< =. 7) a Find the modulus and argument of V6 + V2i. b Solve the equation z! = v6 + v2i. Give your answers in the form re", where r> O and ~< = 7 : A locus of points is a set of points which obey a particular rule. Examples of loci are: acircle You can use complex numbers to represent a locus of points on an Argand diagram. ‘The Cartesian equation of a circle with centre (a, b) and radius ris (x ~ a)? + ~ b)? =Further complex numbers ‘+ a perpendicular bisector er ca 1] Ifz =a + iy represents the variable point P(x, y) and z, = x; + iy; represents the fixed point A(x, y;), what does |z ~ z\| represent on an Argand diagram? Jz — 2] 6 the modulus or length of the vector AP. Therefore |z — z| represents the length of the line joining the fixed point A(x, ys) to the variable point F(x, y). Pub simply |z — z| represents the distance between the fixed point A(x, y,) and the variable point P(x, y). Example If|z- 5 - 3i) = 3, a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which is represented by z on an Argand diagram, b use an algebraic method to find the Cartesian equation of this locus.cuarter 3 b |z-5-3i/=3 = ee al = eS) iy s)|= 5 => (x-5)+(y-3)?=32——___] Hence the Cartesian equation of the locus of Pis (x — 5)? + (y- 3? = 9] It follows that |z~ 2\| = ris represented by a circle centre (x7, 9;) with radius r, where 2) = x; + iy. ! eee Give a geometrical interpretation of the locus of points z, represented by a |z~3il=4 b\z-2+3i/=5 © 2-3+Si=2 a [2-Si- a z~ 31 = 416 a circle centre (0, 3), radius 4. b |z—- (2 + 3i)| = Sis a circle centre (2, 3), radius 5. c |z~ 3 + 5i] = 2 io a circle centre (3, ~5), radius 2. d |2 — 51 2 = 3 can be rewritten as ne = 2 + 5) = 3 — 3 > |z-2+ le centre (2, ~5), radius 3. Example 22] If |z| = |z — 63, a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which is represented by z on an Argand diagram, b use an algebraic method to find the Cartesian equation of this locus.Further complex numbers epee i — ym > ktylale+y el |_—— Group the real and imaginary pars.) S feoniiete eG ete) aaa Deepest ye) S + yPax2+y2— 12y+ 36° — Expand brackets, = y= 36 Hence the Cartesian equation of the eet Ban sane en It\z-3/=|2+il, use an algebraic method to find a Cartesian equation of the locus of z, b sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagram. 2 eae _ | > eWay th gta anin ott yest yee | ea TD Se 5) yh ye 1) = Gxt 9+ yaar tye + aytiot > -6x+9=2y¢1-—__ > -6rt+6=2y Hence the Cartesian equation of the locus of zisy = —3x + 4carrer 3 It follows that |z~ 2) = |z~ 2 is represented by a perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the points z, to z. Example Fj If|z ~ 6 = 22 + 6 - 9il, a use algebra to show that the locus of z is a circle, stating its centre and its radius. b sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagram. a |z-6|=2\z+6 - i] |x + ly — 6| = 2[x + iy + 6 - Qi] Tie Ot l= Ae +e) ty)" |S aareeS Se Slee- 6) + yl? = 2a + 6) + ty - NF s(x - 6? +P =4l(x + 6 + y- ey" — Femove the modu or wrttery | ences) = 4[x? + 12x + 36 + -— By + OH —«* oe eee —— 3x? + 6Ox + By’ — 72y + 432 = 0 Be eee ent | (x + 10)? = 100 + (y — 12) — 144 + 144 = 0 (x +10)? + (y - 12) = 100 Hence the locus of zis a circle centre (=10, 12), radius 10. It follows that if |\z~ 2) = Alz~ 2, where A > 0, A+ 1, then it may be more appropriate to apply an algebraic method to find the locus of points, z, represented by this equation.Further complex numbers If arg(z — 2) = Z, sketch the locus of P(x, y) which is represented by z on an Argand diagram. Find the Cartesian equation of this locus. 2 ~ 2s represented by the vector from the fixed point A(2, 0) to the point Px, y). As arg(z ~ 2) = J, then the locus of Pis the set of points where the vector AP makes an angle off aac art cacoites necrani the poate ale The locus of P is referred to as a hal zcan be rewritten as z = x + iy. i the real and imaginary parts. => arg((x — 2) + ly) = ia y Remove the argument. = tan(S (2) > y=V3(x- 2) Hence the Cartesian equation of AAs the locus is a half-line, this equation is restricted the locus of Pis y = V3x — 23. | for x >2,y>0. Itargz +3 + 32, sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagram. Find the Cartesian equation of this locus. 2 +3 + 2ican be written as 2 ~ (~3 ~ 2i) and this represents the vector from the fixed point (-3, ~2) to the variable point (1, y). Asarg(z + 3 + az, then the locus of zis the fatne tom (3, -2} mating an angle of 3 n an anti-clockwise sense from a line in the same direction as the positive x-axis.CHAPTER 3, arg(z + 3 + 2i) = a2 > ange ty +3 +2) =F > arg((x + 3) + ity + 2) = easy (2) > yt2=-1@ +3) 3a Hence the Cartesian equation of the locus of Pis y = —x — 5. It follows that arg(z ~ 7) = dis represented by a half-line from the fixed point z, making an angle # with a line from the fixed point z, parallel to the real axis. You need to know and be able to apply the following circle theorems: * Angles subtended at ‘The angle inasemi-circle ‘The angle subtended at the an arc in the same is a right angle. centre of the circle is twice segment are equal. the angle at the circumference. P a P /\ @ GP ) & a B 8 a 8 APB = AQB APB = 90° AOB = 2 X APB 2) 2-6) 2 wars 2=$) = fa sketch the locus of P(x, 9) which is represented by zon an Argand diagram, D find the Cartesian equation of this locus. =2 vi Let L; be the half-line satisfying arg(z - 6) = 6 and let Lz be the hal-line satisfying arg(z — 2) = So it follows that 6- ¢ = # @ rg(z — 6) — arg(z — 2)Further complex numbers All points on L, satisfy arg(z ~ 6) = 0. All points on L, satisfy arg(z - 2) = d. Therefore the point P is found lying on both L; and L, where 9 = 4. As Plies on Ly and Ly, it is found where L; and Ly intersect. From AABP, it follows that eT eT LSe The exterior angle of a BPA + FAB = FED « triangle is the sum of the é two opposite interior angles. + BPAt b= Oe = BPA=0-¢ From diagram, P4B = # and PBD = 0. Using 9-6 =F oO P can vary but BPA must always be 7. From circle theorems, angles in the same segment of a circle are equal. Therefore as P varies, BPA will always be equal to 7 So, it follows that P must lie on an arc of a circle cut off at A(2, 0) and at 6(6, 0). b 7 y sha = AB = Fas Locus z the angle subtended at a /\ the centre of the circle is twice the angle at the circumference. LS ‘As CA and CB are both radii, JoN\ then the radius, r= CA=CB. a A2, 0) BE, 0) = This implies that AOAB is isosceles and As = cBA = 5.‘CHAPTER 3 Li! AGO) X40) 86,0) Hence the Cartesian equation of the locus of Pie (x — 4)° + (y — 2)° = 8, where y > O. Example EY) If arg( > £ i z sketch the locus of P(x, y) which is represented by z on an Argand diagram. sr(p2g) az ante 4) = 0 dL — when 2 vanaarte—4)=6) | Lista) & =fe2 7 — Seka R ces Given that the complex number z = x + iy satisfies the equation |z ~ 12 ~ Sil = 3, find the minimum value of |z| and maximum value of |7\.Further complex numbers lzlnn = OC - CX = 13 - 3 =10. fie 00+ cra B+ 321s, arora) The minimum value of |z| is 10 and the maximum value of |2| is 16. crated 1) Sketch the locus of z and give the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: a |j=6 B |= 10 © |z-3)=2 dis e (e-4i)=5 f zt giz-1- hh iz+3+4il i |z-5+6i j z+ 6-4i/=6 k [32-9 ~ 6i] = 12 1 [32-9 ~ 6i) =9 2) Sketch the locus of z when a argz= b argiz + 3) =F © arg - 2) =F 4 angie +2 +.2i) = -F e age -1-1)=37 f arg(z + 3i) = 7 B arg - 1+ 31) = 37 h angie — 3 + 4i) = -3 i arg(z — 4i) = Sz 3) Sketch the locus of z and give the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: a |z- 6|=(|z-2| b |z +8) =|2- 4) © |= |z + 6il d (z+ 3i] = [2-8 e |z-2-2i)=|2+2+2i| f z+4+ij=|2+44 ei] hh |z+4- 2i) = 2-8 + 2i] j =1 k [2 +7 + 2i)=|z- 4-3: 1 [241-61 =|2 + 31-2 4) Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: az-z2=0 bz4z7=0 5) Sketch the locus of z and give the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: a [2-2\=3 b [si- 2) =4 © [3 -2i-z/=3 6) Sketch the locus of 7 and give the Cartesian equation of the locus of z when: a [z+ 3) =3)2- 3] b [z-3)= 4/2 + 1] ¢ [z~ i) =2\z +i] d [z+ 2~7i| = 22-10 + 2i] € [2 +4- 2i) = 22-2 - Sil f [z= 2)2-2)Harter 3 Sketch the locus of z when: a oats)" F e aia) -$ © argz — arg(z - 2 + 3i) Use the Argand diagram to find the value of z that satisfies the equations \2| = Sand arg(z + 4) = E Given that the complex number z satisfies |z — 2 ~ 2i| = a sketch, on an Argand diagram, the locus of z. Given further that arg(z — 2 — 2i) = 2, b find the value of z in the form a + ib, where a € Rand b ER. Sketch on the same Argand diagram the locus of points satisfying a |z~2i|=|z- 8i), b arg - 2-7 The complex number z satisfies both |z — 2i) = |z ~ 8i| and arg(z - 2 ~ i) © Use your answers to parts a and b to find the value of z. Sketch on the same Argand diagram the locus of points satisfying 7 a \z-3+2i)-4 b arg(z - 1) = -4. The complex number z satisfies both |z ~ 3 + 2i| = 4 and arg(z ~ 1) = ~Z. Given that z = a + ib, where a € Rand ER, ¢ find the exact value of a and the exact value of b. On an Argand diagram the point P represents the complex number z. Given that |z — 4 — 3i| = 8, a find the Cartesian equation for the locus of P, b sketch the locus of P, ¢ find the maximum and minimum values of [7\ for points on this locus. Given that arg(z + 4) = } a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which represents z on an Argand diagram, b find the minimum value of |2| for points on this locus. The complex number z = x + iy satisfies the equation |z + 1+ i = 22 + 4 — 2il The complex number z is represented by the point P on the Argand diagram. a Show that the locus of P is a circle with centre (—S, 3). b Find the exact radius of this circle.Further complex numbers 15, If the complex number z satisfies both arg z = gand arg(z — 4) e a find the value of z in the form a + ib, where a € Rand bE R. b Hence, find arg(z ~ 8) 16, ‘The point P represents a complex number z in an Argand diagram. Given that |z + 2 — 2v3il = 2, a sketch the locus of P on an Argand diagram, ‘b Write down the minimum value of arg z. ¢ Find the maximum value of arg z. 417) The point P represents a complex number z in an Argand diagram. Given that arg z — arg(z + 4) i is a locus of points P lying on an arc of a circle C, ‘a sketch the locus of points P, b find the coordinates of the centre of C, © find the radius of C, d find a Cartesian equation for the circle C, find the finite area bounded by the locus of P and the x-axis. 3,8 You can use complex numbers to represent regions on an Argand diagram. Example Ed a Shade in, on separate Argand diagrams the region represented by i |z- 4-21] <2, ii 2-4) <|2- 6), iii 0 < arg 2-21) <7. b Hence on the same Argand diagram shade in the region which satisfies \e- 4-212, 2-4) <|z- 6 and 0 = arg(z ~ 2 ~ 21) =F ai |z-4-2i)<2,‘CHAPTER 3 6 * s=5— ‘| iit O2 ¢ |z+7|>|2-1 d [z+ 6)>[2+2+8i e2\2-3|Further complex numbers 2) The region R in an Argand diagram is satisfied by the inequalities |2 = 5 and |2| = |z ~ 6i|. Draw an Argand diagram and shade in the region R. 3) Shade in on an Argand diagram the region satisfied by the set of points P(x, y), where z+ 1 i]s Land 0s argz< 37, 4) Shade in on an Argand diagram the region satisfied by the set of points P(x, y), where | <3and F< argz + 3) < x. 5 a Sketch on the same Argand diagram: i the locus of points representing |z ~ 2| = |z ~ 6 ~ 8il, ii the locus of points representing arg(z ~ 4 — 2i) = 0, iii the locus of points representing arg(z — 4 — 2i) = e The region R is defined by the inequalities |z ~ 2| = jz ~ 6 ~ 8i and 0 = arg(z ~ 4 ~ 2i) = 5. b On your sketch in part a, identify, by shading, the region R. 6 a Find the Cartesian equations of: i the locus of points representing |z + 10| = |z ~ 6 ~ 4y2il, ii the locus of points representing |z + 1| = 3. b Find the two values of z that satisfy both |z + 10] = |z - 6 ~ 4y2il and|z + 1) = 3. ¢ Hence shade in the region R on an Argand diagram which satisfies both, |z + 10| <|z- 6 — 4y2i| and jz + 1) <3. You can apply transformations that map points on the z-plane to points on the w-plane by applying a formula relating z = x + ly tow =u + ii Example EX} The point P represents the complex number z on an Argand diagram where |2) = 2. T;, T and T; represent transformations from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv. Describe the locus of the image of P under the transformations: aT w=7-2+4i, b Ty: w = 32, © Tyw= 424i. ellwt2-M =z w+ 2—4i] = je] —— wt2- Plu,») =2-2+4i a w= 3z, => wl = [Bel => || = [lle] —_ —— = => |wl= (2) = 6—_ 6 0 ie Rearrange to make z the subject. Apply the modulus to both sides of the ‘equation. Apply al = 2. The image of P under Tis |w + 2 ~ 4i| = 2. This is represented by a circle centre (2, 4), radius 2. Therefore the transformation T; w= z~2+4i, represents a translation of Sone AL Apply the modulus to both sides of the ‘equation. Apply |2122] = |21|\22) Apply |3| = 3 and |z/= 2, The image of P under Tis |w| = 6. This is represented by a circle centre (0, 0), radius 6. Therefore the transformation Tx: w = 32, represents an enlargement of z by scale factor 3 about the point (0, 0). Rearrange to make !y the subject. Apply the modulus to both sides of the equation. Apply |2122] = [211/22 Apply [S| = and |z| = 2 The image of P under Tis |w ~ i] = 1. This is represented by a circle centre (0, 1) radius 1. Therefore the transformation Ty: w = 12 + i, represents an enlargement of z by scale factor } about the point (0, 0), followed by a translation by a translation vector (9)Further complex numbers It follows that w= 2+ a+ ibrepresents a translation with translation vector ( |, where a, bE B. w= kz represents an enlargement scale factor k centre (0, 0), where k > O and ke R. w= kz + a+ ib represents an enlargement scale factor k centre (0, 0) followed by a a translation with translation vector (,), where k> O and a, b, ke R. Example EZ] For the transformation w = 22, where z= x + iy and w = u + iv, find the locus of w when z lies ona circle with equation x? + y? = Hence the loous of wis a circle centre (0, 0), radius 16. Example EG ‘The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = w + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, aoone = Sizti is given by w= S224 Show that the image, under 7, of the circle |z| = 1 in the z-plane is a line / in the w-plane. Sketch Jon Argand diagram. > zt) =sizti => wetw=Sizti > we-5iz w > Aw-5)=i-w +‘CHAPTER 3 = Me temttecn atte matin, ot): — $_}_ iD Si] = (1) — )| —_ Sil = IN) — 5i| = 90, 1) (eee ig the line | with equation v = 3. Example EZ The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + jy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, 32 ztl’ Show that the image, under T, of the circle with equation x + y? in the w-plane. State the centre and radius of C. is given by w= ze 4in the z-plane is a circle C yt > wzt=32-2 3 wtw=52-2 Ss wt2=32-m S wt2=2-W) wt2 > 3-0 x2 + = [Link] also be written as [2Further complex numbers cofg2|- 4 | {iii w+ 2 -tit.,._——____| (i + +2) =29-4 —_—__} hea —— Mein > |w+ 2] = 2\v-3| => lutivt 2] = 2lu + iv— 3) ean be written asut i) - h2) +44 = alu 9) iy 1 Gop he ean oan pans) => \(u + 2) + iv? = 22\(u — 3) + WP? square bothsides, > Ut 2e+=4u-3e 4+] | ee i > P+4ut4+v=4[u2- Gut 9+ v4] Bet 4ut 44 = aie — 2au + 36+ 424) eapand brackets) > Bi? - 28u + 3v2 + 32=0 > F-Butv+B=0 ED > (u- 4-8 +44+B=0 lee ee Therefore the image of 2 + 9 “> Complete me ssuareon yandon | a circle C with centre ($0), radius Example Eq A transformation T of the z-plane to the w-plane is given by w = Show that as z lies on the real axis in the z-plane, then w lies on the line / in the w-plane. Sketch / on an Argand diagram.‘CHAPTER 3 Go, 2= WR Tp lag ee eaceeclan| > = Five) aut +m wo iv+ oI 7* tive D) * Gow a pa ut 2) = iu t vt + w+ vt | v uv? + (vt 1) _fuwt2)¢uve), fu ra || P+ wt ip + So, _fuwt2)+ vt) , fw + 2Qv+1) a ere i leer ‘As zliee on the real axie then y = 0. So, +2) tut v— (ut 2Nv+ Set Se 4 Z ma ca : v— (ut vti. Hone, = = w-(u+Qv+1) =o ——_______1 Sw (ut ut 2v42) = = w-w-u-2-2=0 > -u-2=2v So wlies on the line [with equation v = ~4y ~ 1,-——— aFurther complex numbers rend 1 For the transformation w z+ 4 + 3i, sketch on separate Argand diagrams the locus of w when a zlies on the circle |2| = 1, 2 b zlies on the half-line argz = 5, on the liney = x. A transformation T from the z-plane to the w-plane is a translation with translation vector (3) followed by an enlargement scale factor 4, centre ©. Write down the transformation T in the form w = az + b, where a, DEC. For the transformation w = 3z + 2 — Si, find the equation of the locus of w when z lies on a circle centre O, radius 2. For the transformation w = 2z ~ 5 + 3i, find the equation of the locus of w as z moves on the circle |2 ~ 2) = 4. For the transformation w = z— 1+ when: a zlies on the circle |z ~ 1) = 3, ketch on separate Argand diagrams the locus of w b zlies on the half-line arg(z ~ 1 + i) = © zlies on the liney = 2x. For the transformation w = 4, z + 0, find the locus of w when: a z lies on the circle |z| = 2, on the half-line with equation arg z= f, bz ¢ zlies on the line with equation y = 2x + 1. For the transformation w = 2, a show that as z moves once round a circle centre (0, 0), radius 3, w moves circle centre (0, 0), radius 9, b find the locus of w when z lies on the real axis, with equation y = 0, © find the locus of w when z lies on the imaginary axis. If zis any point in the region R for which |z + 2i| < 2, a shade in on an Argand diagram the region R. Sketch on separate Argand diagrams the corresponding regions for R where: bw=z-2+ Si, ce w= 4z42+4i, [aw + 2in) =HATER 3, 9 1 For the transformation w = 5-1, z # 2, show that the image, under T, of the circle centre O, radius 2 in the z-plane is @ ling I in the w-plane. Sketch / on an Argand diagram. ‘The transformation T from the plane, where z = x + iy, to the wplane where w = u + iy, is given by w= 18,740. fa The transformation T maps the points on the circle z ~ 4) = 4, in the z-plane, to points on a line in the w-plane. Find the equation of I. b Hence, or otherwise, shade and label on an Argand diagram the region R which is the image of |z ~ 4| < 4 under T. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + jy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, ven by w= 2, is given by w= 735,242. Show that under T the straight line with equation 2y = x is transformed to a circle in the w-plane with centre (3, 3), radius 3v5. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + jy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, fae erizti sg Isgiven by w= S241 24-1 a The transformation T maps the points on the circle with equation x? + y? = 1 in the z-plane, to points on a line / in the w-plane. Find the equation of I b Hence, or otherwise, shade and label on an Argand diagram the region R of the w-plane which is the image of |2| < 1 under T. © Show that the image, under T, of the circle with equation x? + y? = 4 in the z-plane is a circle C in the w-plane. Find the equation of C. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z= x + jy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, is given by w = 423) BeBe Show that the circle |z| = 3 is mapped by T onto a citcle C. Find the centre and radius of C. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z= x + jy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, is given byw = 1,74 -i, ‘a Show that the image, under T, of the real axis in the z-plane is a circle C, in the w-plane. Find the equation of C,. b Show that the image, under T, of the line x = 4 in the z-plane is a circle C, in the w-plane. Find the equation of C. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z= x + jy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, is given by w=2+ 4,240. Show that the transformation T maps the points on a circle |z| = 2 to points in the interval [-k, k] on the real axis. State the value of the constant k.Further complex numbers 16 The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, is given by w= 1, 2 # -3. eee 743 Show that the line with equation 2x ~ 2y + 7 = 0 is mapped by T onto a circle C. State the centre and the exact radius of C. Nin) (cos 3x + isin 3x : (£08 3x 4 1 SiN 30) the form cos mx + isin mee where mis an 1) Express cosx —isinx 2 Use de Moivre’s theorem to evaluate a (-1+i)§ = 2cos nd. 3) a Ifz= cos 0 + isin 6, use de Moivre’s theorem to show that 2" 3 b Express (2 + 4) in terms of cos 60 and cos 28. © Hence, or otherwise, show that cos? 20 = a cos 60 + b cos 26, where a and b are constants. Hence, or otherwise, show that [ ,° cos! 260 = ky3, where k is a constant. 4 a Use de Moivre's theorem to show that cos 56 = cos (16 cos* 6 — 20 cos? 6 + 5). =) a Stv5 8 'b By solving the equation cos 5@ = 0, deduce that cos® G 0. © Hence, or otherwise, write down the exact values of cos? (37 5) a Express 4 — 4i in the form r(cos 6 + i sin 6), where r > 0, — m7 < @< z, where rand # are exact values, b Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation 2’ = 4 ~ 4i leaving your answers in the form fe, where R is the modulus of z and k is a rational number such that -1 =k < 1. © Show on an Argand diagram the points representing your solutions. ze 6 a Find the Cartesian equations of i the locus of points representing |z ~ 3 + ij ii_ the locus of points representing |z — 2| = 2V2. b Find the two values of z that satisfy both |z ~ 3 + il = |z — ¢ Hence on the same Argand diagram sketch: i. the locus of points representing |z ~ 3 + ij = ii_ the locus of points representing |z ~ 2| = 22. The region R is defined by the inequalities |z - 3+ i] > |z ~ 1 ~ij and |z ~ 2| < 22. d On your sketch in part e, identify, by shading, the region R. il and |z ~ 2| = 2v2.HATER 3, a Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points representing |z + 21 = 122 - 11. b Find the value of z which satisfies both |z + 21 = 12z ~ 1 and arg z = 4 © Hence shade in the region R on an Argand diagram which satisfies both |z + 21 = 12 ~ 11 and F< arg z= 7. ‘The point P represents a complex number z in an Argand diagram. Given that |z + 1 ij=1 a find a Cartesian equation for the locus of P, b sketch the locus of P on an Argand diagram, ¢ find the greatest and least values of |z), d find the greatest and least values of |z ~ 1). ; z24-2i)_ 2 Given that arg (5434) z a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which represents z on an Argand diagram, b deduce the exact value of |z ~ 2 ~ 4i). ? a sketch the locus of P(x, y) which represents z on an Argand diagram, Given that arg (2 ~ 2 + 4i) b find the minimum value of |z| for points on this locus. The transformation T from the z-plane, where z= x + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, is given byw=4, 240. a Show that the image, under , of the line with equation x = in the w-plane. Find the equation of C. b Hence, or otherwise, shade and label on an Argand diagram the region R of the w-plane which is the image of x = under T. in the z-plane is a circle C The point P represents the complex number z on an Argand diagram. Given that |z + 4i] = 2, a sketch the locus of P on an Argand diagram. bb Hence find the maximum value of |z|. 1, Ty, T, and T, represent transformations from the z-plane to the w-plane. Describe the locus of the image of P under the transformations c¢ Ty: w= 2z, ats e Ty fT;Further complex numbers 13) The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + ty, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, z+2 zti’ a Show that the image, under T, of the imaginary axis in the z-plane is a line lin the w-plane. Find the equation of zen is given by w= b Show that the image, under T, of the line y = x in the z-plane is a circle C in the w-plane. Find the centre of C and show that the radius of C is 3 v10. 14 The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy to the w-plane where w= u + iv, 4-254 - Soh et ai. 1 is mapped by T onto a line J. Show that / can be written in the form ), where a, b and c are integers to be determined. is given by w = 15) The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + jy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, aL 1 Show that the circle |z| = 2 is mapped by T onto a circle C. State the centre of C and show that the radius of C can be expressed in the form k V5 where k is an integer to be determined. is given by w= 3246741 az+b 116 A transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane is defined by w = 42 * , where a, b,c ER. Given that w = 1 when z = 0 and that w = 3 ~ 2i when z= 2+ a find the values of a, b and c, b find the exact values of the two points in the complex plane which remain invariant under the transformation. 417) The transformation T from the z-plane, where z = x + iy, to the w-plane where w = u + iv, is given by a=zZti waett a The transformation T maps the points on the line with equation y = x in the z-plane other than (0, 0), to points on the / in the w-plane. Find an equation of !. 2#0. b Show that the image, under T, of the line with equation x + y + 1 = O in the z-plane is a circle C in the w-plane, where C has equation 1 + v2 ~ w+ v= 0. © On the same Argand diagram, sketch / and C.Summary of key points 1 A complex number, z, can be expressed in any one of three forms © z=xtiy © z= 4(cos + isin 6) « z=rel’ where r= 2) = Va + 9 and 0 = arg z. For complex numbers z, = r(cos 0 + isin 4,) and z, = r{cos #, + isin @), #212) = nr{cos (8, + 8) + isin (6, + @)) 2 [zal arg (2; ~ Z2) = arg (2) — arg (22) If z= r(cos 6+ isin 6), then de Moivre's theorem states for n € @ that 2" = [r(cos 0 + i sin 6)]" = F"(cos nd + i sin no). ‘To express either sin" @ or cos” @ in terms of either cos k# or sin k# you need to be able to apply the following identities: z+1=2c0s6 2+ 3 =2cosnd Nie NI = 2isind g-1=disinno z You need to recognise the following loci: «© je-alarFurther complex numbers for the fixed points 7; = x; + iyi, Z» =x» + iys and variable point z = x + iy.Review Exercise Find the set of values of x for which 16x = 8x? — x3, Find the set of values of x for which 2 oe <33, de $>5. xtkyk rake a Sketch the graph of y = |x + 2). x for which b Use algebra to solve the inequality 2x > [x + 2). Given that k is a constant and that k > 0, find, in terms of k, the set of values of © a Sketch the graph of y = |x — 2al, given that a> 0. b Solve |x — 2a) > 2x + a, where a> 0. © a onthe same axes, sketch the graphs of y =xandy = [2x — 1), bb Use algebra to find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the two graphs. © Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which [2x ~ 1|> 2. @ a On the same axes, sketch the graphs ofy = bx — S| andy = [3x — 2| distinguishing between them clearly. bb Find the set of values of x for which fe - 5| < [3x - 2] @) Use algebra to find the set of real values of x for which |x — 3| > 2x + 1Find the set of real values of x for which e ® Solve, for, the inequality ‘Sx + al = |2x|, where a > 0. 6 @) a Using the same axes, sketch the curve with equation y = |x? ~ 6x + 8) and the line with equation 2y = 3x — 9. State the coordinates of the points where the curve and the line meet the x-axis. b Use algebra to find the coordinates of the points where the curve and the line intersect and, hence, solve the inequality 2jx? ~ 6x + 8| > x ~ 9. ® a Sketch, on the same axes, the graph of Y= | ~ 2)@ ~ 4)], and the line with equation y = 6 ~ 2x. ‘b Find the exact values of x for which \@ ~ 2)(x ~ 4) = 6 ~ 2x, © Hence solve the inequalit ec — 2) - 4) <6 — 2x. oe oO y ‘The figure above shows a sketch of the curve with equation 2 1 yee! The curve crosses the x-axis at x = 1 and x = ~1and the line x = ~2 is an asymptote of the curve. ae -2, a Use algebra to solve the equation BV. 34 - rey. bb Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which Faken 5 pag 30-9. oe eee eee @a Express TpesDm partial fractions. b Hence, or otherwi Sane e 2 , show that ®a Express Spey” partial fractions. b Hence prove that . 2 __niSn +13) FDTD 6a WUT Ey D a Show that peeled eine : re2_rtt @F tray So b Hence, or otherwise, find . if, vit at 3 aie ay sing your anser as.a single fraction in terms of. @ 2 f@) = Ses DET a Express f(x) in partial fractions. b Hence find > f(7). oe 1 a Express as a simplified single a1 yp P bb Hence prove, by the method of differences, that fraction 1 ee Find the sum of the series Ind + n2 + nd +... + In Qe seed. n+ 11 +2) b Hence prove, by the method of differences, that a Express in partial fractions. __n3n +5) (n+ In + 2) < +2) 0 € Find the value of SY 45, 4 decimal places. a By expressing 55" in partial fractions, or otherwise, prove that Given that for all real values of r, (2r + 1)3 — (2r - 1)3 = Ar + B, where A and B are constants, a find the value of A and the value of B. bb Hence show that x c Calculate S~ (Br - 1), n(n + 1)2n + 1). 40 ey =e! + Bi wey E2 a Show that f() ~ f+) K ret Dirt 2) stating the value of k. b Hence show, by the method of differences, that . 1 _ n(n +3) {ar DE +2) Ars Yan + 1) @ @. Express f ats a Show that (sabes Jb Free He +1) as forr #0, -1. Port +1) answer asa ae fraction in its simplest form, in partial fractions. b Hence nd if 2r i 7 co | expressing your a Sketch, in an Argand diagram, the curve with equation |z ~ 2i| = 1. Given that the point representing the complex number z lies on this curve, b find the maximum value of |2|. Solve the equation 7 answers in the form cos 6 + isi i, giving your o. Show that cos 2x + i sin 2x cos 9x — isin 9x can be expressed in the form cos mx + i sin nx, where mis an integer to be found. e The transformation T from the z-plane to the w-plane is given by z+ wat zeke Find the image in the w-plane of the circle \2| = 1, 2# 1 under the transformation. a Express z = 1 + iy3 in the form ros @ + isin #),r>0,-7<0< 7. b Hence, or other solutions of = (1+ v3) are (2V2)i and (-2v2)i. ,, show that the two e‘The transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane is given by 2z-1 za Show that the circle |z| = 1 is mapped onto the circle fw) = 1 © a Solve the equation B= 444i giving your answers in the form z= re, where ris the modulus of z and kis a rational number such that O ‘a Use de Moivre’s theorem to show that cos 56 = 16 cos’ 4 ~ 20 cos? 8 + 5 cos @. b Hence find 3 distinct solutions of the equation 16x5 ~ 20x? + Sx + 1= 0, giving your answers to 3 decimal places where appropriate. E) a Use de Moivre’s theorem to show that sin’ @ = (sin 5 — 5 sin 36 + 10 sin 0), b Hence, or otherwise, show that l ‘The transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane is given by z a Show that under this transformation the line Im z = } is mapped to the circle with equation |w| = 1 b Hence, or otherwise, find, in the form w= 92+ where a, b, candd € €, the ard transformation that maps the line Im z= }to the circle, centre (3 and radius 2. B) a Solve the equation = 32 + 32v3i, giving your answers in the form re”, where r>0,-7< 05 7. b Show that your solutions satisfy the equation P+I=0, for an integer k, the value of which should be stated. © a Use de Moivre’s theorem to show that sin 50 = sin @ (16 cos? @ — 12 cos*@ + 1). b Hence, or otherwise, solve, for Os0<5, sin 50 + cos @sin 20 = 0. a Given that z = cos @ + isin 6, show that 2 +2" = 2 cosnd. by Express cos® @ in terms of cosines of multiples of @. © Hence show that [ cos’ od = 34. oe70 a Prove that (zt — ez" — e-") = 22" — Dz" cos 6+ 1 b Hence, or otherwise, find the roots of the equation 2 - 72+1=0, in the form cos a + i sin a, where -a Gave tO b Find the particular solutions which satisfy the initial conditions i x=Owhent=0 ii x= Lwhent=0 iii x= 4whent=0 iv x= 9whent=0 © Sketch the members of the family of solution curves represented by these particular solutions. . — ies & b iG secnec ili Substituting x = 4 when t = O gives c= 4 _ (e+ 4p (6+ oF wre S reo iv Substituting x‘cHarren 4 The graphs of x= (es, 1 = 0, form the family of solution curves for this differential equation. ] ‘These are parts of parabolae. In questions 1-8 find the general solution of the differential equation and sketch the family of solution curves represented by the general solution. O Find the general solution of the equation #.9 ay 3 You can multiply this equation ge 2 =e by x3 to make it into an exact equation, ‘ Multiply this equation byx®s— 23 Js called an integrating factor. This is an exact equation which was solved as Example $ in the previous section. Solve the general equation ® + Py = Q, where Pand Q are functions of x. You do this te ike the tic Multiply the equation by the integrating factor f(x). +—— tach anon a Then f(x) 4 + f(x) Fy = f()Q © = . Compare the left hand side of The equation is now exact and 60 the left hand your differential equation with the The solution is y = side is of the form eer format for an exact differential eae See fe) 2+ Fey —— So coe 2 + fx)Py = oH Y + Foy Compare the coefficients of y and put them equal. oi F(x) = f(a)P Dividing by f(x) and integrating e This is a In integral as the J OO) oe = rae numerator is the derivative of the Fx) denominator. In|f(@)| = Pax ____| You need to team this formula for P. a i‘ foeere the integrating factor. Equation © becomes This will lead to a solution provided —— that these integrals can be found. elas Eu + olPét Py = elhq ———_ Z _ The left hand side will always be . 4 (ey) = efttg | ¥y X integrating factor. ey eff y = felQay + C This isthe solution to the differential equation.First order differential equations For the general equation 2 + Py = Q where P and Q are functions of x, you obtain the integrating factor by finding e/?¢ You obtain the general solution to the differential equation by using e!”4*y = je!"daQdx + C n Find the general solution of the equation e -4y=e. ay te Bey) =e ne gy Find the general solution of the equation cos x $% + 2y sin x = cost x Divide through by cos x ay 5 ¢ + 2y tan x = cos? x. lle eaualeia °—tinsonie ace | The integrating factor ie ~— wn — agua mere U + By sec? x tan x = sec®x cos? x is Seale = egies sete | yoec®x = Joos xdx ysec?x = sinx tc Y= cot (on +) >in genta) elfax = gletenras = g2insecx %‘crarren 4 ren) In questions 1-10 find the general solution of each linear differential equation. @+a%-y=@+2) Wewe Find y in terms of x given that 2B + 2y =e and thaty = 1 when = 1. Solve the differential equation, giving y in terms of x, where atx sy - xg ty = Landy 13 a Find the general solution of the differential equation 1) ay = ez xt) Os ay = 207+ 1, (e+ 2) B+ 2y = 207 +1) giving y in terms of z. b Find the particular solution which satisfies the condition that y = 1 ata = a Find the general solution of the differential equation gy Bed z, coset y=, F0,intoa differential equation in z and x. By first solving this new equation, find the general solution of, the original equation, giving y? in terms of x. Use the substitution 7 = & to transform the differential equation Sketch the particular solution curves passing through (0.5, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0) and (3, 0) respectively. dy _ 2+ 39" dx oxy w+ 3r2 rae ees(hse2) Qxtz iz _ (1+ 32) ax az 1+2 Substituting into givesin ‘crarren 4 Example [J dy Use the substitution z =~" to transform the differential equation $Y + ay = ay’, into a differential equation in z and x. "Sb Solve the new equation, using an integrating factor. © Find the general solution of the original equation, giving y in terms of x. a Asz=yy= ay 1 de 2c a Substituting into z + xy = xy? gives| First order differential equations Example [i Use the substitution u = y — x to transform the differential equation dy_y-x+2 de y-xt3 into a differential equation in u and x. By first solving this new equation, show that the general solution of the original equation may be written in the form : (y x + 6y ~ 4x ~ 2c = 0, where cis an arbitrary constant. levu=y—x dau YY 5 ay _ Substituting into Fe = Fagg wee dup yout2 ax 1748 duut2_, - ax utd dus = ax 043 J(u + 3)du = —frax Me+3u=-x+c ay — x) + BY — x) = to (y - xf + Gy - 4x - 20=0 In questions 1-4 ,use the substitution z = ¥ to transform the given homogeneous differential equation into a differential equation in z and x. By first solving the transformed equation, find the general solution of the original equation, giving y in terms of zx. wy yx 1) 2-2+% 2>0y>0 Ly a gy 3) ete er aj 5) Use the substitution z = y-? to transform the differential equation Ya ig a a Ht Gtanz)y=-Qsecxy', -Fox into a linear de x(x) equation. Hence obtain the general solution of the original equation, y dy -3xy_ to transfoom the differential equation §° = >>, equation. Hence obtain the general solution of the original equation. [16] Use the substitution 2 = Tay into a linear '17| Use the substitution u = x + y to transform the differential equation = (c +y + 1)@ + y ~ 1) into a differential equation in w and x. By first solving this new equation, find the general solution of the original equation, giving y in terms of x. [18| Use the substitution u = y-x -2 to transform the differential equation a =(y-x-2y into a differential equation in u and x. By first solving this new equation, find the general solution of the original equation, giving y in terms of x.‘cHarren 4 Summary of key points f(x)g(y) you can write on a= f f(x) dx + C and by integration you can find the general solution. You can assign values to C and sketch a graph for each of these particular solutions. The curves that are sketched are called a family of solution curves. You may use given boundary conditions or initial conditions to find the values for C. You can solve exact equations where one side is the exact derivative of a product and the other side can be integrated with respect to x. For the general equation g + Py = Q where P and Qare functions of x, you obtain the integrating factor by finding e!”., You obtain the general solution to the differential equation by using e!”*y = fe!"*Qdx + C. You may be given a change of variable to transform a given differential equation into a linear equation, which you can then solve.After completing this chapter you should be able to: * find general solutions of linear second order differential equations of the form of + oft + b® + cy = 100 * use boundary and initial era to find specific solutions * use a given substitution to transform a second order differential equation into one that can be solved. Second order Say ii differential equations Second order differential equations enable you to solve a variety of problems in economics, physics and engineering. Examples include a tuning fork vibrating in air, the vibration of a spring about an equilibrium position and the variation of charge or of current in an electric circuit. The shock absorbers on a car or bicycle provide an example of a context in which a spring is incorporated in a system. The motion of the spring is subject to a force proportional to the extension of the spring and also to. a damping force, which is assumed to be proportional to the velocity of the vehicle and acts in a direction opposite to the motion. Newton's Second Law for the motion then gives: mass x acceleration = damping force + restoring force dx _ _ de ie, mis = —pet — This equation can be written in the form me a8 oe +cx=0, which is a linear second order equation of the type you will study in this chapter. The methods used to solve these second order equations were first explained by the mathematicians Leonhard Paul Euler (1707-1783) and Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717-1783).comrren S In Chapter 4 you solved first order differential equations. You will apply what you have learned, to the solution of second order equations involving the second derivative S ee Solve the equation a5~ + by = 0, where a and b are constants. fi | , ciny= Bx + constant, | integrate each sie.) “ny = — 2x +n A,where A is constant 4 ' y= Aeon —_ ced ; ; The solution of a© + by = 0, where a and b are constants is y = Ae" where m is a constant. ‘ac ion af? + 2 This suggests that the solution of the second order equation a + BS + cy = 0, may also be of the form y = Ae™ where m is a constant. ee Find the condition for y = Ae” to be a solution of the equation of + of +y=0. Let y = Ac™ a then = Ame™ and <2 = Ame ax ae Substituting into the differential equation gives aAmPer™ + bAme™ + cAe™ = 0 Ae™ (am? + bm +c) = 0 So am? + bm +c¢=0 cryThe equation am? + bm + c= Ois called the auxiliary equation, and if mis a root of the auxiliary equation then y = Ae™ is a solution of the differential equation ey , dy aye * Pay + Y= When the auxiliary equation has two real distinct roots a and fi, the general solution of the differential equatior constants. cas Find the general solution of the equ: 4Y me ana te ae = me and ° Let y = e™, then = = 2mee"™ + Bme™ + Bem = e™(2n? + 5m + 3) = 0 Ase" > O, (2m? + 5m + 3) =O-———_ | __ (2m + 8)(m +1 m m=-3 or So the general solution is y = Ae" + Be~*, where A and B are arbitrary constants, = Ae“ + Be, where A and Bare arbitrary Second order differential equations ‘The auxiliary equation may have either two real distinct roots, two equal roots or two complex roots. When you are solving a second order differential equation, the general solution will have two arbitrary constants. Substitute into the differential equation. Find the au ry equation. Solve to give the two values of m. Write the general solution as a sum of multiples of the two independent solutions, using two constants as, shown. Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations: 1 ey ae OF ees = +5 + Gy =0 2\ a ty ey = at 2g ly =0 dy _ gy aa > Say * 129comrren S Show that y = (A + Bx)e** satisfies the equation $2 of +9 =0. Lety = Ae + Bxe®, then Dy = ape + BBxe% + Be and OAc + OBxe* + BBe* + BB OAc + OBxe% + GBo™ a L624 + gy = 9Ac + 9Bxe™ + 6Be™ G(SAc™ + SBxe™ + Be) +9(Ac™ + Bxe®) = 0 y = (A+ Bx)e" is a solution of the equation, When the auxiliary equation has two equal roots a, the general solution of the differential ‘equation is e* and ze are independent solutions of the differential equation when the y= (A+ Brew, auxiliary equation has repeated roots. where A and Bare arbitrary constants, Find the general solution of the differential equation Ss + st + 16y = 0. Let y =e", then ey = me™ and ee = mee “mie + Bme™ + 16e™* = 0 1 (n+ 8m +16)=0-———__| Ase >0, (m® + 8m +16) =0 A torre m= —4only The general solution in this case is y = (A + Bx)e™**Second order differential equations crated Find the al solution of each of the following differential equations: 2 dy _ ity 1 24 108 + 2sy = 0 2) ga 185 + Sly 7 dy dy _ gdy = 3) tegtyq0 4) 3 8B + ly =0 ay ey 1, gly 5] +d + 49y =0 6) 16 + Bae t= 0 Ty) td _ dy ly (2) sa 4a FY =O [8] 47a + 20g, + 25y = 0 ay _ 5 4dy aol 22 dy 163 ~ 2452 + By = 0 fo) 53 + 2v3Ge + By oy ~tey=0 ee ce are oer Leby = em, then Sf = mem and <5 = mee! 2. mem + 16e™ = 0 e7(m? + 16) = Ae e"™ > 0, (mi? +16) = m=-16 and m= +4i The general solution ie y = Fe + Ge~*, where P and Q are constants, This may be written as ¥ = Plcos 4x + i sin 4x) + Q(cos 4x — i sin 4x) = (P+ Q)cos 4x + i(P — Q) sin 4x or y= Acos 4x + Bsin 4x, where A and B are constants and A= P + Qand B= i(P— Q) When the auxiliary equation has two imaginary roots +iw, the general solution of the differential equation is, eee y=Acos wx + Bsin wx, after finding imaginary roots of the auxilic iti where A and B are arbitrary constants. icelesteseeeessig eeecurren S ee Find the general solution of the differential equation Tee erence SY ea reeor ey ill earrecteee ety = e™, then = me™* and “4 = me +. me" — Gme"™ + B4e™ = 0 e"(m? — 6m + 34) =0 Ase™>0, mi? —6m+34=0 SE = TBE _ 6 + V=100 Find the auxiliary equation and solve 156 ee nt conjugate complex values m= 3 + 5 The general solution te y = Pet) + Qe, | Give the general solution using a where P and Q are constants. "{ ainli sppruech ta bramble where the roots were imaginary. This may be written as y = e(Peo* + Qe-S) + ‘Take out the real factor e*. Soy =e (A cos Sx + B sin 5x), —_ - where A and B are constants _ eeaeee tae See and A= P + Qand B= (PF — Q) HI When the auxiliary equation has two complex roots p = ig, the general solution of the differential equation is POURS iste after finding conjugate complex roots of the auxiliary equation y =e? (Acos qx + Bsin qx), where A and B are arbitrary constants. &y i 4 25y=0 2] 3+ Bly =0 3 4 of + ty =0 5 6 eB sry 0 7 8 £3 5 20% + 109y = 0 9 of + sy =0 10 2+ 3 Bey 0Second order differential equations dy dy 8 I When you are given the equation a7 + bo + cy = f(x), ay dy i i ke E : you need first to solve a5 + b&™ + cy = 0, as you did in the previous sections. The solution, which you obtain, is called the complementary function (abbreviated C.F.). You then need to find a solution of the equation any + of + cy = f(@), where f(x) will have one of the forms ke”, A + Bx, A+ Bx + Cx? or mcos wx + nsin wx. You find this by using an appropriate substitution and then comparing coefficients. The solution is called the particular integral (abbreviated P.1.) ery Find a particular integral of the differential equation es - se + 6y = f(x) when f(x) = a3 b 2x sy de e 13 sin 3x, di a a tety= Athen! = 0 ana 24 =o ix ax a ai Substitute into <¥ — 5% + Gy = 3 dx® ax .O-5XO0+G6A= and So a particular integral is 3 ay ay b Leby = Ax + pthen SY = Nand 5 # a O- 5X A+ GlAx + pw) = 2x (Gu - 5A) + 6dr = 2x Gu-5’=0 and GA= Aad and pad a Substitute into —¥ — on + Gy = 2x So a particular integral is 3x +cumrren S a co Lety = Axe + px + vohen SE = Dax + pe pI 2A — B(2Ax + x) + G(Ax? + px +) = (2A ~ 5 + Gv) + (Gu — 10A)x + Gdx’ +. (2A — 5p. + Gv) = O and (6p — 104) = and 6A=3 * A=fandp=% andv=2-—— 2 + Sy + 2 So a particular integral is ix? + Sx + 2 a @ Leby = Actthen Y= act ana 2Y = pez ax axe déy Substitute into —Y — dx? a: *. Aet — BAe® + GAet = e? 2de* = et eyes So a particular integral is 3¢* ooh + ey =e e@ Levy = Adin Bx + pcos Bx a then z = Bhcos Bx — [Link] Bx ay and £4 = 9A sin Sx ~ On cos 3x al Substitute into a og + Gy = Bein 3x . —9N sin Bx — Op. cos 3x —5(5A cos Sx — Sy sin 3x) +6(A sin 3x + pcos Bx) = 13 sin Bx +. (-9A + 15 + 6A) 8in Bx + (-9p — 15A + 6p) cos Sx = 13 sin Sx Seca kas ia ca A= Land p= Soa acuat omeued is $oin 3x + 2 cos Sx You can find the general solution of the differential equation af + ft + oy = fe), a using: y = complementary function + particular integral,Find the general solution of the differential equation oy _ 5 cs a3 b 2x cy de dy _ ody oY 6 4 Gy = Firat sove $2 — 55u + Gy = 0 =e ay eel sme Ley = e™, then 5 + mem and => = tie! e™(mm? — 5m + 6) = Ase™>0, then m=3 or m=2 So the complementary function is y = Ae™* + Be, where A and B are arbitrary constants. The particular integrals were found in Example and 20 the general eolutions are a y=Ae™+ Bex +4 b y=Ae® + Be + ty 4 5, cya Ae + + ett ys dy =Ac™ + Be + e@ y= Ac™ + Be* — Loin Bx + 2cos 3x. Se @ Find the general solution of the differential equation i As in Example 9, the complementary function is y= Ae® + Bot The particular integral cannot be Ne*e as this is part of the complementary function (sometimes abbreviated cf) a Ge = 2aae™ + re = 4Axo% + Ae + 2e% = Axe + 4c ay Substitute into ax? So let y = Axe* then ay and *, 4Axe™ + 4de Act = 02 A= H So a particular integral io —xe”* 5(2Axe* + Ale) + Gane = 6? The general solution io y = Ae™ + Be — xe%,- 1 + Oy = Second order dltferential equations oY Gy = f(e) when f(x) = 13 sin 3x First find the complementary function by setting the right hand side of the differential equation equal to zero and solving the resulting equation. Then use general solution = complementary function + particular integral. The function Ae is part of the cf. and satisfies the differential equation ay dy om iS Fa sgh + oy - 0,001 cannot also satisty dy dy es xt Fax OY Let the Pl be Axe2* and differentiate, substitute and solve to find A. Then use general solution = complementary function + particular integral.cumrren S ee Find the general solution of the differential equation First consider the equation > — 255 = Let y =e", then fs = mem ana 2Y a Pee Age™>0, Se = Oe mS m(m — 2) = a#y _ ay ix mee ° So, the complementary function is Y=A+t Be%, The particular integral cannot be A, as tliis is part of the complementary function: So let y = Ax then 4 = a ana ® dx O-2A=3 a=- So a partlcular Integral is ay = 3 Find the complementary function by putting the right hand side of the differential equation equal to zero, and solving the new equation. Then try to find a particular integral. ‘The right hand side of the original equation was 3, which was a constant and usually this would imply a constant PL ‘As the complementary function includes a constant term ‘4’, the P. cannot also be constant. A value of A would satisfy a = oe ay _ ody rather than Paice x Multiply the ‘expected’ particular integral by x and try Ax instead. ‘Then use general solution = The general solution ie y = A + Bet — 1!x,-—t———_ Complementary function + particular integral. You may find this table helpful when trying particular integrals. Form of fis) Fon of pea k A ke Atpx kt A+ px tps? ker Ae m-c0s wx Acos wx +ysin wx nsin ox Acos ox +psin wx moos wx +fsinwx | Acos wx +psin ox ‘You should learn these particular integrals. When the Pl. is non standard the question will probably suggest the form of Pl. to you. (See question 11 in. Exercise SD.)Second order differential equations In questions 1-10 solve each of the differential equations, giving the general solution. 3 i Bay = re 4) + EE Os toy = 8c + 12 4 5 2 4 y= 25 cos 20 7 23 siy = 15e 8) 23+ ay =sin 84 _ 4. 5y = 252-7 a0 $2 - 28 + 269-6 11) a Find the value of A for which Ax*e* is a particular integral for the differential equation fy ey ne b Hence find the general solution. Example [2 d dy Find y in terms of x, given that $2 —y =2e%, and that = Oandy =Oatx=0. Fire’ coneldar tha equa! = y =10 inst consider the equation 4 — y a Levy =e then SY = ere peers me’ aA eee Nim =) =0 So, the complementary function is y= Act + Bem.curren S The particular integral cannot be de‘, a6 this Io part of the complementary function. So let y = Axe® ay d ax ac a Substitute into % — y = 2et + Axe’ + Ak + Ae! — Axe” = Bet A= So a particular integral io xe* The general solution is y = Ae + Be* + xe* Since y = Oatx=0:0=A+B => A+B=0 Differentiating y = Ae* + Be + xe* with respect 20 aiveo = Ae’ — Be* +e + xe® 4 since / = 0 atx =0:0=A-B+1 ax = A=2 = ar Solving the simultaneous equations gives and B= 2 And 20 y = Jet + le + xe! is the required solution Example IE] Given that a particular integral is of the form A sin 2f, find the solution of the differential equation e +x = 3sin 2f, for which x = Oana = 1whent = 0. e; First consider the equation oS +x=0 er, then SE = mem and a orem’ + ent = 0 e"(ne +1) =0 Ase™>0, ri So, the complementary function is x=Acost+ Bein t. Let x m= +iSecond order dltferential equations The particular integral ie A sin 2t, You are told that the A sin 2t Soletx = Asin 2b in the question, so use this in your d solution. then = 2A cos 2t at and #% = —4) sin 2 ate Substitute into 4 + x = 3 sin 2t at® 4A cin 2¢ + Aoin 26 = 3 sin 2t 2 N= So a particular integral is —sin 2t ‘Then use general solution = __ complementary function The general eolution is al + particular integral. x= Acost+ Bein t — sin 2t. Since x= Oat t=0:0=A => A=0 ‘Substitute the initial condition, x = at ¢ = 0, into the general solution to Differentiating x = Bein t — sin 2t with cen respect to t givee Ht = +8 cos t ~ 2.00 2 Substitute the second initial u condition, 2 = 1 at t= 0, into the Epa a dt Since Fe = B~ 2-—— derivative of the general solution, to obtain a second equation leading to > B=3 nea And sox = 3 sin t — sin 2b is the required solution. ran In questions 1-5 find the solution subject to the given boundary conditions for each of the following differential equations. 1 5 5 « 6y = 120 y=tand®=oatx=0 2 By 5 2 = 12 y=2and ® = 6atx=0 3 28 gyars 4 2s oy = rosin ay dy 5) apa + ae + sycurren S In questions 6-10 find the solution subject to the given initial conditions for each of the following differential equations. = de = x= 2and G=4 when f= 0 £2 — ox = 10sint x= 2and = -1 when t=0 Pe 4d 4 ay = 31a x= Oand 4 = 1 when f= 0 Hint: let P.1. = ate?" (9) 25 4 36x = 18 x= 1and = 0.6 whent=0 0 te x= 1and 4 =3 whent=0 Given that x = e", where u is a function of x, show that dy _ dy ay _ dy dy a> du be ae ir ¢ Hence ig the general solution of the differential equation rd ey ot +y=0 Wy ax * ay From the chain rule — du a : fee seiSecond order dltferential equations ¢ Substitute the results of a and b into the differential equation ay. ay woo tgity= ara y= a dy | di so onan £8 _ i. 0 AY This is a second order TO) differential equation with ae ee constant coefficients which you ay ay know how to solve. ene ete ee aes then So = mem and 5 = me me + em = 0 e™ ne? +1) = 0 Ase™>0, m Pit tes | So, the general solution of the differential equation # ay Solve the linear differential ia gece eine - 7 equation to give y in terms of u. where A and B are arbitrary constants. x =e! => u = In x and the general solution of the ss . oy | Wy yn differential equation °<4 + x50 + y = Ole y = Acos (Inx) + Bein (In x) In questions 1-6 find the general solution of each differential equation using the substitution x = e', where 1is a function of x. ty, dy iF wid a. 1 2° + ox + ay =0 2) ata t Saget y= 0 2 ody, oy 3] 2 + ax + oy =0 4) 22 + ae — rey = 0 5 a 0 6) 282 4 ax 4 y= 0 x I — 14y = ¥ 4 ax 4 ay = 7| Use the substitution y = £ to transform the differential equation ay Wz _ dz “ae ae? +@- ay - 4y = 0 into the equation wy Hence solve the equation 8 +(2- d: we — 4y = 0, giving y in terms of x.cumrren S 8 Use the substitution y 2 to transform the differential equation 2 ay 280 age 9 <2 Fy =e mothe equation dz et ae tz cd) dy Hence solve the equation wat + 2x + age + 2% + 1)y =e, giving y in terms of x. jo Use the substitution z = sin x to transform the differential equation wy cos x: NIN Re coran ay 1) Find the general solution of the differential equation Ety= 2] Find the general solution of the differential equation © vo + 36y =0 3] Find the general solution of the differential equation % w =0 ey 4) Find y in terms of kand x, given that ¢% and & = 1 atx = 0. oe 1 Fi dy yy 5) Find the solution of the differential equation 5 ~ 25° + ky = O where k is a constant, and y = 1 + 10y = O for which y = 0 and = Bata= 6] Git i ay - ww + 13y = e has a particular integral of the form ke, determine the value of the constant k and find the general solution of the equation. : ey 7) Given that the differential equation 7 ~ y= 4e* has a particular integral of the form kxe*, deten the value of the constant k and find the general solution of the equation. ay 8) The differential equation 75 — ey a a Find the complementary function. b Explain why neither Ac nor Axe” can be a particular integral for this equation. A particular integral has the form kx2e*. © Determine the value of the constant k and find the general solution of the equation. + dy = 4e is to be solved.9 15 Second order ifferential equations Given that the differential equation © + 4y = 5 cos 3¢ has a particular integral of the form dt? k cos 3t, determine the value of the constant k and find the general solution of the equation. Find the solution which satisfies the initial conditions that when f = 0, y = 1 and 7 =2. Given that the differential equation ay 3% © + 2y = 4x + e% has a particular integral of the form A + px + kve2*, determine the values of the constants A, and k and find the general solution of the equation. Find the solution of the differential equation 6 + st + Sy = Sx + 23 for which y = 3 ana ® = 3 atx = 0. Show that y ~ x + 3 for large values of x. @ Find the solution of the differential equation g- 7 ~ 6y = 3 sin 3x ~ 2 cos 3x for which 0 and for which y remains finite for large values of x. Find the general solution of the differential equation oe + 208 + 10x = 27 cost 6 sin The equation is used to model water flow in a reservoir. At time t days, the level of the water above a fixed level is xm. When t = 0, x = 3 and the water level is rising at 6 metres per day. a Find an expression for in terms of t b Show that after about a week, the difference between the lowest and highest water level is approximately 6 m. a Find the gener solution of the differential equation Poca eB + 2y = Inx, x>0, using the substitution x = e", where wis a function of x. b Find the equation of the solution curve passing through the point (1, 1) with gradient 1. dy Solve the equation oy + tangy + y cos?x = cos’ x e's, by putting z = sin x, finding the solution for which y = 1 and 2 =B3atx=0.curren S roel of key points dy dy For the second order differential equation a). + bop + cy = 0 the auxiliary quadratic equation is an + bm + c= 0. + Ifthe auxiliary equation has two real distinct roots « and f (i.e. when b? > 4ac) , the general solution of the differential equation is y = Ae“* + Be, where A and B are arbitrary constants. + Ifthe auxiliary equation has two equal roots a (i.e. when b* = 4ac), the general solution of the differential equation is y = (A + Bx)e*, where A and B are arbitrary constants. «Ifthe auxiliary equation has two imaginary roots +i, (ie. when b = 0 and 4ac > 0) the general solution of the differential equation is y = A cos ox + B sin ax, where A and B are arbitrary constants. If the auxiliary equation has two complex roots p * ig (i.e. when b? < 4ac), the general solution of the differential equation isy = e” (A cos qx + B sin qx), where A and B are arbitrary constants. 2 + For the differential equation a : Ws oy + gy = fla): © First solve a +r g=0 The solution, ane you obtain, is called the complementary function. © Then you need to find a solution of the equation a: a + of + y= fix). ‘The solution is called the particular integral. © The general solution of the differential equation pt ee Do + oy = fla), is yy = complementary function + particular integral. «You can use a given substitution to change the variables and transform a second order differential equation into one of the above types of equation, which you can then solve.After completing this chapter you should know how to ¢ find and use higher derivatives * derive and use Maclaurin’s series for simple functions * derive and use Taylor's series for simple functions * use the Taylor series method to find a series solution to a differential equation. Maclaurin and Taylor Series = 4 In this chapter you will see that under certain conditions a wide range of functions of x can be expressed as an infinite series in ascending powers of x; these are often referred to as power series, The series form of a function is used by a computer to evaluate a/particular value of the function; for example, sin 10° is calculated by substituting | 7%), 10°in radians, into the series Integrals of many common functions, for example e *", familiar to students of statistics, cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions, but approximations, to any required degree of accuracy, can be found by integrating a finite number of terms of the series expansion of the function. So, apart from being mathematically interesting, there is a real practical importance, and many problems in science and engineering can only be solved by approximating a function by its series expansion. sins =6.1. You need to be able to find and use higher derivatives of function: MI Fora function f given by the equation y = f(x), the first and successive derivatives are given by dy dy dy dy de’ he de * or F(x), Fx), FP"), The value of the nth derivative when x = ais denoted by ay) Given that y = In(1 ~ 2, find the value of | 55 f(x) ay ax ay So. Substitute P zak The following example illustrates a method of finding values of derivatives without first finding an explicit algebraic expression for the derivative. Some functions lend themselves to this process, which can be neat, particularly when successive derivatives become rather cumbersome. f(x) = e* a Show that f(x) = 2xf(x). b By differentiating the result in a twice more with respect to x, show that i £%Qe) = 26(e) + 2xf"@), ii 1") = 2ut"(x) + 4F'@). © Deduce the values of f'(0), £(0), and £"(0). Reminder: If f(x) = e’, then ened £Q) ae fas ceed ee tee a (x) =e" 4 (x2) = Dre = 2xf(x) As f(x) = Use the product rule. So i f(x) = 2tx) + 2xF"(x) and ii #%(x) = 2F"(x) + {2xt"(x) + 2f'(x)}-——— Differentiate again. giving #"(x) = 2xf"(x) + 4°"(x)_Macaurin and Taylor Series 2x0xe=0 20) + 2x 0x (0) Substitute x = Oin ai. 240) = 2 #"(0) = 2 X O X (0) + 4F'(0) Substitute x = 0 in aii, = 4f'(0)=0 1. Foreach of the following functions, f(x), find f(x), f"(), £"@x) and fx), ae b(l+x)" © xer d Ini +x) dy 2. a Given that y = e’*™, find an expression, in terms of y, for 5°. b Hence show that (2 | ee ha) 3. Given that y = sin? 3x, wy a show that 2 = 3 sin 6x. a dy dy gay bb Find expressions for $3, £2 and ¢2. ayy € Hence evaluate (2), 4 f@)=xe, a Show that Px) = (6x ~ 6 ~ a)e~*, b Show that (2) = 0. 5 Given that y = sec, show that GY aicecher — see (29) — aye a Grn 2 seca — sec, b ae) = 112. 6 Given that y is a function of x, show that ey [a 2¥gqr + 23] oY wna 2, for © bb Find an expression, in terms of y, Gand 3, for £5 0"). 7 Given that fix) = In {x + VT +27], show that a vite f'@)=1, b (1 +22) £@) + af'@) = 0, © (1 +22) f(x) + 3xf"x) + fx) = 0. d Deduce the values of f'(0), £"(0) and £"(0).APTER 6 6.2. You can express many functions of x as infinite series in ascending powers of x using Maclaurin’s expansio ‘You have seen that functions such as y(I 2) and (1 ~ 2x)- can be expressed, using the binomial expansion, in the form dy-+ ax + yx + aya! + ... + a,x" + ..., providing x is in a suitable interval We shall now see how a wider range of functions can be expressed in this way. The following Example illustrates the process by which the series is constructed for a particular function. ead Given that f(a) = e can be written as an infinite series in the form £0) = € = ay + ay + ayx* + aye) +o. + aX +o, and that it is valid to differentiate an infinite series term by term, show that - #8 x Salta t tet tht The coefficient ap can be found immediately by setting x = O, $0 ae f(0) = 2° = ap, then ay= f(0) = 1 Successively differentiating apt axt ax? + apt +... +a,x°+ ..., gives F(x) = oF = a+ 2a nxt Bagx? +... trax t+. F(X) = = 2X lay t BX Zax t+ ele Naat P(x) = = BX 2X1 agt... + r—M(r— Zax + .. and 60 differentiating r times FQ) = ef = rr = lr — 2) X 14, + terms in powers of x The coefficients a, a, as, . 4,,..can be found by substituting x = O into each result. #'(0) = P= a, = a=f(0)=1 ¥ 0 OE 2 #0) = 2 = 2X ag = en @oe a o (0) _ P14 =e= =~ [email protected] MO) =P = 3X2X1a + |= gree oad and, in general, => phe cole FO(O) = #00) = €° = rla, Eien ee ¥ 2 # OTS eae a pte ec substituting the values for a, into * This shows that e* can be expressed as an infinite series in ascending powers of x. The expansion for e* is valid for all values of x._Maclaurin and Taylor Series In this process, a polynomial in powers of x is being formed step by step. The process focuses on x = 0; substituting x = 0 into successive derivatives increases the power of the polynomial. For example, if you stop the process after finding f'(0) the polynomial is linear, 1 + x, after £(0) it is quadratic, 1 +2 + ¥5 after £"(0) its cubic, 1 +x + £° + Zand so on. You shoul, if possible, use a computer to generate the graphs of these successive polynomials and compare with the graph of €. You will see that the graph of 1 +2 is very close to that of e* in a small interval of x around x = 0, and that successive graphs get closer and closer to that of e* for increasingly wider intervals of x. In the first half of the eighteenth century the Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin generalised the process of finding a series expansion of a function: For the continuous function f, given by ‘A common function fx fe), xR, eee then, providing that (0), f'(0), £”(0), ..,£%(0) all have finite values, ro = £0) See how e* has this Fe) = £0) + Fe + Spa? to Ht form. This is known as Maclaurin’s theorem, and the power series is known as the Maclaurin expansion, or series, for f(x). ‘The polynomials f(0) + f(x, £0)» 2! POs 4 4 Oy are known as the Maclaurin Cea of degree 1,2, ..,7° Some functions have a series expansion that is valid for all values of x, as e* does, but others are only valid for a restricted interval of x. At this level these validity intervals for x will just be stated, as conditions for convergence are beyond the Specification, but generating the graphs of the successive Maclaurin polynomials of a function and comparing with the graph of the function, will give a good insight into the convergent properties of the series. In all the work in this Chapter, if no validity interval for x is stated, you may assume that it is valid to express relevant functions as infinite series. eeu a Express In(1 +x) as an infinite series in ascending powers of x. bi Using only the first three terms of the series in a, find estimates for i In 1.05 ii In 1.25 ili In 18, a Asi(x) = In(t +x), *(0) =In1=0 P@a pata #"(0) "x)= -(1 + 4, #"(0) = -1 #M(x) = (—1(-2)(1 + 2), #"(0) = 21(a) = (--2)(-2).-f (r= NH + a) Oye (I(r 0} Soln(l +x) =O + +45 (ey Xr= I a Hl xo + Pie ats This expansion ie valid for —1 4 may be neglected, use the series for e* and sin x, to show that x int pp y pee oma leet FF Only two terms are used as the next term is kx’ Use e7-6 = e7 xe,CHAPTER 6 Cees 1. Use the series expansions of e*, In(1 + x) and sin x to expand the following functions as far as the fourth non-zero term, In each case state the interval in.x for which the expansion is valid. 1 ec x ae ore ciltt d Indl —x) e sin (¥ f In(2 + 3x) Hint for f write 2 + 3x = 2{1 + 3) 2. a Using the Maclaurin expansion of In(1 + x), show that Inf L2) - a[x + 2+ -1 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x, by considering the product of the expansions of sin x and (1 — x). b Deduce the gradient of the tangent, at the origin, to the curve with equation y = 22 | a 9 Using the series given on page 112, show that @ (1 ~ 3x)in (1 + 2x) = 2x ~ 8x? + 2x3 — 12e4 + bee sing =x 4 2x? 4 tet txt . ct wee= 1x tata bets,Maclaurin and Taylor Series 10 a Write down the first five non-zero terms in the series expansions of ¢ Tog b Using your result in a, find an approximate value for I e 2 dx, giving your answer to M1 3 decimal places. 3(p? — 3) ses +... where p is a constant, b Given that the first non-zero term in the expansion, in ascending powers of x, of e* sin 3x + In(1 + qx) ~ x is kx?, where kis a constant, find the values of p, q and k, 11 a Show that e sin 3x = 3x + 3px? + 12 f%)=e-™sinx, = 2 >0. a Show that if « is sufficiently small so that x4 and higher powers of x may be neglected, = +2 f@)~ 142+ b Show that using x = 0.1 in the result in a gives an approximation for f(0.1) which is correct to 6 significant figures, 6.4 You can find an approximation to a function of x close to x = a, where a # 0, using Taylor's expansion of the function. The conditions of the Maclaurin expansion mean that some functions, for example In x and e*, cannot be expanded as a series in ascending powers of z. ‘The construction of the Maclaurin expansion focuses on. x = Oand for a value of x very close to 0, a few terms of the An extreme example of this is y , in using x = 1 in the series for series may well give a good approximation of the function. In(1 +x) to find In2; thousands Hor values of fur away. Som event they are ie of terms of the series are in the interval of validity, more and more terms of enue pear a4 significant the series are required to give a good degree of accuracy. Beane accuracy To overcome these problems, a series expansion focusing on x = a can be derived. Consider the functions f and g, where fir + a) = g(x), ¢ # 0, — Example: fx) = Inay, g(x) = Indc+ 1) then £% + a) = 8%), r= 1, 2, 3.045 in particular f(a) = g%(0), r= 1, So the Maclaurin expansion for g, eich ee ae 302) = g(0) + gx + EP 2 4 BA " | ‘The Taylor series i aye 4 Og 4 LA ea £0(@), ee f@ + a) = f(a) + Fax + 8? + aa? + 7 sare the value of fix) Replacing x by ~ a, gives a second useful form close tox =a f(x) = f@) + Fee — a) + Me — a)? + PO -a ten +O -ayt+u. @ These are two forms of Taylor’s expansion, or series. When a = 0, they both become the Maclaurin expansion.Find the Taylor expansion of e~* in powers of (x + 4) up to and including the term in (x + 4). Using the Taylor series @ with f(x) = ¢* and a = fo f(a) =e = (4) + (4) + 4) + f@) =e 34-4) You need to find #(@) = F(-4) mata #"(x) = Gs) T #"@) = = t"-4) = Substituting the values in * gives erat ote a) + Sir t ae Lert ae + sefi-@taytdorap-Larart..} 6 ee Express tan(x + a asa series in ascending powers of x up to the term x. You need to use Taylor series © with f(x) = tan x Let f(x) = tan x, then tan (= + and a hla f(x) = tanx £'(x) = sec? x #M(x) = 2 see x (seo x tan x) ) = 2@)() = 4 = 2e0c* xtanx #'"(x) = 2 sec® x sec? x + 2 tan x (2 sec? x tan x) 2(2)(2) + 2(4) =16 Using fer + a) = Ha) + Maye + PO s2 4 PhO) oy 2r al m)_ 16,5 tan (x4 7) =14 2x + Sa eee B14 ators Bre + @ Show that the Taylor expansion of sin x in ascending powers of (x 2) up to the ~ 2) =1, <3 (y_2)_1jy_ ap term (x - #)fissing 243 (x-2)—Lie-2) 1b Using the series in a find, in terms of 7, an approximation for sin 40°._Macaurin and Taylor Series a f(x) = ein x, f(x) = coe x, #"(x) = —sin x, e Find f(a), f(a) and f(a) where a = "SX Substitute into Taylor series with a= Z b sin 40? = sin (2). 60 substituting x inthe series in a gives sin 40°~ 2 NI ran 1. a Find the Taylor series expansion of v& in ascending powers of (x ~ 1) as far as the term, in ~ 1, ‘b Use your answer in a to obtain an estimate for v1.2, 3 decimal places. , giving your answer to 2 Use Taylor's expansion to express each the following as a series in ascending powers of (x ~ a) as far as the term in (x ~ a), for the given values of a and k. a Inx (a=e,k=2) B tana (a= © cosx (a= 3 a Use Taylor's expansion to express each of the following as a series in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x! © nix 2 i cos (x +4) ii In@ +5) iii sin (x — 3) b Use your result in ii to find an approximation for In5.2, giving your answer to 4 significant figures. 4 Given that y = xe', a Show that 2 = (nt xe. a b Find the Taylor expansion of xe* in ascending powers of (x + 1) up to and including the term in (x + 1)! 5 a Find the Taylor series for x? In « in ascending powers of ( ~ 1) up to and including the term in @& ~ 1). b Using your series in a, find an approximation for In 1.5, giving your answer to 4 decimal places.6 Find the Taylor expansion of tan (x — a), where a = arctan ( }), in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in 22. 7 Find the Taylor expansion of sin 2x in ascending powers of (x — 7) up to and including the term in (x ~ 2) 1 8 Given thaty = * jarx dy) (8 a find the values of |=] and ; (2), ), a 1 b Find the Taylor expansion of the term in @& ~ 3)*. ,,n ascending powers of (x — 3) up to and including ya +x) 6.5 You can find the solution, in the form of a series, to a differential equation using the Taylor series method. In Chapters 4 and § you were introduced to some of the techniques required to solve first and second order differential equations. Many differential equations that we will now meet cannot be solved by those techniques; some cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions. However, a series solution can be found as follow Suppose you have a first order differential equation of the form # = f(x, y) and know the initial condition that at x = xo, y = yo, then you can ay) calculate o |. by substituting x, and yp into the se yoand (2 | Cy Ee replaces x = a, yo = f(a) and al differential equation. (a) used previously. By successive differentiation of the original differential equation, the values of | ey | and iting previous results into the derived equations, (2) and so on can be found by sub: as shown earlier in Example 2. The series solution to the differential equation is found using the Taylor's series in the form Y= Yo+ (Ho) (2). +# =o (2) + Xo) I Inthe very common situation where xo = 0, then this reduces to the Maclaurin series 3 Second order, and higher differential equations can be solved in the same manner.Example [i Maclaurin and Taylor Series Use the Taylor method to find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x, of, given that when x =0,y = 1and 2 The given conditions are: x9 [Link] (2) =2 ax Substituting x9 = O and Yo = 1, inte Vy — nx ubstitutin. an |, into gin 1g Xo lo ee eae gl (e Ei Yo to ay _ dy * fee 4 Substituting x = O and (2), = Tinto * * aivee (4 -(% lo = ) -cosx=2-1=1 ix ax], Substituting the resutte into ay First find (2) ° Differentiate the given differential equation with respect to x. P Find (3) f a), Use the Taylor expansion @.Example [} ay ody dy jest fl +20 = = = = y+ 22” = ay and thaty = 1 and > = 2, atx = 1, express y as a series in ascending powers of (x ~ 1) up to the term and i cluding the term in (¢ ~ 1)* You need to find a a) (23), ana}. Given conditions are X= 1, Yo = ae at Substituting Xo = 1, Yo = land 2) 2 into T ay, a a i ) a Gat tag 7 aves [Fa] = 5 Differentiate given ‘equation with respect to x. Differentiate a with respect to x. ay Fy _ oy SY SV ax* axe dx Substituting x, =1(%) ubetirtng xo = 1, (7) a : and (2) = 9 into b gives (2 Substituting all the values into Then use the Taylor expansion ©. ay. Y= yo - 29% (=3) yottar-7+ Daye ay yt (e-+ a1t2(x-)-Za- y+ 8e@-y-%_Macaurin and Taylor Series dy Given that y satisfies the differential equation 5 = y* ~ x and thaty = 1 atx = 0, find a series solution for y in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in 2°, The given conditions are Xp = O, Yo 4 Substituting x = O and yo = 1 into aT aves (22) = wor x= a aaetl (33), (G3), ona ($3, ax i aY oY _, Differentiate ae Vax original differential equation. Differentiate a, ay a Substituting yo = 1, (2) =1and (33) = into b ° 0 + @yIr=4 Use Taylor expansion @. gues y=1txt beet riCHAPTER 6 1 Find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x’, for the ey differential equation 5 = x + 2y, given that atx = 0,y = 1 ana = : @y 4 zt age 2. The variable y satisfies (1 +98 = Oand atx = 0,y = o ana & Use Taylor’s method to find a series expansion for y in powers of x up foand including the term in x, 3. Given that y satisfies the differential equation 2 +y—e =0,and that y = 2 atx = 0, find a series solution for y in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in 2°. 4) Use the Taylor method to finda series solution for wy dy Baye 0, given that x = 0, y= Land 5 = 2, giving your answer in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x‘. 5 The variable y satisfies the differential equation £3 + ow = 3xy, andy = Land ®~ hate= ae Express y as a series in powers of ( — 1) up to and including the term in (x ~ 1)°, 6 Find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term x’, to the i : bs Op i = gy differential equation 7% + 2ygr +9 = 1 +, given that atx = 0,y = Land §° = 1. 7 (1 +29 Maas aye oy 2 @ Show that (1 + 2x) 5% +41 ~ ), find a series solution of (1 + 2x) 7 = x + 2y°, in ascending b Given thaty = 1 atx = powers of x up to and including the term in x". 8. Find the series solution in ascending powers of ( ~ 2 G) up to and including the term a in (x ~ 2) for the differential equation sin.x S + y cos = 92 given that y = V2 atx 9 The variable y satisfies the differential equation a a Show that i Yah ay awe Ma igs dy dy a gy Ee a de? ey OY ¢ Given also that at = 0, y = 1, express y as a series in ascending powers of x in powers of x up to and including the term in x', bb Derive a similar equation involving_Macaurin and Taylor Series 10 Given that cosx +y sinx + 2y) = 0, and thaty = 1 atx = 0, use Taylor's method to show that, close to x = 0, so that terms in x* and higher power can be ignored, yrl-2+Ue-§ 1 Using Taylor's series show that the first three terms in the expansion of (x ~ cot x, in 2 4 -2) —2) 9x2)? _2) powers of (x a are ( 4) 2a q) + Ax 4) 2. a For the functions f(x) = In(1 + e’), find the values of f'(0) and £"(0) bb Show that £"(0) = 0. ¢ Find the series expansion of In(1_ + e%), in ascending powers of x up to and incl term in 2°, and state the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid, ing the 3. a Write down the series for cos 4 in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x5. b Hence, or otherwise, show that the first three non-zero terms in the series expansion of sin? 2x are 4x? — 1x4 + 8x8, 4 a Given that terms in x° and higher power may be neglected, use the series for e* and cos x, x2, xt] : ssw ef 1 —% 4 2). to show that e* ~ e1 — 7 + 5 Ba 242+ sinywithy =0atx=0. Use the Taylor series method to obtain y as a series in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x*, and hence obtain an approximate value for y at x = 0.1. 6 Given that |2x| < 1, find the first two non-zero terms in the expansion of In{(1 + x)°(1 — 2x)| in a series of ascending powers of x. oe 7 Find the solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x*, of the oy ay ar @t ae + 3y = 0, given that at x = 0, y = 2 and e 8. Use differentiation and the Maclaurin expansion, to express In(sec x + tan x) as a series in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x* nCHAPTER 6 9 Show that the results of differentiating the following series expansions ae d ya = = Er (sin x) = cosx © © (osx) = ~sinx tin ela Find a series solution of the differential equation, in ascending powers of (« — 1) up to and including the term in (x ~ 1)%. e e 2 11 a Given that cos x = 1 — 3) + e- v-», Show that secx = 1 +45 + sat + a b Using the result found in a, and given that sin x = x — a + ar three non-zero terms in the series expansion, in ascending powers of x, for tan x. oe , find the first 412. By using the series expansions of e* and cos x, or otherwise, find the expansion of & cos 3x in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x* oe ey dy a at a weys Owithy = 2atx = and S% = 1 atx = 0. a Use the Taylor series method to express y as a polynomial in x up to and including the term in x, b Show thatat x= 0, 2 @ 14 Find the first three derivatives of (1 + x)? In(1 + 2). Hence, or otherwise, find the expansion. of (1 + x)? In(1 +x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x°. 15 a Expand In(1 + sin x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x, b Hence find an approximation for f © In(1 + sin x) dx giving your answer to 3 decimal places. oe 16 a Using the first two terms, x + ei in the expansion of tan x, show that em ater the Ey aoe b Deduce the first four terms in the expansion of e~'**, in ascending powers of x.. rts (2 ry20 dy f Find an expression for 5, Given that y b find the series solution for y, in ascending powers of x, up to an including the term in x? ¢ Comment on whether it would be sensible to use your series solution to give estimates fory atx = 0.2 and atx = 50. ie i 418 a Using the Maclaurin expansion, and differentiation, show that In cosx = —-— 3 +... b Using cos x = 2 ol) — 1, and the result in a, show that In(1 + cos x) 19 a Show that 3* = 13, b Hence find the first four terms in the series expansion of 3°. ¢ Using your result in b, with a suitable value of x, find an approximation for v3, giving your answer to 3 significant figures. 20 Given that f(x) = cosecx, a show that i £%Qe) = cosec x(2 cosec? x ~ 1) iif") b Find the Taylor expansion of cosec x in ascending powers of (x. ~ Z ) up to and including the term (x ~ 7)" ~cosec x cot (6 cosec?x ~ 1) Summary of key points 1 Ify = fe), © successive differentiation with respect tox gives eo = f(x) ay or f"(a). ‘¢ the value of the n'* ae when x = ais denoted by ie 2 Maclaurin’s expansion for a function f of x is given by + LO) n For some functions the series is valid for all values of x, but for others it is only valid in a particular interval of x. + fe) =10) + 70x + Oe att© Ind +ay=x-% a ¢ sinx=x-4% . ae cosx = 1-4 For values of x close to zero, a few terms of the series will give a good approximation to the function. You can use known series to find the series of a composite function or products of functions. ‘This is useful when only a few terms of the series is required. For example: i In] +x +23) =(@+2%)- enables the series up to the term in 2° to be found. : 22 Gas tie'sinac={1+ +s} oa Will give the series up to and including the term in x5, (3x) — , which when multiplied out Taylor's expansion for: i. f(r + a) in ascending powers of x is + fet a= + tax Oe POs 4 May if f(x) in ascending powers of a — ais © f= fla) +f @e—a)+ Se @-ae+ o @ a4 Oe ays ‘The Taylor series solution of the differential equation © = f(x, y) for which y = yp at ax ay 2 =o (second order equations require | 5) too) is = (dy), @=xo)/(d’y) , -a)/(dty Dette) (2) + a az), * a la),, It is common to be given a = dh 2 { + yesere() Silas jin this case the form of the solution reduces to, 3/dy)After completing this chapter you should be able to: © convert between polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates in simple cases «sketch simple curves given in polar coordinates «find tangents parallel or perpendicular to the initial line for polar curves © find areas using polar coordinates Polar coordinates are useful in many areas of mathematics. The graphs of polar equations sometimes give rise to some classic curves, such as the cardioid. They can also be used to describe the flight patterns of moths as they approach a light, and they are important in the study of planetary motion.7.1 You can use polar and Cartesian coordinates. You will be familiar with Cartesian coordinates drawn using x and y axes. Ptx, ») oF (r, 8) A point P is described as being a distance x horizontally and y vertically from the origin, where the horizontal and vertical directions are marked with x and y axes respectively. An alternative way of describing the position of P is to use polar coordinates We use the origin O as a starting point and measure the distance of P from O, so OP = r. We call the point O the pole. Of course just knowing how far from O the point P is doesn’t help us to uniquely identify its position. The second measurement we make is the angle measured from the positive x-axis in an anti-clockwise direction. We call the positive x-axis the initial line, the angle is usually denoted as @ and the polar coordinates are written as (r, 0). There are simple formulae linking polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates. From the figure above it is clear that: m rcos@=x rsind=y Pax ty? ‘However, care must be taken to (2) ensure that @/is in the correct 6 = arctan ( quadrant, Find the polar coordinates of the following points: a (3,4) b (5,-12) ¢ (-v3, -1) It is always worth drawing a quick sketch ~ this is important when finding A (see part €). _____— Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find r. > @=531" r coordinates are (5, 53.1") Use trigonometry to find 0.Polar coordinates It is always worth drawing a quick > sketch ~ this is important when finding 4 (see part ¢). Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find r. r= 2) = 13e— area eee Use trigonometry to find @ taking care ca an to ensure it is in the correct quadrant. So the polar coordinates are (13, —67.4") e The sketch shows that the point i the 3rd quadrant. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find r. ynometry to find 6. Since the the 3rd quadrant 0 will be tan 0 vB VB { Use radians this time, So the point has polar coordinates { 2, Convert the following polar coordinates into Cartesian form. The angles are measured in radians. a (10,42) b (8,22) (4m __5 a x= 10058 = 10 cos 43 5 rcos8 rind = & sin ( 50 the coordinates are (—4, 4/3)1. Find the polar coordinates of the following points a (5,12) b (-5, 12) ¢ (-5,-12) d (2, -3) e (3,-D 2. Find Cartesian coordinates of the following points. Angles are measured in radians (6, 32 (6, a (6,2) b (6,-2) © Sa a (10,54) € 27) 7.2 You can switch between polar equations of curves and Cartesian equations of curves. You will be familiar with the Cartesian equations of different types of curves such asy = 2x +3 giving a straight line and x? + y? = 9 for a circle. A Cartesian equation is simply a relationship between the. and y coordinates of the points that lie on the curve; in a similar way a polar equation will link together the polar coordinates r and @, with equations such as r = 2 + cos 6, orr = 4 sin 30, You can switch between polar equations and Cartesian equations by using the formulae given in section 7.1. Find Cartesian equations of the following curves. ar=5 b r=2 + cos20 cP =sin2e 0<0<7 You need to replace r with an x _—— and y equation. Use 1? = x2 + 9, Then x2 + y? = 25 and you represents a circle centre O of radi 6 20 ae You need an equation in x r=1+ (1+ cos 24) and y, so use x = rcos @. This R=vee Dice 6) means first writing cos 20 in terms of cos 8. Multiply by r? Now use x = cos 6 and Party Or (22 + y’) (Notice that a relatively eimple polar equation can artesian equation.) give rise to quite a complexPolar coordinates o re=sin2@ O< : First use r? = 2sin @cos 8 sin 20 = 2 sin cos@ then aim Multiply by r? to use.x = rcos@ and Ee yarsind, ré=2X rsin 8X rcos @ (x? +P)? = 2xy Find polar equations for the following: a y= 4x bxt-y=5 cyws=xn+4 a paar sin? 8 = 4r cos 8-— rein? @= 4 cos @ + I 4 cot @cosec @ So polar equation is r = 4 cot @ cosec 8 b e-¥ r? cos? 8 — (oir? @= 5: ? (cos? @ — sin? &) = 5 ? cos 20 = 6} So polar equation is r? = 5 cec 20 So the polar equation is r = 2 cosec (8 ala ‘Simply substitute using x= ros @and y = sin 6. Divide by r and simplify. Substitute using x = rcos 6 and y = rsin 6. Use cos 20 = cos? @— sin? 0. and simplify the trigonometric expression, Use sin(A — B) formula. 3 Remember cos{ Z) = *>- etc.Find Cartesian equations for the following curves where a is a positive constant. 1 oar=2 br=3sec6 © r=Scosec @ 2 ar=4atan seco b r= 2acos 0 c r=3asin 6 3 ar=4(1 cos 26) b r= 2cos? 6 ec P=1+tanto Find polar equations for the following curves: a axty? bay=4 © 5S axt+ 0 b@tyy=4 ex-y=3 6 ay=2 by=-\3x+a © y =x — a) 7.3. You can sketch curves given their polar equations. In FP2 we use the convention that r > 0, so if there are values of @ for which r would be negative, we ignore any curve here. Some text books and calculators will sketch polar curves for negative values of rand so care must be taken if you are using a calculator to help you sketch polar curves. ‘There are some basic shapes you should know: @ r= aisa circle centre O and radius a 0= ais ahalf-line through O and making an angle a with the Mr = aisa spiral starting at 0 For other equations it is usually sufficient to simply evaluate r for some particular values of 0. Ask yourself the following questions: i What are the maximum and minimum values of r and what are the values of @ for which they are attained? ii What values of @ make the trigonometric function = ~1, 0 or 1? Sketch the following curves: a 5 cr=ao where ais a posiPolar coordinates a 5 | This is a standard curve ~ a circle centre cGy O and radius 5. b This is another standard graph — a halt line. Notice it is only ‘half’ of the line Y= =X. The other half ofthe line would have equation 0 =~ or = 27. c This is another standard curve ~ a spiral. It crosses the x-axis at —o7, 0 and 2a7 6 and the y-axis at a% and ~303. Sketch the following curves: a r=a(1 + cos 0) b r=asin30 © P= a?cos 20 Draw up a table of values for # and r. Choose the values of @ where cos @= -1,00r1 0:0 F a 3 an 2 r:2a a 0 a 2a This curve is ‘heart’ shaped and is knownBeisel Need to coneider: a cos 20 values of 0 in the r T ana 2 and 4 anes 5 Tom S09 -Z 0 2 r 0 40 Curves with equations of the form r = a(p q Cos 6) are defined for all values of 0 if p Since we only draw the curve when. = 0 you need to determine the values of @ required. Draw up a table of values for # and r. Only one set of values is needed as the pattern will repeat for the other two cases. a0 4 a) loop. The other loops are given by Bre gee ios eee 2 << mand AT < 9 < 52, These values 3 The half-line @ Swill be a tangent. to the curve at O. There are similar tangents at 6 The curve given by r= a sin 30is typical of the patterns that arise in polar curves for equations of the form r= [Link] nd or r= asin 0. They will have n loops symmetrically arranged around O. Establish the values of @ for which the curve exists. Draw up a table of values and sketch the curve. q. An example of this, when p = q, was the cardioid seen in Example 6a. These curves fall into two types, those that are ‘egg’ shaped (i.e. a convex curve) and those with a ‘dimple’ (i.e the curve is concave at @ = 7). The conditions for each type are given below: ‘egg’ shape when p > 2q ‘dimple’ shape when q < p < 24 You will see how to prove these conditions in section 7.5.Polar coordinates Sketch the following curves ar=alS +2005 @) b r=a3 + 2c0s 6) Draw up a suitable table of values. Since 5 > 2 X 2 there is no ‘dimple’. 3a\ 7a 9=0 3a a(3 + 2.c0s 6) lot the following values: 60 57 4S 2 . | Draw up a suitable table of values. r5a 3a a da i Since 3 < 2 x 2 there will be a ‘dimple’ aa for 0 close to 7. Sketch the following curves. 1ar-6 b Otar c H= z 2 ar=2seco b r=3cosec 0 © r=2sec(o- 3) 3 ar=asiné b r= a(l ~ cos @) © r=acos 304 ar=a2 + cos) b r= (6 + cos 6) © r=a(4 + 300s 6) a r=a(2+sin 0) br=a(6 + sin) c r=a(4+3sin 0) a sin 6 c =a?sin 26 74 You can use integration to find areas of sectors of curves given their polar equations. In C2 you met the formula for the area of a sector of a circle with angle @ measured in radians: 40, In FP2 the area of a sector bounded by a curve and the half-lines 6 = «and 0 = Bis given by the formula: [Pao Area =} | When using this formula the value of @ must always be in radians, Initial line Bee Find the area enclosed by the cardioid with equation r= a(1 + cos 0). A sketch is helpful to help establish the 0 values to use as limits. See Example 6a. out the initial line this line and The curve is symmetric and 90 finding the area doubling it gives: Use the formula for area. Remember to square the expression for . f (1 + cos 0)? 40Area = at | (1+ 2cos 0 + cos? @) dé lo = a [20+ 2 sin 6+ tein 26)” = # [(3r+0+0) -(0)] = 3an 2 ae Find the area of one loop of the curve with r= asin 40 will have one loop for 0 Solve the equations to find @ and then substitute back to find r. and 60 a(1+05) and cos @= —1 > O0= t,and & ‘So the tangents parallel to the initial line (34, +2) and (0, m) ‘These can be seen on a sketch. These are the points (32, This is the point (0, =).Polar coordinates ee Find the equations and the points of contact of the tangents to the curve r = asin 20, 0 < that are: tial line, a parallel to the initial line b perpendicular to the i Give answers to 3 s.f. where appropriate. Form an expression for y a y=rsin = asin Asin 20 and differentiate using the product rule. pa = a(cos 8 sin 20 + 2 cos 20:in 8) cos? @ + cos? F Use sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0 Pics Seuaiaceib all and then take out the ty _ - at common factor. Then use a6 0 > In 8= 0 => 0= 0, (7) a formula for cos 20. Or 2 cos? @ = sin? @=> tan @= TE So @=00r0.955 drawing a simple triangle Paid shows that sin a = “2 and r= Oor2ax Ex tase vB # Use sin 2A = 2 sin Acos A to find r. So the points are (0, 0) and ( The equation of the initial line is @ = O and that is the tangent through (0, 0) (2a/2 The equation of the tangent through ( 24 2 0.955) Use y = rsin @ to find the equation of the tangent — r= ycosec 0. Form an expression for x and differentiate using the gin @ sin 20 + 2a cos @.cos 20 product rule. = 2a cos @(—sin® @ + cos? @ — ein? 6) Use sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0 and then take out the dx 46 ei ‘common factor. Then use a =O0=>cos@=O>0=2 formula for cos 20. So the y-axis is a tangent ita = then drawing a Or cos? @—2sin?@=0 tan @= v2 simple triangle shows that = $0 = 0.616 andr = 2a e cs eae gare y 1 sina = 1, a x [cance _ v3 So the tangents are at (0, 5) and (= 0.615 | Use sin 2A = 2 sin Acos A to find r.Use x = cos 0 to find the equation of the tangent — r= xsec 0. In section 7.3 we mentioned a condition for certain curves to have a ‘dimple’, In the next example the condition is proved. Prove that for r= (p + q cos @) to have a ‘dimple’ p < 2g (where p and q are positive constants and p > 4). If the curve is not convex then there will be more than 2 tange idicular to the initial line, to the curve # = pcos 8+ qcos? @ ao ° 0 = —sin O(p + 24 cos 8) O = -psin @ - 2q cos Bin This has solutions: sin = O when @ = O or a (the blue tangents on the diagram) Or coe 8= —7 If p< 2q then there will be 2 solutions to this equation in the third and second quadrants (the green tangents), mand 60 If p = 2q then the solution is 0 there are only 2 tangents (the blue ones). If p > 2q then there is no olution to thie equation and only the two tangente (blue ones) are possible. So the condition for a ‘dimple’ < 24 P The right hand case is the cardioid used in Example 11. Notice that in this case there is no extra perpendicular tangent at 0. Find an expression for xand differentiate, 2a 8-0 Solve the equation and consider carefully all possible cases. In the case of the cardioid (where p = 4) the case where @ = zis quite complicated. In Example 11 you saw that the initial line is a tangent at O but the working here suggests that since = = 0 here that there is a tangent perpendicular to that line too. Ina situation like this where both $= 0 ay and Si establish where the tangent lies, and a look at the sketch in this case confirms that the ‘only tangent is the initial line. O further work is required toPolar coordinates 1 5 Find the points on the cardioid r= a(1 + cos @) where the tangents are perpendicular to the initial line. 26 9 Find the points on the spiral r ;, where the tangents are a perpendicular, b parallel to the initial line. Give your answers to 3 s.f. a Find the points on the curve r = a cos 20, ~ < 0< 7, where the tangents are parallel to anes ar the initial line, giving your answers to 3 s.f. where appropriate. b Find the equation of these tangents. Find the points on the curve with equation r= a(7 + 2 cos #) where the tangents are parallel to the initial line. Find the equation of the tangents to r = 2 + cos @ that are perpendicular to the initial line. Find the point on the curve with equation r= a(1 + tan #),0< 0< 2 perpendicular to the initial line. where the tangent is It Ro cne 1 Determine the area enclosed by the curve with equation a(l + tsin &),a>0,0<0<2n, giving your answer in terms of a and 7. Sketch the curve with equation a(1 + cos @) for 0 < @< 7, where a> 0. Sketch also the line with equation r = 2a sec @ for -7 < @<, on the same diagram. 2 meets the curve at A and the line with a js equation r = 2a sec @at B. If Ois the pole, find the value of cos a for which OB = 20A. oe Sketch, in the same diagram, the curves with equations r= 3 cos @and r= 1 + cos @and find the area of the region lying inside both curves. ‘The half-line with equation @ = a,0 0, stating the polar coordinates of the point on the curve at which r has its maximum value.7 a On the same diagram, sketch the curve C, with polar equation =2cos26, - a r= 2cos z q and the curve C; with polar equation = i: 12Z b Find the area of the smaller region bounded by C; and C3, oe 8 a Sketch on the same diagram the circle with polar equation r = 4 cos @and the line with polar equation r= 2 sec @. b State polar coordinates for their points of intersection. oe 9 The diagram shows a sketch of the curves with polar equations r= a(1 + cos #) and r= 3acos #,a>0 a Find the polar coordinates of the point of intersection P of the two curves. b Find the area, shaded in the figure, bounded by the two curves and by the initial line = 0, giving your answer in terms of aand 7. 10. Obtain a Cartesian equation for the curve with polar equation a r= sec 26, b r= cosec 26. Summary of key points 1 Fora point P with polar coordinates (r, 0) and Cartes in coordinates (x, y) © reosd=x rsin0=y 3 * x However, care must be taken to. ane we+y y ensure that @ is in the correct _ x uadrant. 6= arctan (2) q 2 The area of a sector bounded by a curve and the half-lines @ = a and 0 = Bis given by the formula: ’ Area aly rdo 3 For tangents parallel to the initial line 4 (rsin = 0. For tangents perpendicular to the initial line he cos 6) = 0.zu) Review Exercise @ Fina, in the form y = fix), the general solution of the differential equation dy 4 By e-5, 2>0. @ © Solve the differential equation yy ae x giving your answer fory in terms of x. @ x>0, Find the general solution of the differential equation @+ po eay=2 x>0, giving your answer in the form y= fe), e © Obtain the solution of De yt a Osx<%, Bt ytane =e cosx, 05x< 5, for which y = 2 atx = 0, giving your answer in the form y = fx). Find the general solution of the differential equation dy de + 2y cot2x=sinz, O<20146 © a Use the substitution y = vx to transform the equation dy _ (4x + y)e +9) 3 2 x>0, © into the equation aa aeye @ ‘de b Solve the differential equation @ to find vin terms of x. ¢ Hence show that x - 4 _,wi Ing rer Where cis an arbitrary constant, is a general solution of differential equation ©. ye a Using the substitution t= otherwise, find [xe e* dr, b Find the general solution of the differential equation dy =nxe* xt syaae*. ® a Find the general solution of the differential equation cosa & + in xy = costs. ae y Db Show that, for 0 < x < 27, there are two. points on the x-axis through which all the solution curves for this differential equation pass. ¢ Sketch the graph, 0 0. b Show that for large values of x this general solution may be approximated by a sine function and find this sine function. eo a Find the general solution of the differential equation ay | dy = 2e-t Saat get y= 2e% b Find the particular solution of this differential equation for which y = 1 ay and Gy = Latt=0. eo @ a Find the general solution of the differential equation @x , yd at’ ar * *-° b Given thatx = Tand & = 1att=0, find the particular solution of the differential equation, giving your answer in the form x = f(2) © Sketch the curve with equation x = f(6), 0 =f = z, showing the coordinates, as multiples of 7, of the points where the curve cuts the taxis. a Find the general solution of the differential iH wy + 2B 7 b Find the particular solution of this. aitferential equation for which y = 1 M+ 3y= 30+ 1t and & = 1 when t= 0. ¢ For this particular solution, calculate the value of y when t= 1. aryaa Find the value of A for which Axcos 3x is a particular integral of the differential equation a + 9y = —12sin 3x b Hence find the general solution of this differential equation. ‘The particular solution of the ferential dy equation for which y = Land $Y = 2 at x=0,isy = giv). cc Find g(x). Sketch the graph of y GY _ 6D 5 oy = 405 te ait” gp 77 = Ae tO a Show that Kt2e"is a particular integral of the differential equation, where K is a constant to be found. b Find the general solution of the differential equation. Given that a particular solution satisfies y=3and 2 = 1 when t = 0, ¢ find this solution. Another particular solution which satisfies y= land 7 = 0 when t = 0, has equation y= (1 3t4 20)e For this particular solution, draw a sketch graph of y against f, showing where the graph crosses the t-axis. Determine also the coordinates of the minimum point on the sketch graph. a Find the general solution of the differential equation Px, sda = 2G t Gr te te b Find the particular solution of this differential equation for which x = 3 de _ = and Gy =~! when t= 0. ‘The particular solution in part b is used to model the motion of the particle P on the xeaxis, At time t seconds (t= 0), x metres from the origin O. © Show that the minimum distance between O and P is }(5 + In2)m and justify that the distance is a minimum, Given that x = At? e~ satisfies the differential equation ax dt? a find the value of A. +2 te =e, b Hence find the solution of the differential equation for which x = 1 de = and = Oat t= 0. ¢ Use your solution to prove that for t20,x<1. Given that y = kx is a particular solution of the differential equation a find the value of the constant k. b Find the most general solution of this differential equation for which y = 0 at x=0. ¢ Prove that all curves given by this, solution pass through the point (7, 37) and that they all have equal gradients Ea when x = 3. d Find the particular solution of the differential equation for which y = 0 at = x= Oandatx = Show that a minimum value of the solution in part dis 3 arccos (2) ~a Show that the transformation y = xv transforms the equation td op re ~ ae into the equation +249 y=-a5, @ b Solve the differential equation @ to find vas a function of x. ¢ Hence state the general solution of the differential equation ©. D Given that x = t,x > 0, > 0, and thaty is a function of x, a find in terms of & and t. & dy _ wy Assuming that 3 +23, b show that cede #, transforms the differential equation ay dy = axe ae * (&- ie = 16x2y = 4x2" oO into the pita equation ay 43% de tae © Ha find the general solution of giving y in terms of x. A scientist is modelling the amount of achemical in the human bloodstream. ‘The amount x of the chemical, measured in mgl“!, at time t hours satisfies the differential equation x _ 6 fdr)? _ 2 35s 2 — 6 (GE) = a2 — ae, > 0. ‘a Show that the substitution y = 3 transforms this differential equation into =3. oO a b Find the general solution of differential equation ®. Given that at time t = 0,x = Land 2 de dt ¢ find an expression for x in terms of t, d write down the maximum value of xas f varies. ED Given that x = Int, t > 0, and thaty isa function of x, a find © in terms of Pana t a &. ay ”, » show that 53 = 3 + 1 ¢ Show that the substitution x = Int transforms the differential equation = Se* sin 2e* 0 into the a equation ay dt? att Hence i i general solution of ©, giving your answer in the form y= fa). srt y= Ssin2e — @ Given that x is so small that terms in x? and higher powers of x may be neglected, show that L1sinx — 6cosx + 5 = A + Br + Cx’, stating the values of the constants A, Band C. Show that for x > 1, In@? — x +1) + In@ + 1) — 3inx cy Given that x is so small that terms in x* and higher powers of x may be neglected, find the values of the constants A, B, C and D for which cos Sa =A + Br+ Cx? + De. @a Find the first four terms of the expansion, in ascending powers of x, of 2x43), |x| <5 Hence, or otherwise, find the first four non-zero terms of the expansion, in ascending powers of x, of sine |) <2 e pe By using the power series expansion for cos. and the power series expansion for In(1 + 2), find the series expansion for In(cos x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in Hence, or otherwise, obtain the first two non-zero terms in the series expansion for In(sec x) in ascending powers of x. Find the Taylor expansion of cos 2x in ascending powers of (2 — q) up to and including the term in (x ~ #y. Use your answer to part a to obtain an estimate of cos 2, giving your answer to 6 decimal places. Da Find the Taylor expansion of In(sin x) in ascending powers of (2° ~ 4) up to and mp a) b Use your answer to part a to obtain an estimate of In(sin 0.5), giving your answer to 6 decimal places. including the term in (x €) Given that y = tan 7 dy dy a find, ana 2, b Find the Taylor series expansion of tan x in ascending powers of (x ~ t } up to and including the term ms n (x - 2) Hence show that Atx=0,y=2and © = ay grit a Find the value of 0. b Express y as a series in ascending powers fx, up to and including the term inx’. ara ® + ay? a Show that ay -p® (14 20) Fe 1+ 2 Uy DE b Differentiate equation @ with respect to x to obtain an equation involving ay &y dy be de? ae Given that y = Sere andy. atx = 0, ¢ find a series solution for y, in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x3. Bayes tey=1ate=0 a Use the Taylor series method to find y as a series in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x°. b Use your series to find y at x = 0.1, giving your answer to 2 decimal places. yh -243 ae y+ Given that y = 1.5 atx = 0, a use the Taylor series method to find the series solution for y, in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x. b Use your result to a to estimate, to 3 decimal places, the value of y at x= 0.1& a Find an expression for 3S Given that y = 1 ana = lata =0, b find the series solution for y, in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x’. ¢ Comment on whether it would be sensible to use your series solution to give estimates for y at x = 0.2 and atx = SO. ay OG u-1 a Use the Taylor series method to obtain y as a series of ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x*. b Hence find the approximate value fory when x = 0.2. Given that f(x) = In(1 + cos 2x), Osx 0, 0<0=2a. points P and Q. Determine the area enclosed by the curve, giving your answer in terms of @ and 7. etna he pole one oe PandQ. oe 60826, -T<0 0<0<%, 2’ 2’ b Determine the polar coordinates of the r=sin2¢, osost point A, giving your answer to 2 3 significant figures. oe a Find the exact values of 0 at the two points where the curves cross. © a Sketch the curve with polar equation b Find by integration the area of the = acos38, 05 0< 27 shaded region, shown in the figure, b Find the area enclosed by one loop of which is bounded by both this curve. curves. oeinitial line @ The curve C, shown in the figure, has polar equation r=a(3 + V5 cos 0), -7<0< 7 a Find the polar coordinates of the points P and Qwhere the tangents to C are ‘The curve C represents the perimeter of the surface of a swimming pool. The direct, distance from P to Qis 20m. b Calculate the value of a. ¢ Find the area of the surface of the pool. a Sketch the curve with polar equation b Find the area of the smaller finite region enclosed between the curve and the half-line @= &. © Find the exact distance between the two tangents which are parallel to the initial line. @w iz initial line z Y ‘The figure shows a sketch of the cardioid C with equation r= a(1 + cos 6), —m < @< =. Also shown are the tangents to C that are parallel and perpendicular to the initial line. These tangents form a rectangle WXYZ. a Find the area of the finite region, shaded in the figure, bounded by the curve C. b Find the polar coordinates of the points A and B where WZ touches the curve C. ¢ Hence find the length of WX. Given that the length of W2 is 3534 d find the area of the rectangle WXYZ. A heart-shape is modelled by the cardioid C, where a = 10cm, The heart shape is cut from the rectangular card WXYZ, shown the figure. ¢ Find a numerical value for the area of card wasted in making this heart shape. a Sketch, on the same diagram, the curves defined by the polar equations r=aandr=a(l + cos 9), where aisa positive constant and —7 < @< 7. b By considering the stationary values of rsin 0, or otherwise, find equations of the tangents to the curve r= a(1 + cos 6) which are parallel to the initial line, © Show that the area of the region for which , acr oes ig your answer to 2 significant figures % 4 Find the general solution of the differential equation ax 5 gd = Get Sgr * 25" = 2oost 5 a Express the complex number ~4 + 4i in the form s(cos @ + isin 6), —7< 0S 7. b Solve the equation z5 = ~4 + 4i, giving the roots in the form r(cos 0 + isin 0), —7<0< 7. © Show the roots of z' = —4 + 4i on an Argand diagram, (7) @ (4) a (5) GB) (9) 2) () (2)Examination style paper 6 a Show that the substitution y = xv transforms the equation Say + 2y? ® into the equation x x =2v +2" @ b Find the general solution of equation @, giving your answer in the form v = fi). © Hence write down the general solution of equation @. 7 The point P represents a complex number z in an Argand diagram. Given that v2 |z- i] =|z- 4, a find a Cartesian equation for the locus of P, simplifying your answer, b sketch the locus of P, © On your sketch for part b, shade the region for which v2 \z - i] <|z — 4|, and larg(z + 1)| < z d Find the complex numbers for which v2 |z ~ il = |z — 4, and |arg(z + 1) = z 8 a Sketch, on the same axes, the graph of y = |(x + 2)(a — 3)| and the graph of y = —@ — 1) ~ 10). b Use algebra to find the exact values of x for which |e + 2) — 3) = —@ — 1)@ - 10), giving your answers in their simplest form. © Hence solve the inequality |@& + 2) — 3)| + @ — 1)& — 10) > 0. 8) 6) a) @) 2) 2) a) (4) (S) @)Exercise 1A 1 -1Jord2 B -1' 10 -285 ML -Sex<0orx>! 12 x} Exercise 18 1ircé Be p< 2 AT ex<-2-V7 or -24v71 6 x<-forx>l 7 -1at} Mixed exercise 1¢ 1 icx1tBorr<3- 5 6 7 O\7-1or03 or -1<4<¥6-Lorx<-v6-1 Exercise 2A nin +3) Sore a+ fer a n@n +5) FD Sore nD 1 Z 1 1 (PDE TDS in +3) es 1 ie Sa n+ 2) nie Exercise 3A 1 a 7=7(e0s0 + isin b 81 = 5(cos( © (B+ i= 2{eost + isind) 2+ 21 = 202 [cos + isin) 2(cos{—) + isin -3)) -8 = B\cos + isin) 3-41 = S(eos-0.939 + isini-0939) =8 + 61 = 104c0s(2.509 + isin2.509) 2— V3 = v7 (Cost—0.719 + isin(—0.719) 8418 v65eo" sien -218 4 2/31 = 2Ge" aie Fae near sere ag BERANSWERS 6 cox) in| 108 2) os) e slonP+ doo(-3 = Diet ety sing = Jie" e-™ Exercise 3B 1 a cos50 + isinSo © 343431 “1 3431 =5)3 + 51 3-31 § cos30-+ isin30 a cos 30+ isin 39 b 242, c a wras 3 3 c0s(-58) + isin(—S@) oF cos59~ isin 58 a 2 63 cos + sin 52] b w= 5(cos7Z-+ sn?) s8eox 75) + 10(-23) {cos + isin) Exercise 3C 1 cos 60+ isin 60 54 aa cos 129+ 1sin 228 a 2 cos-+isine cos20-+ isin2e £08 69 ~ isin 6# ‘sé isin # cos 50 isin Se » a 1 a h i 1 cos 11@—1sin 118 (ino mcr es 2i)> = S12 ~ 5121 Exercise 3D 1 sin3#= 3sin6— asin'e 2 sin50= 16sin'9~ 20sin!@ + Ssin@ 3 cos7# = G4c0s’ 6 T12e0s' 4+ S6cos'— Tossa 4 cost Lcos49 + 4c0828 + 3) 5 sin°¢= (sins — Ssin3¢+ 10sin) 32c0s" 9 = cose + 60s 4+ 15.c0520+ 10 9 ga sint @ = 40s! osin 0 ~ 4cossin' 4tané— dtan!o ‘tan?@ + tan"? 20,1.50, ~5.03, -0.67 @ap) Exercise 3E La . 2 +2, -2+21,2-24-2-21 1+41-i-1-i ~B-i 0+ isind, cos 2 + isin 2 cos AF + isin $F, cos SF + isin SF Oey col sl -34 con{~4E] + 1in(—42] cos| ~§F) + 1sin{ 2) 2 = 2{cos{~$) + isin( J), of) eof '7} + 50(77), aoo{-$) 0n(-§) 2=2[eos2 + ising}, 2[cos 24c08 4 + isin), 2 cos{ AE + isinaz, “$)+150(-$)} fos 3) + 1sn(- 2) + 1s, 8) v2(cos3 + 1sin32), eo ieh cos( 5 el . Ze) + isin( 122)Answies 3 a 2 Sle02H, Sets, Sie 4, Sie 208 a : B r= Fen, vFetm Team © r= v2, 2= \Det, 2 = De 1M, y= Ve 25% 4a Sa P43) oa 7 b Exercise 3F La 7 ls 6 ol 5 x4 y= 36 » yi ho 10 O| : = DP + iy DP= 25 sat yt 4F= 16ANSWERS =a Hy 2nsw Equation: = 4 b Equation: x ya-3 6 Equation: y = ~3 a ya 8 yas oO ad -3 Equation: y = 25ANSWERS Equations y =~ 35) Equation: x = 2 year~6 Equation: y = a8 ~ 6 Equation: y Equations y= =4x + 11nsw G3 Yt 2F=9 6 a The Cartesian equation of the locus of zis op tye =9 Equationsy = +4 4 a The Cartesian equation of the locus of 2 ~ z* = 0is 'b The Cartesian equation of the locus of 2 + 2* = Ois, @-artys» 10 0 : x 2 4 + (yo 20 fo»nsw © a=3+2/2,b=-2- 2 12 a ays ly 3k = 64 ae oa r-@ty)en © The maximum value of is 13 and the minimum geet value of lis 3 1th ” argle 0.99% 0.29 1 © 156451ANSWERS 14 by The exact radius is 2/2 1S a 2-44 431 barge —8)= 16 a Minimum value of arg() is F Maximum value of agi 52 wa b (2,2) © we ds 2P + (y-2=8 © brid Exercise 3G La ¥ @ANSWERS.ik ange — 4 = 2-8 fiiargie ~ (4 +21) = 0 6 ai y--W2@4+1) ler nergee9 b —22i and z e . a8 12 rads 6, cente(_2) 2 3 4 Acircle, centre (-1, 3) radius 8 5 The locus isa ci 2p=9 Exercise 3H Lay w= 4-6 gw —9=46 & Airco, centre (0,0), radivs b aw © Chrele, centre (~ 1, ~ 4} radius 7b wlies on the positive real axis, with u = 0 ©. wlies on the negative real axis, with v= 0 Ba be 2i<2 b the interior ofa citcle, radius 2, centre (~2, 3) wis the interior of a circle, radius 8, centre (2, ~4) ww represents everything outside the circle, centre (0, 0) radius} ANSWERS. Ray 13. Circle centre (3, ~$) radius = 14 a w+ (v 43) b (ude 15 k=4 16 Centre (1, ~1) and radius v2 Exercise 31 1 cos7x + isin 7x 2 a 16 b 256 Sa 4/2(cos(-3) + isin(-3)) v2e 8, Felt, ell, Ze, Ze 6 ai yox-2 Hw 2P +y%=8 b -2,44 21 odANSWERS 2-4) 432-38 7 a (x-4/+y-3 1b zsatisfies both when 7 = 1.64 + 1.641 (2d.p.) omgs =f args 2 Boa GHP Hy = b > 2 b max value of lis 6 © Image isa circle, centre (0, ~8) radius 4 Image Isa cle, centre (4,0) radius 2 fe Image isa circle, centre (4, 0) radius 2 £ Image isa cirele, centre (0, 4) radius 2 © yyy = V2 1 13 a ya du-2 telpae = VE +1 b Circle centre |-4, ~}), radius 4/10 = tgg = 15-1 23) fi te the = S41 18 Centre (2, ~4 radius 205 oa » oot b wz wa b WaReview exercise 1 x4 -bex<0,2>3 re wdk, 2k <0,2k 0, where Ais constant 5 y= Ax, where Ais constant cain | y= asin= ARG, where 4 is constant 12 x= AS, where Ais constant by 4 : yt Se * 4 ZN ro TEN | ZF ‘CECT Exercise 4B. In the following answers, cand A are constants, 1 ye dane yore tee Jo secoste r+ cose pox 2 3 4 5 Answies |oy-aeted Pa-ted+ cee Tnx se +1) nitD Ing Bay Exercise 4C In the following answers, cis a constant. Lysjere™ Y= cote + coosece yo nents cet yoo y= (Be dense yodine + £ ye xiner +2) 400 yelrtat ye Oe + 2) inex + 2) +e +2) 13 a y=lor+ t+ ey teat aD jor vay “Exercise 4D In the following answers, cis a constant and A is a positive ‘constant. 2xns +0) suns +9 “ine re 4 yl= x(x —1) Mixed exercise 4E 1 (2+ 16)! + ¢, where cisa constant 2sina + coos x, where cis a constant 5 + (1 ~ 22), where cis a constant where ¢ sa constant 2s8+ § where cis constant 3+ ce*, where cis constant y By y= 2e + co/T 3, where cis a constant 10 = ke, where kis constant bb g= Ec + kee where kis a constant ¢ , arate osm Resin pl) + He, 9 ena OSM Rresin py where ks constant wa e% + ce, where cis constant rer b y= (ke + de%, where cis constant ey eo + com, where cis a constant net = a ay Where cis constant 2 y-ip@ tine sea 13. y= {Spf where cisa constant 14 2y%dny +6) +22 =0, where clsa constant 2. 1 15 X—Jiny= Lin + 6, where cia constant = ; 16 ny + 386, where cis constant ye 0g ydy- aetemwteemesiel =x 424 L4AC™ here A is a positive constant 18 yan 2612 AE hee Av a postive constant Exercise 5A 1 y=Ae + Be 2 y= Ae + Bet 3 y=des + Be 4 ya de™ + Bee 8 y=de* + Be 6 y=A+Be™ 7 8 Exercise 5B (4+ Boje 2 y=A+ Arye 3 y=(A+ Brje* 4 y= U4 Beye Systane ™ 6 y-A+ Bre * 7 8 9 0 Y= + Boek y= (A+ Bye * (A+ Bye y (A+ Boye y Exercise SC 1 y= Acos Sx + Bsin Sx 2 y= Acosox + Bsin 9x 3 y=Acosx + Bsinx 4 y=Acosde + Bsin de 8 y=e™U cose + Hsin 3x)6 y= eA cosx + Bsinx) 7 y= e\Acosx + Bsinx) 8 y= e™A cos 3x + Bsin 3x) 9 y= eA cos ix + Bsin jx) 10 y= eA cos de + Bsin de) Exercise 5D 1 yaAet she =2 Yr Ae + Be +24 36 y= Aes + Be — 20 Y= 4 Bive +14 be Y= (A+ Brje* + Asin 2x — 3.60528 Y= Acossx + Bsin Ox + le y= A cos 2x + Bsin 2 + y= eU cose + Bsing) + 3+ Be + Sa 10 y= e'(A cos 5x + Bsin Sx) + et aan} b y= (Qe Be + bee Exercise SE 1 yse*-e% te 2 ya2-Jem ster 3 yale ster} 4 y= cosBr # 2sin dx + 2sinx S$ y-sinxa—e%) 6 a2 Ft 7 8 ° eaeteeu-ane rats tet a= Hoos t+ sin e+ 1) 10 x=elsine +14 2+ Pore =esine + = 0° Exercise SF y= @+Bing xt 2 3 a yA sae s ‘ year+ y= 4 Acosinx + Bsin Ina} 7 yo$e ger 8 y=" ilcose + Bsine +1) = 9 y= AZ + Be + sine Mixed exercise 5G 1 y= eH (A cose + Bin xy 2 y= (A + Brie 3 yAt pee 4 ye coskr + Hsin 8 ysetsings 6 y= eA cos ax + Bsin 3x) + be Answies 7 ya det + Bet + 280! Boa y=Ut moe bb They ae part ofthe complementary function © k= Dandy = (4+ B+ 28% 9 y= 2eos24+ sin 21 ~ cost 10 y= Act + BOE 3 4 e+ ae a1 y=4eFsin eta +3 2 + Moos 3x ~ sin 34) 13 cost + 2e"sin 3t 4 gins} dina ~ 18 Ssingsina) + ben Exercise 6A, 1 [re [re re a ape [aenae [remem [ae Dadra [ann [tem nye fat tert lara efevae [erie tae) 24 rae] ne ae nretre [ate tae fare? [aon fepea— eirte—or aemt= fee ie 2 3 6 7 Exercise 68 4 a c~2718Gdp) b in($) =[Link]) + ar 4 My Oh, Bes Sa eas By We » at 7» 1 £1) = -1,P0)= 3, FO 8 0,00) = 1.0) 2D 10)ANSWERS Exercise 6C Le tose bears se ss valid for all values of x valid for all values of ce oftex +S +2.) valid forall values of a Bo exci By ey vatid forall values © 27 a8 * aea0 ~ Gasray Tad foraltvah BMS tere? f nz ME i<53 +2424.) rere ab ete +} teed © ~0.405 (4 ap) ave sat, me _ net sax Pe, smaller 2 7 © interval) 7 , -3 Acosdx + Bsin3v + 2ecos3e Y= (+ BHcos2x > Yr A+ Bs het Y= G-8t+ 286 y aoee rede! sBe% +142 mere Asing + 36 y=an- Ssine v= Acoste + Bsinax + ‘Ax cose + Bvsin3x be? ne ace cece 30 aI 32 33. 35. 36 37 39 a a7 oy a ee © ya Ae + Be™ + Le b t+ Bsint + 3 Sees OE a oF Testy “V2 y= € *(Acos(es + Bsinjer) + fsin et) ~ jeosi2e) A A a » b -0.416147 6 dp) a -In2 + /3{x~ 2) ~ 2a - b -0,735166 (6 dp.) b 22h say a Lex ere 420+ b 112 2dp) b 1.5 + 0.8 ~ 0.208%? + 0.131 98332 + 1578 8d.p) a 4/81) © The series expansion up to and including the term in x can be used to estimate y fx is small, So it would be sensible to use It at x = 0.2 but not at r= 50 14 Sats os Set 1.08 2d.p), In2-¥ b ltr Lexeate dete deta. i 1107 4dp) i 1.2460 4d.p) wv x 122Gap) 8 oo veece t= 2.45 (24.p.) b r=3sc037 58. 59 . 1 initial line ae (047, 421) and 0487, 0821) = initial line » (098,001 ia initial line 4 » initial line © (33) 2 2 3 nana i216 a Pda, 1.107) Qa, ~1.107) 55 b Sm 3 initial tine Answies real + cose) a a0 r= BMeosece r= 3 Beoseco al 7) eda, il (V3 = dat 9.07em? Bs.) Axa, 0), (a, 0) cea 3a initial line © Bare x3) Examination style paper 2 (19858 ware bea Sy ses 8 ey td © 008 ast) = jest + sine +e MCAcosse+ Bana ae a (4/2{cos32 + isin32}) Bn Ma 19 27x 350 24" 20" 20" 20° 20 boANSWERS ve © y= a8 6 hvala ars 7 a attyteae-y- 14-0 a » ge i pe Z 4 tigi tt @-147iand-1~31’Alembert, Jean le Rond 87 approximations of integrals ser Maclaurin’s series; Taylor's series arbitrary constants 73, 83, 89 areas of sectors 136-9) Argand diagrams ‘complex numbers 19-21, 30, 37-54, 56, $8 Toc! of points 40-51 regions 51-3 argument, complex numbers 19-20, 24-7, 30-1, 36-9, 45-6 asymptotes 5, 75 ailiary equations 88-92 binomial expansions de Moivre’ theorem 32-5 ‘Maclauin’s series 108, 111 bisectors, perpendicular 41-4, 52, 56 cardlolds 127, 133-4, 136-7, 140, 142 Cartesian coordinates 128-30 Cartesian equations 40, 130-2 CE. (complementary functions) 93-9 chain rule 100, 106, 140 circles ‘complex numbers 40-2, 46-8, 51-7 differential equations 74 nner regions of 51-2 loci of points 40-2, 44, 46-8, 53 polar coordinates 130-3 theorems 45-7 complementary functions (C.F) 93-9 completing the square 44 complex numbers 18-65 ‘Argand diagrams 19-21, 30, 37-54, 56, 58 argument 19-20, 24-7, 30-1, 36-9, 45-6 circles 40-2, 46-8, 51-7 dividing 24-7 exponential form 20-5 Jot’ of points 40-51, 33 ‘modulus 19-20, 24-7, 30, 37-9, 43-4, 54-7 ‘modulus-argument form 19-20, 24-5, 39 ‘multiplying 24-7, nth roots 36-40 perpendicular bisectors 41-4, 52, 56 oats 36-40, 92 tuansformation of points $3-61 ‘rigonometric identities 24, 32-6 zand wplanes 53-61 see aso de Moivre’s theorem concavejconvex curves 134-5 coordinates Cartesian 128-30 polar 127-44 critical values 2-3, 7-8 ’Alembert, Jean le Rond 87 de Moivte's theorem 28-40 binomial expansions 32-5 complex numbers 28-40 exponential form 29 {general statement 28 nth roots 36-40 proof of 28-9 trigonometric dente 32-6 Hcy hiee dteence of to squares 13,2, 58 Aierenee summarg method 13:17 Aiterentsl equations fist order 86 secon der 87-108 Taylor acres 116-23 campleshaped curves 134-8 expansion of 20-1, 108-9 ‘egg-shaped curves 134-5, enlargements 5S ‘equal roots 90 ‘equations auxiliary 88-92 Cartesian 40, 130-2 differential 72-104 polar 130-6 {quadratic 90 simultaneous 94 straight lines 73 Euler, Leonhard Paul 87, 21 Euler’ relation 21 ‘exact differential equations 77-80 ‘examination-style paper 155-6 ‘exponential form complex numbers 20-5 de Moivre’ theorem 29 ‘exponential model of population growth 72 ‘exponential series (e) 20-1, 108-9 ‘exterior angle of tangle 47 factorisation 3, 13, 15, finite series 12-17 first order differential equations 72-86 dy get y= 076-80 arbitrary constants 75, 83 boundary conditions 73, 81 exact equations 77-80 integrating factors 78-80, 82 separable variables 73-6, 81 solution curves 73-6 substitution methods 81-4 fractals 18, fractions, partial 13, 15, ‘graphs, inequalities 4-8 {growth models, population 72 hhalftines 45-6, $2, 132-4 heart-shaped curves (cardioids) 127, 133, 136-7, 140, 142 hyperbolae 75 identities se trigonometric identities Imaginary 1001s 91 \duction 28-9 Inequalities 1-10 cenitical values 2-3, 7-8 factorisation 3 graphical solutions 4-8manipulation 2-4 sketching graphs 2-8 solving 28 Infinite series 108-12, integration areas of sectors 136-9 integrating factors 78-80, 82 polar coordinates 136-9 se also differential equations isosceles triangles 47-8 Joc of points 40-51 ‘Argand diagrams 40-51 circles 40-2, 44, 46-8, 53, complex numbers 40-51, 53, perpendicular bisectors 41-4 transforming from 7 to w plane S3 logarithms, natural 74-5, 78-9) looped curves 134, 137, Maclaurin’s series 105-26 ascending powers of: 108-12 composite functions 112-15, expansion of e' 108-9 Infinite series 108-12 polynomials in powers of x 109-10 Mandelbrot sets 18. ‘mathematical induction 28-9 ‘maxima/minima 132 ‘method of differences, summing series 12-17 ‘minima/maxima 132 modulus ‘complex numbers 19-20, 24-7, 30, 37-9, 43-4, 54-7 inequalities 6-8 Moivre, de sce de Moivre moths’ flightspatterns 127 natural logarithms 74-5, 78-9 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 87 parabolae 76 partial fractions 13, 15 particular integrals (P1.) 93-100 Peatl, Raymond 72 perpendicular bisectors 41-4, $2, 56 PL. (particular integrals) 93-100, planetary motion 127 polar coordinates 127-14 areas of sectors 136-9 cardioids 127, 133-4, 136-7, 140, 142 Cartesian coordinates 128-30 citeles 130-3 concave/convex curves 1345, ddimpleshaped curves 134-5 egg-shaped curves 134-5 fequations of curves 130-6 hhalf-lines 132-4 initial line 128 intersections of curves 138 looped curves 134, 137 parametric equations 139 pole 128 sketching 128-9, 132-6 spirals 132-3 tangents to curves 139-43 polynomials 109-10 population growth 72 power series 108 principal argument 19 product rule 77, 100, 106, 141 Pythagoras’ theorem 42, 128-9 ‘quadratic equations 90 ‘quadratic formula 6 real roots 89 rectangular hyperbolae 75, regions 51-3, repeated roots 90 review exercises 66-71, 145-54 roots auxiliary equations 89-92, complex 36-40, 92 imaginary 91 real 89 repeated equal 90 second order differential equations $7-104 ‘ular equations 8252 Complementary fnetions 9-9 particule integral 95-100 5 yh 4 ee = 40 97-1 b+ er = 0 97-100 solution of a sol 8 1 sy = 088: olution of a $2 + b2 + ey = 088-92 when #2 = 4ac 90-1 when < dac 91-2 when i? > duc 88-9 sotution of a2 + bY + y= ten tution of a 23 + 9&2 + ey = fe) 93-100 boundary conditions 97-100 y= CE + P.93-7 substitution methods 100-2 sector areas 136-9 separable vatlables 73-6, 81 sees 11-17 08 # 20-1 20-1, 108.9 finite ries 12-17 higher derivatives 106-7, Infinite series 108-12 Maclaurin’s 105-26 ‘method of differences 12-17 power series 105 sin 820-1 summation 12-17 Taylor's 105-26 shock absorbers 87 simultaneous equations 94 sketching inequalities 2-8 polar coordinates 128-9, 132-6 spirals 132-3 straight line equations 73, substitution methods, differential equations 81-4, 100-2 tangents to curves 139-43, Taylor's series 105-26 fe) where x = 4, a 0.115 solutions of differential equations 118-23, transformations 53-61 translations $5, twiangles exterior angles 47, isosceles 47-8 lwigonometric functions ifferential equations 94 ‘Maclaurin’s series 110 polar coordinates 132 trigonometric identities ‘complex numbers 24, 32-6 polar coordinates 131, 137-8, 141 vvectors 37, 41, 45, $4 Verhulst-Peasi population growth model 72 wplane 53-61 plane 53-61