Further Pure Ela laCem| Edexcel AS and A-level Modular Mathematics ; _ edexcel advancing learning, changing livesContents About this book Complex numbers 1.1 Real and imaginary numbers 1.2. Multiplying complex numbers and simplifying powers of i 1.3 The complex conjugate of a complex number 1.4 Representing complex numbers on an Argand diagram 1.5 Finding the value of r, the modulus of a complex number z, and the value of 0, the argument of z 1.6 The modulus~argument form of the complex number z 1.7 Solving problems involving complex numbers 1.8 Solving polynomial equations with real coefficients ‘Numerical solutions of equations 2.1 Solving equations of the form f(x) 2.2 Solving equations of the form f(2 2.3 Solving equations of the form fi 0 using interval bisection 0 using linear interpolation 0 using the Newton-Raphson process Coordinate systems 3.1 Introduction to parametric equations 3.2. The general equation of a parabola 3.3. The equation for a rectangular hyperbola and finding tangents and normals Review Exercise 1 Matrix algebra 4.1 Finding the dimension of a matrix 4.2. Adding and subtracting matrices of the same dimension 4.3. Multiplying a matrix by a scalar (number) 4.4 Multiplying matrices together 4.5. Using matrices to describe linear transformations 4.6. Using matrices to represent rotations, reflections and enlargements 4.7 Using matrix products to represent combinations of transformations 4.8 Finding the inverse of a 2 2 matrix where it exists 4.9 Using inverse matrices to reverse the effect of a linear transformation 4.10 Using the determinant of a matrix to determine the area scale factor of the transformation 4.11 Using matrices and their inverses to solve linear simultaneous equations 32 33 as 38. 41 42 45 82 63 72 73 74 76 7 82 86 90, 95 99 101 103Series 5.1 The ¥ notation 5.2. The formula for the sum of the first n natural numbers, Or 5.3. Formulae for the sum of the squares of the first natural numbers, 7°, and for the sum of the cubes of the first natural numbers, Sor? 5.4 Using known formulae to sum more complex series Proof by mathematical induction 6.1 Obtaining a proof for the summation of a series, using induction 6.2 Using proof by induction to prove that an expression is divisible by a certain integer 6.3. Using mathematical induction to produce a proof for the general terms of a recurrence relation 6.4 Using proof by induction to prove general statements involving matrix multiplication Review Exercise 2 Examination style paper 107 108 110 14 116 122 123 127About this book This book is designed to provide you with the best preparation possible for your Edexcel FP1 unit examination: Brief chapter overview and ‘links’ to underline the importance of mathematics: to the real world, to your study of further units and to your career + This is Edexcel’s own course for the GCE specification. + Written by a senior examining team at Edexcel: the chair of examiners, chief examiners and principal examiners + The LiveText CD-ROM in the back of the book contains even more resources to support you through the unit, + Amatching FP1 revision guide is also available. Finding your way around the book Every few chapters, a review exercise 5 : helps you consolidate Detailed contents your learning shows which parts of the FP1 specification are covered in each section Each section begins with a statement of what is covered in the section Concise leaming points Each section ends with an exercise the questions are carefully graded so they increase in difficulty and gradually bring you up to standard Step-by-step worked examples ~ they are model solutions and include examiners hints Each chapter has a different Each chapter ends with At the end of the book there is colour scheme, to help you find | a mixed exercise anda_—_an examination-style paper. the right chapter quickly summary of key pointsLiveText software The LiveText software gives you additional resources Solutionbank and Exam café. Simply turn the pages of the electronic book to the page you need, and explore! [OA] | remercns) 18) Unique Exam café feature: * Relax and prepare — revision planner; hints and tips; common mistakes * Refresh your memory ~ revision checklist; language of the examination; glossary * Get the result! - fully worked examination-style paper with chief examiner's commentary Solutionbank * Hints and solutions to every question in the textbook * Solutions and commentary for all review exercises and the practice examination paperPeatson Education Limited, a company incorporated in England and Wales, having its registered office at Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex, CM20 2)E. Registered company number: 872828 ‘Text © Dave Wilkins, Keith Pledger, Lee Cope, Greg Attwood, Geoff Staley, Laurence Pateman, [Bronwen Moran 2008 12.11.10 09.08 10987654321 [Buitish Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is avallable from the British Library on request ISBN 978 0.435519 230 Copyright notice Allright reserved. No part of this publication may be repeecced in any form or by any means (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not ansieatly or incidentally to Some other use ofthis publication) without the written permission of the copyright owner, except in accordance ‘with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Aet 1988 or under the tems of licence isued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Satfron House, 6-10 Kirhy Sree, London ECIN 81 (wxew.cla.co.ub). Applications for the copyright owner's written permission should be addressed tothe publisher. Edited by Susan Gardner Typeset by TechSet Ltd IMlustrated by Tech-Set Ltd ‘Cover design by Christopher Howson Picture research by Claissie Martin Index by Indexing Specialists (UK) Cover photojiilustration © Faexcel Printed in the UK by Scotprint Acknowledgements The author and publisher would like to thank the following individuals and organisations for permission to. reproduce photographs: Fotolia / Solar Wind Studios p1; Digital Vision p32; Alamy / David Cheshire pl; Moviestore Collection p72; Science Photo Library / Sheila Terry p107; Corbis / Hoge Noorden / epa p122 Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of material reproduced in this book, Any omissions wil >be rectified in subsequent printings if notice is given to the publishers.After completing this chapter you should be able to: * add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers «find the modulus and argument of a complex number * show complex numbers on an Argand diagram * solve equations that have complex roots. Complex numbers Although complex numbers may seem to have few direct links with real-world quantities, there are areas of application in which the idea of a complex number is extremely useful. For example, the strength of an electromagnetic field, which has both an electric and a magnetic component, can be described by using a complex number. Other areas in which the mathematics of complex numbers is a valuable tool include signal processing, fluid dynamics and quantum The Alora Boreaks (Northern Lights) are mechanics. part of the Earth’ electromagnetic fieldCHAPTER 1 When solving a quadratic equation in Unit C1, you saw how the discriminant of the equation could be used to find out about the type of roots. For the equation ax® + ba + ¢ = 0, the discriminant is b® ~ 4ac. If b® ~ 4ac > 0, there are two different real roots. If b? ~ 4ac = 0, there are two equal real roots. If? ~ dac < 0, there are no real roots. In the case b? ~ 4ac < 0, the problem is that you reach a situation where you need to find the square root of a negative number, which is not ‘teal’, To solve this problem, another type of number called an ‘imaginary number’ is used. The ‘imaginary number’ ,(=1) is called i (or sometimes j in electrical engineering), and sums of real and imaginary numbers, such as 3 + 2i, are known as complex numbers. A complex number is written in the form a + bi. You can add and subtract complex numbers. mg yCH=i BH Animaginary number is a number of the form bi, where bis a real number (b € fi). Write y(—36) in terms of i. This can be written as Write (28) in terms of i. = ee y(-28) = (26 X 1) = v28y. V4V7TV(HN) = 2V7i or 2iV7 or (2V7)L xampl Solve the equation x2 + 9 = 0. Note that just as x? = 9 has two roots +3 and -3, 3? = =9 also has two roots +31 and -3i,‘Complex numbers 1H Acomplex number is a number of the form a + bi, where aE R and bE R. For the complex number a + bi, ais called the real part and b is called th The complete set of complex numbers is called C. Example EJ Solve the equation 6x +25 = 0. Method 1 (Completing the square) Because @ + 3/ +303) Stas x24 Gx = (et 3-9 x2 + 6x + 25 = (x + 3-9 + @+3P +16 VOIR = \OBX =) V6 CT) = 41 Using (-64) xe DENG = 409) a oh RY = =D = 64 VEN) = 81 Ina complex number, the real part and the ied to form a single term. laginary part cannot be com| You can add complex numbers by adding the real parts and adding the imaginary parts. You can subtract complex numbers by subtracting the real parts and subtracting the imaginary parts. Simplify, giving your answer in the form a + bi, where a © R and b € Bi. a (2+5i)+(7 +31) b (3 - 41) + (-5 + 61) © 215 - 8i) a (1+ 8i)- 6 +i) e (2-5) - (5-11) £ (243i) - (2-3)‘CHAPTER 1 a (2+5)+(7+5)=247+1G+3)=9481 ‘Add real parts and add imaginary parts. ¢ 26-8) =10 = 161 = Tris is the same as L@ 26 = Bi) = 10 ~ 16| = 8+ 6 - 8) Subtract real parts and subtract imaginary parts. ‘The answer has no teal part. This is called purely imaginary. Simplify, giving your answer in the form a + bi, where a € Rand bE R. 1) 6+ 2) + (8+ 9) 2| 4+ 101) + 1-81) 3) (7 + 6i) + (-3 - Si) 4 (2-1) + (11+ 2) (5) GB-7)+(-6+7)) 6) (20+ 121) - (11+ 3) 7) (9+ 61) ~ B+ 101) 8 (2-1) (5 + 3i) (9 (-4- 61) - (-8 - 81) 10) (-1+ Si)- (-1 +i) 11 GB +4i) + 4+ 5) +6 + 61) 92| (-2- 71) + (1 +3) — (“12 +) 13) (18 + Si) ~ (15 ~ 21) ~ B+ 71) 14| 27 + 2i) 15 3(8- 4i) 16, (1 - 3i) 17 28 +i) +32 +i) 18) 5(4 + 3i) 4(-1 + 21) 19 (3+H)+ 20| (3v2 + i)- (v2 - i)Complex numbers Solve these equations. 31 x?+2x+5=0 32\ x?- 2r+10=0 33 x2 + 4x +29=0 34) x? + 10x + 26 =0 35 x? Gx + 18=0 36 x? + dv + 7=0 37 x? -6v+11=0 38 x’ - 2v+25=0 39 x2 + Sx + 25=0 40 x2 + ar+5=0 1.2 You can multiply complex numbers and simplify powers of i. You can multiply complex numbers using the same technique as you use for mul brackets in algebra, and you can simplify powers of i Since i eee Multiply (2 + 3i) by (4 + 2(4 + 5i) + 3i(4 +51) “Multiply the two brackets as you (eee) ieee) would in algebra. = 8+ 101+ 12i + 15% 8 +1014 12-16 = (6 = 15) + (101 + 12) Use the fact that ? = Po M722) a es pares and aadlimaginany” parts. Express (7 ~ 4i)? in the form a + bi, (7 = 40(7 - 4) U7 = 4) — 47 — 4) —} Multiply the two brackets as you ‘would in algebra. = 49 — 261 — 261 + 161 281 - 261-16 Use the fact that ~~ Add real parts and add imaginary. paris.‘CHAPTER 1 Simplify (2 ~ 3i(4 ~ 5i) (1 + 3i) = 34 — 89 = 6i) — 34 — First multiply two of the (2 = 3i)(4 = 51) = 2¢4 - 51) = 34 ena) B= 101 121+ 01 — 12 | ($7 = 22I(1 + 31) = ~70 + 31) ~22i(1 + 37) >. Then multiply the result by 2ii — 221 ~ 66 = 59 - 431 2i X Bi X 2iX Zi X Zi = S2[iX 1X1 Xi X i) +-— First multiply the 2s (25). A(X @X i) = 32 X -1X -1X i= Sai Simplify these, giving your answer in the form a+ bi. 1 5 +13 + 4i) 2) (6 + 3i)(7 + 21) 3) 6-211 + Si) 4) (13 ~ 312 ~ 8i) 5 (-3~ 14 +71) 6 (8+ Si? 7) 2-97 8) A+N2+IG+H 9 (3 ~ 21S + D4 ~ 21) 10 (2 + 31)! Simplify. 1 i° 12| (i)? 13 +i 14 (4i)' ~ 4i8 1s (+s Hint: Use the binomial theorem.‘Complex numbers You can find the complex conjugate of a complex numbe: You can write down the complex conjugate of a complex number, and you can divide two complex numbers by using the complex conjugate of the denominator. The complex number a ~ bi is called the complex conjugate of the complex number a + bi The complex numbers a + bi and a ~ bi are called a complex conjugate pair. The complex conjugate of zis called 7, so if z= a + bi, z= a~ bi. Example (J) Write down the complex conjugate of a 243i bs—2i ce V34i a1 -iv5 a 2- b 542i Just change the sign of the imaginary part ane (rom + to -, or ~to +). ind z + 2° and zz‘, given that az=3+5i bz=2-71 © z= W2 + vd a i z+ 7 = (3 +5i) + (3 - 5i) = (B+ 3) + iG — 5) = 6 —}— Notethatz + 7 isreal. zz = (3 + 5i)(3 — 5i) = BB — 5i) + SiS — 51) = 9 — 15i + 15) — 257 = 9 + 25 = 34 »—_|-_—_ Note that 27’ is real. +71 2-7) + (2+ 7) = (2+ 2)+(-7+7) = 7)(2 + 7) = 22 + 7) — 72 + 7) + 14i — 14i — 49% 4+ 4 5S Note that z+ z'is real. Note that 22” is real = (22 + 2V2) + (v2 v2 + W2)(2V2 — v2) wB(avz — WB) + WE(2/2 — WE) 4+ 4i-27=8 v2) = 4y2 ——___ Note that z+ z*is real. 10» Note that 22" is real.CHAPTER 1 Simplify (10 + 5i) + (+ 21) 5 =10+5i, 1-21 (10 +5) + (+2) = OFS x PB —_ 10+ 51. 1= 21 _ (10 + SII = 2) 1+2i1=2i (1+ 2 2) (10 + Si) = 21) = 10(1 = 2 + 5iC1 = 21) = 10 ~ 201 + 5i - 10 = 20 - 151 (1+ 2I¢1 = 2f) = 101 - 21) + 2101 - 2) =1-2i+2i-4%=5 (10+ 5) +1 +2) = Set 4-3) Simplify (5 + 4i) + (2 ~ 3i) G+4)+@-sj-2t4 Sta, 2451. 6+4 2 243i (2—aN2F ai) G+ 42 + 3) = 52 + Bi) + 412 + 31) = 10 + 161 + 8! + 12? = -2 +231 (2-32 + 3) = 22 + 31) - 32 + 31) =44+61-6i-9F = 13 + 251 6+4)+@-3)= ‘The complex conjugate of the denominator is 1 ~ 2). Multiply numerator and denominator by this, Divide each term in the numerator by 5. The complex conjugate of the denominator is 2 + 3i. Multiply numerator and denominator by this, Divide each term in the numerator by 13. ‘The division process shown in Examples 12 and 13 is similar to the process used to divide surds. (See C1 Section 1.8.) For surds the denominator is rationalised. For complex numbers the denominator is made real. Ifthe roots « and f of a quadratic equation are complex, « and will always be a complex conjugate pair. I If the roots of the equation are @ and B, the equation is (x ~ a)(x — p) = 0 @& ~ a)(x ~ B) =x? — ax ~ Bx + ap‘Complex numbers Find the quadratic equation that has roots 3 + Si and 3 ~ Si. 0 +5) + B- ‘This sa useful method to For this equation a + 6 = (3 + 5i) + (8-5) =6 Eee and ali = (5 + 53 — 5i not required knowledge ee {for the FPI exam, equation is x* — 6x + 34= 0 T) Write down the complex conjugate z for a z=842i b2=6-Si ez=3-H dz=V5 + ivi0 2) Find z+ 7 and zz" for az=6-3i b z= 10451 cz-24h Find these in the form a + bi 3) 25 — 101) = (1-2) 4) 6+)+G+4i) 5 (1 +4) ++) 6/34 3-5 3451 7 Ti 8) C8 24i 10 TF ai Given that z, = 1 +i, z=2+iandz form a + bi. 3 + i, find answers for questions 12-14 in the Zip 12 13) 2a, + Szy a 15 Given that = 2-1, find zin the form a + bi 16| Simplify $+ *! i giving your answer in the form a + bi. T= 17, The roots of the quadratic equation x? + 2x + 26 = are «and p. Find a wandp batB © ofATER 1 18 The roots of the quadratic equation x? ~ &x + 25 = O are a and p. Find aaandg bat+B ¢ af 19. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 2 + 3i and 2 ~ 3i. 20 Find the quadratic equation that has roots ~5 + 4i and ~5 ~ 4i, You can represent complex numbers on a diagram, called an Argand diagram, Areal number can be represented as a point on a straight line (a number line, which has one dimension). HA complex number, having two components (real and imaginary), can be represented as a point in a plane (two dimensions). The complex number z = x + iy is represented by the point (x, y), where a and y are Cartesian coordinates. The Cartesian coordinate diagram used to represent complex numbers is called an Argand diagram. @ The x-axis in the Argand Diagram is called the real axis and the y-axi: imaginary axis. ‘The complex numbers 2, = 2+ Si, 2, = 3 ~ di and 2, = ~ 4 + 1 are represented by the points 4, B and C respectively on an Argand diagram. Sketch the Argand diagram. For 2, = 2 + Si, plot (2, 5). For 2; = 3 ~ 4i, plot (3, ~4). =4 +i, plot(-4, 1).‘Complex numbers Show the complex conjugates 7, = 4 + 2i and 2° = 4 ~ 2i on an Argand diagram. Imaginary Note that complex conjugates will always be placed symmetrically above and below ‘the real axis. ‘The complex number z = x + iy can also be represented by the vector OP, where 0 is the origin and Pis the point (x, y) on the Argand diagram. xample [7 Show the complex numbers 2, = 2 + Si, z= 4i and 2 = 4 + i onan Argand diagram. 2 + Si, show the vector from (0, 0). t0(2, 5). Similarly for z, and 25. If you label the diagram with letters A, B and C, make sure that you show which letter represents which vector.‘CHAPTER 1 ‘The complex numbers z; = 7 + 24i and z, = ~2 + 2i are represented by the vectors OA and OB respectively on an Argand diagram (where O is the origin). Draw the diagram and calculate |04| and |OB\. |GA| = V7 + 2a? = VORB = 25 |OB| = \(H2y + 2 = ve = ve Addition of complex numbers can be represented on the Argand diagram by the addition of their respective vectors on the diagram. a = 4+ iand z, = 3 + 3i. Show z,, z, and z, + z, on an Argand diagram. 4+ m= (443) +i0+3)=744i Nofe that the vector for 2 + 2» (00) is the diagonal of the parallelogram. This is because OC = OA + AC = OA + Of.‘Complex numbers ~ 1 + 4i, Show 2,, z, and z, +z, on an Argand diagram. 4 atz,=(6-1)+i(-2+4)=54+2i Note that the vector for 2 + z2 (00) is the diagonal of the parallelogram. This is because OC = OA + AC = OA + OF. = 2+ Siand z= 4 + 2i, Show 2, 2 and 2, ~ z) on an Argand diagram. 2-4) +16 y-R=ytCaD. The vector for —2z, is shown by the dotted line on the diagram.(1 Show these numbers on an Argand diagram. a 742i b 5-41 © -6-i a 2451 e 3i £ 242i g-3+hi h-4 (2| Given that z = -1 ~i, = —S + 10i and z, = 3 -4i, a find 22, 2:25 and 72 in the form a + ib. b show 2, 23, 24, 212, 2,2, and Z on an Argand diagram. 3) Show the roots of the equation x* — 6x + 10 = 0 on an Argand diagram. 3—iare 4) The complex numbers z; = 5 + 12i, z, = 6 + 10i, z, = —4 + 2iand z, = represented by the vectors OA, Of, OC and OD respectively on an Argand diagram. Draw the diagram and calculate |OA|, |OB|, |OC| and |OB). 5) z= 11 + 2i and z= 2 + 4i, Show 2, 2) and z, + z; on an Argand diagram. + 61 and z = 8 ~ i, Show z), z, and z, + z, on an Argand diagram, = 8 + diand 2) = 6 + 7i, Show 2, 2 and 2, ~ z) on an Argand diagram. 7\ a= 8] 4 = 6 ~ Si and z,= ~4 + 4i, Show z;, 2; and z, ~ z: on an Argand diagram, Consider the complex number 3 + 4i, represented on an Argand diagram by the point A, or by the vector OA. The length OA or |OAl, the magnitude of vector |OA, is found by Pythagoras’ theorem: \OA| = v4 = 25 =5 This number is called the modulus of the complex number 3 + 4i.‘Complex numbers The modulus of the complex number z = x + iy is given by x? + y?. I The modulus of the complex number z = x + iy is written as r or |z\ or |x + iy|, sor = yx? + 9”, m izaya? ty? Mx tiy|= a? +y2 I The modulus of any non-zero complex number is positive. Consider again the complex number z=344i, By convention, angles are measured from the positive x-axis (or the positive real ay anticlockwise being positive. The angle 0 shown on the Argand diagram, measured from the positive real axis, is found by trigonometry: =4 tana=4, eo rctan 4 ~ 0.927 radians This angle is called the argument of the complex number 3 + 4i. The argument of the complex number z = x + iy’is the angle @ between the positive real axis and the vector representing z on the Argand diagram. For the argument 0 of the complex number z= x + iy, tan 0= >. The argument 0 of any complex number is such that — < 0< = (or -180° < @< 180°). (This is sometimes referred to as the principal argument). The argument of a complex number zis written as arg z. The argument 0 of a complex number is usually given in radians. It is important to remember that the position of the complex number on the Argand diagram (the quadrant in which it appears) will determine whether its argument is positive or negative and whether its argument fs acute or obtuse. The following examples illustrate this.CHAPTER 1 Find, to two decimal places, the modulus and argument (in radians) of z= 2 + 7i. ‘Sketch the Argand diagram, showing ‘the position of ‘the number. Here zis in the first quadrant, so this angle is the required 2B (2 argument ~ (measured Argument: tana=Z = 1.2924... radiano anticlockwise 2 from the positive arg z = 1.29 radians (2 dip) real axis). Find, to two decimal places, the modulus and argument (in radians) of z = —5 + 2i. 2+ 7] = v2 +7 = ves Modulus: Sketch the Argand diagram, showing ‘the position of ‘the number. Here zis in the second quadrant, so the required en - argument is VCE) + 2 = V29 = 5.39 (2 dp) = 2 uensred Argument: tana=2 a = 0.3806... radians — arg z= (1 ~ 0.3808) = 2.76 radians (2 ap) axis). Modulus:‘Complex numbers Find, to two decimal places, the modulus and argument (in radians) of 7 = ~4 ~ i “Sketch the Argand diagram, showing the position of the number. Here zis in the third quadrant, so the required = argument is 4 ~ i = (CFP + CP = Vi = 412 2 4.p) easy 1 ft Argument: tana =4 a= 0.2449... radians oe negative). Modulus: — |z| = arg z= — ind, to two decimal places, the modulus and argument (in radians) of z = 3 ~ 7i. 0.2449) = -2.90 radians (2 ap.) "Sketch the Argand diagram, showing ‘the position of the number. Here zis in the fourth quadrant, so the required argument is =a (clockwise from 11659... radians the positive real _axis is negative). Modulue: — |2| PEC Argument: tan a arg z = ~1.17 radians (2 dp.)‘CHAPTER 1 Find the exact values of the modulus and argument (in radians) of z= —1 + i. ‘Sketch the Argand diagram, showing ‘the position of ‘the number. Here z's in the second quadrant, ‘0 the required argument is (=~) (measured anticlockwise from. ‘the positive real axis), Modulue: — |z| Argument: tan a = Find the modulus and argument of each of the following complex numbers, giving your answers exactly where possible, and to two decimal places otherwise. (a) 12451 2) v3+i 3] -3 + 61 4| 2-21 5) -8-7i 6| -44+1i 7) 2v3 - v3 8) -8- IS:‘Complex numbers 1,6 You can find the modulus-argument form of the complex number z. The modulus—argument form of the complex number z = x + iy is Z= 1(cos 0 + i sin 0) where ris a positive real number and dis an angle such that =a < 0< = (or ~180° < 0< 180") From the rightangled triangle, x= ros #and y = rsin A ‘This is correct for a complex number in any of the Argand_ diagram quadrants. For complex numbers z, and 2, |Z,72| = |Z;||22)- Here is a proof of the above result. (You do not need to remember this proof for the exam!) Let zy] =, arg 2: = 6; and zy) = ro, arg Z> = 6, 80 2, = n(cos 0, + isin 0) and 2, = r3(cos 0, + isin 6). 24%q = H(C0S A + isin A) X ra(C0S A + i sin &) = rre{C0s 8 COS 6 ~ sin 8, sin 4; + i sin 8 cos 8 + i cos @, sin 0.) isin @) = ryrcos & + i sin A4)(COS 4 = rynl(cos # cos @ ~ sin 6; sin &) + i(sin A, cos @, + cos &, sin 8,)] But (cos @, cos @, ~ sin @, sin @.) = cos (@, + 44) and (sin @ COs A; + COS 6 Sin 5) = sin (A + 6) So. 2% = ryrelcos (0, + 03) + isin (0, + 0,)] You can see that this gives 2,2) in modulus-argument form, with |2422| =r P So |2; =n 12 = |aalleal (Also, in fact, arg(2,23) = 0 + 3)‘CHAPTER 1 a Express the numbers z; = 1 + v3 and z, b Write down the value of |2,25). Modulus: r= |z| =|1 + iv3| = VP + WBy = ve =2 Argument: Modulus: = V1B = VaV2 =3v2 Argument: tan ap ol 3V2 (cos (— 32) + i sin (-32)) re = lalzeh bezel = rire = 2 X BV2 = GV2 — 3i in the form r(cos + isin 6) ‘Sketch the Argand diagram, showing the position of the numbers. 2 isin the first quadrant, so this angle is the required argument (measured anticlockwise from the positive real axis. zis in the third quadrant, so the required argument is — (7 ~ a2) (Clockwise from the positive real axis is negative).‘Complex numbers 1) Express these in the form r(cos 0 + i sin #), giving exact values of r and @ where possible, or values to two decimal places otherwise. a 2+2i b3i © 344i di v3i e -2-5i f -20 g 7-241 h -5 + Si 2) Express these in the form r(cos @+ isin 0), giving exact values of rand 0 where possible, or values to two decimal places otherwise. 3) Write in the form a + ib, where a € Rand bE R, a 3V2(cos F + isin Z) b ofcos 32+ ssn 32) c V3(cos F + isin 7(cos/ € 4{cos| 4) In each case, find |2)|, zo] and z,22, and verify that |z,22| = |2|29) ay=3+4 9 m= 4-3i by=-14+2i y= 442i e4=S5412i % dz=3+n2 4 1.7 You can solve problems involving complex numbers. You can solve problems by equating real parts and imaginary parts from each side of an equation involving complex numbers. I This technique can be used to find the square roots of a complex number. Wifey + iy, = a2 + ya, then ay =x, andy, =‘CHAPTER 1 = (a + ib)(1 + i), where a and b are real, find the value of a and the value of b. (atin +) =a t+ w+) +al +t a b) + lat b) a+) =3+51 Equate the real parts from each side of the equation. Equate the imaginary parts from each side b of the equation. Substituting Into equation k Solve equations f and it simultaneously. 4-b=3 b eet] Find the square roots of 3 + 4i. Suppose the square root of 3 + Alle a + ib, where a and bare real. Then (a + ib)? = 3 + 4i (a+ bat ib)=3+4i ala + ib) + iba + ib) = 3 + 41 a + abit abi- P = 3 + 41 (#-P) + 2a = 3 +41 oles Equate the real parts from each side 1# of the equation. ii 2ab= 4 ____ Equate the imaginary parts from each side of the equation. From ik b= 4 = 2 Zea og Subetituting into a? - + ® ‘Multiply throughout by 0, isis a quadratic equation in a.Since a is re Solutions are a = 2 or a Substituting back Into b = = —thas no solutions, 2, wir | When a = 2,b = When a = —2,b So the square roote are 2+ land —2 —1 The square roots of 3 + 4i are +(2 + i), eran 1 10 W 12 a+ 2b + 2ai = 4 + 6i, where a and b are real. Find the value of a and the value of b. (a— b) + (a+ Dji = 9 + Si, where a and bare real. Find the value of a and the value of b. (a+ D2 + i) = b +1 + (10 + 2a)i, where a and b are real. Find the value of a and the value of b. (a + i} = 18 + 261, where a is real Find the value of a. abi = 3a ~ b+ 12i, where @ and bare real. Find the value of a and the value of b. Find the real numbers x and y, given that 1 x+y = 2i Find the real numbers x and y, given that @ +iy(1+i)= 241 Solve for real xc and y + iy) - 2) = -3 + 71 Hence find the modulus and argument of x + iy. Find the square roots of 7 + 243. Find the square roots of 11 + 60i. Find the square roots of § ~ 124. Find the square roots of 2i. ‘Complex numbersCHAPTER 1 .8 You can solve some types of polynomial equations with real coefficients. You know that, if the roots a and fi of a quadratic equation are complex, « and f are always a complex conjugate pair. Given one complex root of a quadratic equation, you can find the equation. Complex roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs. 7 + 2i is one of the roots of a quadratic equation with real coefficients. Find the equation. The roots are a conjugate pair. The other root is 7 — 2i The equation with roots a and (ia (x — a)(x— 3) = 0 ——}— Seepage 8 and Example 14 (x — (7+ 2) — (7 — 2) =O eae 2 — 7 — 21) — 7 + 21) + (7 + 27 — 21) 2 — Tx + 2ix — Tx — 2ix + 49 - 141 + i - 4? = 0 2 - Mx + 49+4=0 2 Mx + 8B =O An equation of the form ax? + bx? + cx + d = 0 is called a cubic equation, and has three roots. ee Show that.x = 2 is a solution of the cubic equation x* ~ 6x? + 214 ~ 26 = 0. Hence solve the equation completely. = 24+ 42-26 a factor Forx = 2,29 ~ Gx? + 2ix ~ 26 50x = 2 is a solution of the equation, 0 x — 2 of x* — 6x? + 2ix — 26 re i x— 212 = Gx? + Bix — 26 ee Use long division (or " |____________._ another method) to find = 4x? + Bx the quadratic factor. 13x — 26 13x — 26 0 =‘Complex numbers ) The other two roots are found by solving the ‘quadratic equation. Solve by completing the square, Alternatively, you could use the quadratic formula. ‘The quadratic equation has ‘complex roots, which must be a conjugate pair. + Bi, So the 3 roote of the equation are 2,2 + 3i, and 2 — 3i, Note that, for a cubic equation, either i all three roots are real, of i one root is real and the other two roots form a complex conjugate pair. Example FB Given that ~1 is a root of the equation x* — x? + 3x + k= 0, a find the value of k, b find the other two roots of the equation. a_if—tis a root, b _-1is 4 root of the equation, so x + | is a factor of 3x +5. Use long division (or another method) to find the quadratic factor.‘CHAPTER 1 + Bx +5 = (x + N(x? - 2x + 5) ‘The other two roots are Solving x° — 2x + 5 =O + —__|__ found by solving the ‘quadratic equation, 1 Solve by completing the (12-145 = (x— 12 +4 -——+— square. Alternatively, you could use the quadratic w= 2 +5 (—1R+4=0 formula, a= x7 1= ty(-4) = +2 ‘The quadratic equation has x=142i ‘complex roots, which must be a conjugate pair. x=1+ 2x So the other two roots of the equation are 1+ 2i and An equation of the form ax‘ + bx? + cx? + dx + e= has four roots. is called a quartic equation, and Example EE Given that 3 + iis a root of the quartic equation 2x‘ ~ 3x ~ 39x? + 120x — 50 = 0, solve the equation completely. Complex roots ‘occur in conjugate pairs. Another root is 3 — i. The equation with roote a and fie (x @-@+Ne-@-N)=0 S—)—xSt+ + S+NS= Sx -mth= we ete oraS0.x* — 6x + 10 is a factor of 2x* — 3x? — BOx* + 120x — 50. (x? = Gx + 10)(ax' y+ = Bx? — 3x? + 120: CO Consider 23+ The only x term in the expansion is x” X ax*, so a = 2. (2? = Gx + 10)(2x? + bx + ) = 2xt ~ Sx — B02" + 120x — 50 — Consider ~3x? The x? terms in the expansion are x* X bx and ~Gx X 2x% 12x? = —3xr = 3x? = 39x? + 120x - 50 | Consider ~50 he only constant term in tl 2x4 = Sx? — 39x? + 120x — 50 = (x? — Gx + 10)(2x? + Ox - 8) xpansion is 10 X ¢, s0. 6 Solving 2x* + Ox ~ 6 (2x-)e+5)=0 5 So the roote of 2x* — 3x® — 39x" + 120x — 50 = O are -5,3+iand3 -1 Note that, for a quartic equation, either 4 all four roots are real, of two roots are real and the other two roots form a complex. conjugate pair, ot Il two roots form a complex conjugate pair and the other two roots also form a complex conjugate pair. ‘Complex numbers Itis possible to factorise ‘by inspection’ by considering each term of the quartic separately. ‘You can check this by considering the xcand 2? terms in the expansion. ]‘CHAPTER 1 Show that x? + 4 is a factor of x* ~ 2x? + 21x? ~ 8x + 68. Hence solve the equation x* ~ 2x? + 21x? — 8x + 68 = 0. _Using long division: 2x 417 x? + 4)x4 — 2x3 + 2ix — Bx + 6B x tay? Sart +P = ex Sat. — ox 17x? +68 17x? +68 0 So x4 — 2x3 + 21x? — Bx + 68 = (x? + A(x - 2x + 17) = 0 Either x? + 4 = O or x? — 2x + 17 Solving x2 ++ 4=0 [Eee yi) ey Solving x2 = 2x + 17=0 a= 2x = (e121 a2 = 2x +17 = (x (x= 12 +16 (= 12+16=0 (12 = -16 x-1=+YC1) = +4 eats 4i So the roots of x4 — 2x8 + 2ix? — Bx + 68 = Oare i, —21,1 + 41 and 1 — 44 Itis aso possible to factorise ‘by inspection’ by considering each term of the quartic separately, as in Example 33. Solve by completing the square. Alternatively, you could use quadratic formula. “1 Given that 1 + 2i is one of the roots of a quadratic equation with real coefficients, find the equation. 2) Given that 3 ~ Si is one of the roots of a quadratic equation with real coefficients, find the equation. 3) Given that a + 4i, where a is real, is one of the roots of a quadratic equation with real coefficients, find the equation,‘Complex numbers 4) Show that x = 1 is a root of the equation x! + 92° + 33x + 25 = 0, Hence solve the equation completely. 5) Show that x = 3 is a root of the equation 2x? ~ 4x? — Sx ~ 3 = 0. Hence solve the equation completely. 6 Show that x = —is a root of the equation 2x? + 3x* + 3x + 1 = 0. Hence solve the equation completely. 7) Given that ~4 + i is one of the roots of the equation x? + 4x? ~ 15x ~ 68 = 0, solve the equation completely. 8) Given that x* ~ 12x! + 31x? + 108x ~ 360 = (x? ~ 9)(x? + be + 0), find the values of band ¢,and hence find all the solutions of the equation x# — 12x + 31x” + 108x ~ 360 = 0. 9 Given that 2 + 3i is one of the roots of the equation x! + 2x! — a? + 38x + 130 = 0, solve the equation completely, 10| Find the four roots of the equation x* ~ 16 = 0. Show these roots on an Argand diagram. 11) Three of the roots of the equation ax’ + bet + cx? + de? + ex + f= Find the values of a, b, ¢, d, e and f. are -2, 2iand 1 +i. 1) a Find the roots of the equation 22 + 2z + 17 = 0 giving your answers in the form a + ib, where a and b are integers. b Show these roots on an Argand diagram. oe 2) y= -i,2,=14iv3 a Find the modulus of i 22) b Find the argument of i 22) Give your answers in radians as exact multiples of 7. eo i, 2ei a Express in the form a + bi, where a, b € R, iiz-}, i Zz b Find |z’). © Find arg( ~ }), giving your answer in degrees to one decimal place. eo 4) The real and imaginary parts of the complex number z = x + iy satisfy the equation, Q-i)x- (1+ 3-7 =0. a Find the value of x and the value of y. b Find the values of ile) ii arg z. eo5 Given that 2 + i isa root of the equation z' ~ 11z + 20 = 0, find the other roots of the equation. 6 Given that 1 + 3i is a root of the equation 3 + 6z + 20 = a find the other two roots of the equation, b show, ona single Argand diagram, the three points representing the roots of, the equation, © prove that these three points are the vertices of a right-angled triangle. 7) 4=442i,2=-3+i a Display points representing z, and , on the same Argand diagram. b Find the exact value of 21 ~ 2s A e © express w in the form a + ib, where a,b ER, Given that w find arg w, giving your answer in radians. 8) Given that 3 ~ 2i isa solution of the equation xt Gx! + 19x? ~ 36x + 78 = a solve the equation completely, b show on a single Argand diagram the four points that represent the roots of the equation. a+3i 2+ ai a Given that a = 4, find |) aeR, z b Show that there is only one value of a for which arg z = Z, and find this value‘Complex numbers Summary of key points 1 (1) =iand?=-1 2 An imaginary number is a number of the form bi, where bis a real number (b € R). 3 Acomplex number is a number of the form a + bi, where a € @ and bE R. 4 For the complex number a + bi, a is called the real part and b is called the imaginary part. 5 The complex number z’ = a ~ b1 is called the complex conjugate of the complex number zaat bi 6 Ifthe roots a and f of a quadratic equation are complex, a and f will always be a complex conjugate pair. 7 The complex number z = x + iy is represented on an Argand diagram by the point (x, y), where .x andy are Cartesian coordinates. 8 The complex number z = x + iy can also be represented by the vector OP, where O is the origin and Ps the point (x, y) on the Argand diagram. 9 Addition of complex numbers can be represented on the Argand diagram by the addition of their respective vectors on the diagram. 10 The modulus of the complex number z = x + iy is given by ya? + 7. 11 The modulus of the complex number z = x + iy is written as ror (2 or |x + iy), so r be + iy) 12 The modulus of any non-zero complex number is positive. 13 The argument arg z of the complex number z = x + iy is the angle @ between the positive real axis and the vector representing z on the Argand diagram. 14 For the argument @ of the complex number z = x + iy, tan @= >. 15 The argument 0 of any complex number is such that —7< 6 7 (or ~180° < 0 < 180°). (This is sometimes referred to as the principal argument.) 16 The modulus-argument form of the complex number z= x + iy is 2 = r(cos 0 + isin 6). [ris a positive real number and 0 is an angle such that =m <0 7 (or ~180° < 0< 180°)] 17 For complex numbers 2; and 73, /z122| = [22 18 If.x, + iy, =) + iy» thenx, =x, andy, = 9» 19 An equation of the form ax? + bx* + ex + d= Os called a cubic equation, and has three roots. 20 Fora cubic equation, either a all three roots are real, or b one root is real and the other two roots form a complex conjugate pair. 21 An equation of the form ax! + bx? + cx? + dx + e = Ois called a quartic equation, and has four roots. 22 Fora quartic equation, either a all four roots are real, or b two roots are real and the other two roots form a complex conjugate pair, or € two roots form a complex conjugate pair and the other two roots also form a complex conjugate pair.After completing this chapter you should be able to + find approximations to the solutions of equations of the form f(x) = 0 using: © interval bisection © linear interpolation © the Newton-Raphson process. Numerical solutions of equations Numerical methods are used in science and engineering to help solve problems. These problems are normally modelled using computers. The numerical methods used lead to approximate solutions to the many equations that need to be solved Weather forecasters use numerical methods to predict the weather, both in the immediate future (a few hours) and up to a few weeks ahead.Ifyou find an interval in which f(x) changes sign, then the interval must contain a root of the equation f(x) = 0. You then take the mid-point as the first approximation and repeat this process until you get the required accuracy. Use interval bisection to find the positive root of v11 to 1 decimal place. So the root lies between 3 and 4 a #a) b #(b) aye ‘ = 3 |-2 5 35 125-—} 3 |-2 125 325 | -04375-—+ 325 |-04875 125 3375 | 0390625+ 325 |-04375 03900625| 3.3125 | -0.0275437- 3.3125 | -0.0283437 0390625 | 3.34375| 0.180664 Hence Vil = 3.3 told.p.aes fix) = 2*§-x-3 The equation f(x) = 0 has a root x in the interval (2, 3]. Using the end points of this interval find by interval bisection, a first and second approximation fa a fa » «4 2t2 o-/(2)._| seeeeoey 2 =I, 3 2 25 01569 Fs -1 25 01569 225 —0493 tet approximation = 25 pee ae | 4 2nd approximation = 2.25 1) Use interval bisection to find the positive square root of x” ~ 7 place. 0, correct to one decimal 2) a Show that one root of the equation x* ~ 7x + 2 = 0 lies in the interval [2, 3]. by Use interval bisection to find the root correct to two decimal places. 3) a Show that the largest positive root of the equation 0 = x3 + 2x? — 8x ~ 3 lies in the interval [2, 3] b Use interval bisection to find this root correct to one decimal place. 4) a Show that the equation f(x) = 1 ~ 2sinx has one root which lies in the interval (0.5, 0.8]. b Use interval bisection four times to find this root. Give your answer correct to one decimal place. 5) a Show that the equation 0 = 3 - b Obtain the root, using interval bisection three times. Give your answer to two significant figures, x > 0, has a root in the interval [1, 2] 6) f(x) = 6x — 3° The equation f(x) = 0 has a root between x = 2 and x = 3. Starting with the interval [2, 3] use terval bisection three times to give an approximation to this root.Numerical solutions of equations In linear interpolation, you draw a sketch of the function f(x) for a given interval [o, 6). You then call the first approximation to the root of the function that lies in this interval x,. You use similar triangles to find a first approximation for ay. You repeat the process using an interval involving the first approximation and one of the initial limits, where there is a change of sign to find a second approximation. Repeat until you find an approximation to the required degree of accuracy. a Show that the equation 2° + 4x ~ 9 = chas a root in the interval [1, 2]. b Use linear interpolation to find this root to one decimal place. a Letf(ry= 8 + 41-9 *)=1+4-9 f2)=8+8-9=7 Since there io a change of sign between #1) and #(2) the equation x° + 4x ~ 9 = O has a root In the interval (1, 2]. F(1.3636. Using the interval (136, 2] ~1.0097671.oo“ 2 2.36, 0) Using similar triangles pe T0097... ) = -0.2144918 +2) oe #(1.4438607. Using the interval [1.443. al [ 14603952 f(1.46030652) = -0.0437552 * Using the interval [1.460. AGBIATZ Hence root is 1.5 to one dip. ‘7 (2.46, 0) I 1083... 2,0) 2a 7 3,146... 01043,Numerical solutions of equations fix) = 3° — 5x ‘The equation fi O has a root « in this interval [2, 3] Using the end points of this interval find, by linear interpolation, an approximation to x. 2) *@) 3, 12) Draw a diagram for the interval. Mx,, 0) (3,0) By similar triangles >) 3 2 x2 1 2 B= my = 12x, - 24 | 18x, = 27 i 4-2 x = 207 to 2 dp. ioe 1 a Show that a root of the equation x? ~ 3x — 5 = O lies in the interval [2, 3). b Find this root using linear interpolation correct to one decimal place. 2) a Show that a root of the equation Sx? — 8x? + 1 = 0 has a root between x = 1 and.x = 2. b Find this root using linear interpolation correct to one decimal place. 3) a Show that a root of the equation 3 + 3 = x lies in the interval (3, 4] b Use linear interpolation to find this root correct to one decimal place. 4) a Show that a root of the equation 2x cosx ~ 1 = 0 lies in the interval [1, 1.5] b Find this root using linear interpolation correct to two decimal places. 5. a Show that the largest possible root of the equation x? — 2x? ~ 3 = O lies in the interval 2, 3]. b Find this root correct to one decimal place using interval interpolation. 6 f(x) = 2 3x-1 The equation f(x) = 0 has a root in the interval [3, 4]. Using this interval find an approximation to x.‘cuarTen 2 I The Newton-Raphson formula is SG) FG) Bing = hy — I Note that the Newton-Raphson process may not always give you a better approximation and may take you further away from a root. Use the Newton-Raphson process to find the root of the equation x4 + x? = 80 which is near to X= 3 correct to two decimal places lst fa) =x44 38-80 Cz a! 4x + 2x Then Let Then Let Then x» = 2.912 — 4292p + 2(2.912) Beata LOsese025 = 2.912 ~ 1675960581 = 2908340184 Soroot = 2.01 to two decimal places. | ASboth xj and rroundto291,Numerical solutions of equations fee) = x3 + 2x? - Se — 4 ‘a Use differentiation to find f"@). ‘The equation fx) = 0 has a root a in the interval [1, 2] 1b Using 2 as a first approximation to a, use the Newton-Raphson process twice to find an approximation for a. Give your answer correct to three decimal places. g — 01398517 — 186 — 17 gi9992 1.8558 1,856 to three decimal places w= 1 Show that the equation x* — 2x — 1 = 0 has a root between 1 and 2. Find the root correct to two decimal places using the Newton-Raphson process. 2) Use the Newton-Raphson process to find the positive root of the equation x) + 2x? ~ Gx ~ 3 = O correct to two decimal places. 3) Find the smallest positive root of the equation x + x? — 80 = 0 correct to two decimal places. Use the Newton-Raphson process. 4) Apply the Newton-Raphson process to find the negative root of the equation x ~ 5x + 2=0 correct to two decimal places. 5 Show that the equation 2% ~ 4x? — 1 = 0 has a root in the interval [2, 3]. Taking 3 as a first approximation to this root, use the Newton-Raphson process to find this root correct to two. decimal places. 6 fx) = = 3x2 + Se 4 ‘Taking 1.4 asa first approximation to a root, x, of this equation, use Newton-Raphson process ‘once to obtain a second approximation to x. Give your answer to three decimal places. 7 Use the Newton-Raphson process twice to find the root of the equation 2x + 5x = 70 which is near tox = 3. Give your answer to three decimal places.1) Given that f(x) the interval [~ x — 2v + 2 has a root in the interval [~1, ~2], use interval bisection on |, -2] to obtain the root correct to one decimal place. 2) Show that the equation x! ~ 12x ~ 7.2 = 0 has one positive and two negative roots. Obtain the positive root correct to three significant figures using the Newton-Raphson process. 3) Find, correct to one decimal place, the real root of x* + 2 ~ 1 = O by using the Newton Raphson process, 4) Use the Newton-Raphson process to find the real root of the equation x* + 2x? + 4x ~ 6 = 0, taking.x = 0.9 as the first approximation and carrying out one iteration. 5) Use linear interpolation to find the positive root of the equation x* ~ 5x + 3 = 0 correct to one decimal place. 6 f= +276, a Show that the real root of fix) = 0 lies in the interval [1, 2] b Use the linear interpolation on the interval [1, 2] to find the first approximation to «. © Use the Newton-Raphson process on f(x) once, starting with your answer to b, to find another approximation to x, giving your answer correct to two decimal places. @ 7, The equation cos = 4x has a root in the interval [1.0, 1.4]. Use linear interpolation once in the interval [1.0, 1.4] to find an estimate of the root, giving your answer correct to two decimal places. 8) f(x) =x 3-6 Use the Newton-Raphson process to find the positive root of this equation correct to two decimal places. Summary of key points 1 You can solve equations of the form f(z) = 0 using interval bisection. If you find an interval in which f(z) changes sign, then the interval must contain a root of the equation fe) = 0. You then take the mid-point as the first approximation and repeat this process until you get your required accuracy 2 You can solve equations of the form f(x) = 0 using linear interpolation. 3 You can solve equations of the form f(x) = 0 using the Newton-Raphson process. 4 The Newton-Raphson formula is ns 5 The Newton-Raphson process may not always give you a better approximation and may take you further away from the root.ite completing this chapter you should be able to: plot and sketch a curve expressed parametrically * work with the Cartesian equation and parametric equations of o a parabola © arectangular hyperbola * understand the focus~directrix property of a parabola * find the equation of the tangent and the equation of a normal to a point o onaparabola © ona rectangular hyperbola. In this chapter you will be introduced to a parabola and its properties. You will also work with another curve called a rectangular hyperbola. This chapter builds upon the coordinate geometry work that you have learnt in units Core 1 and Core 2. For example, you will revise material on the distance, gradient and mid-point between two points (x, 971) and (x2, y2). The shape of the cables found ‘on the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol isan example of the ways in which parabolas are used in the real world.3,1 You know what parametric equations are. Parametric equations are where the x and y coordinates of each point on a curve are expressed in the form of an independent variable, say t, which is called a parameter. The parametric equation of a curve is written in the form: x= fi, = 80. You can define the coordinates of any point on a curve by using parametric equations. Sketch the curve given by the parametric equations x = al2, y = 2at, CER where a is a positive constant. ‘To give an idea of the shape of the curve we choose some values for t. Lev’s say t= —3, -2,-1,0,1,2,3. -2|-1 | 0 1 2 | 5 x=at?| 9a | 4a | a | O | a | 4a | 9aCoordinate systems A curve has parametric equations x = at?, y = 2at, t€ R where a is a positive constant. Find the Cartesian equation of the curve. y = 2at =v $0 6= () ———_, x= at? @) Substitute (1) into (2): Hence, the Cartesian equation io P= ax. Example El A curve has parametric equations x = ct, y = $ tER, € + 0 where cis a positive constant. a Find the Cartesian equation of the curve b Hence sketch this curve. a Method 1 x= ct So t=% =e @)sternatively this oc¢ Hence, the Cartesian equation is ay = 2 $$} This also may be expresed a6 oe yz st cis a constant 1| Acurve is given by the parametric equations x = 2t?, y = 4t. te, Copy and complete the following table and draw a graph of the curve for —4-< <4, t -4 | -3 2 -1 |-05| 0 OS 1 2 3 4 x=20?| 32 o | os 32, y=4t | —16 2 16 2| Acurve is given by the parametric equations x = 3¢7, y = 6t. t€ R. Copy and complete the following table and draw a graph of the curve for -3 =f <3. t -2 | -1 [-os| 0 [os] i | 2 [3 x= 3t? y= 6t 3] Acurve is given by the parametric equations x = 4t, #0. Copy and complete the following table and draw a graph of the curve for -4.< t< 4. t -4| -3 | -2 | -1 [-os|os [1 | 2 [3 | 4 x= 4t | -16 -2 y=4 | -1 -8Coordinate systems 4) Find the Cartesian equation of the curves given by these parametric equations. a x= 5St?,y = 10t br=stjyat © x = S0t?, y = 100t dx=iPy=it e x= 3t,y = St f x=v30,y = QW3t gx=4ty=20 hx=6t,y=30 5) Find the Cartesian equation of the curves given by these parametric equations. ax-ty=hte0 bx=Ty=2,t40 ity - 5 py el pe c x= 35ty=39,t20 dx-by-d,t40 6 Acurve has parametric equations x = 3t,y = 3, a Find the Cartesian equation of the curve. 'b Hence sketch this curve. ER, t#0. 7) Acurve has parametric equations x = V2t, y = 2, tER,t¥0. a Find the Cartesian equation of the curve. b Hence sketch this curve. 3.2. You know the general equation of a parabol The curve opposite is an example of a parabola which has parametric equations: x= at?,y = 2at, teR, where ais a positive constant. HI The Cartesian equation of this curve isy? = 4ax where a is a positive constant. This curve is symmetrical about the «x-axis. MA general point P on this curve has coordinates PQ, y) oF PCat’, 2at). MA parabola is the focus of points where every point P(x, y) on the parabola is the same distance from a fixed point 5, called the focus, and a fixed straight line called the directrix. The parabola is the set of points where SP = PX. The focus, 5, has coordinates (a, 0) The directrix has equation x + 0 = 0. The vertex is at the point (0, 0). xt+a-0Find an equation of the parabola with a focus (7, 0) and directrix x +7 = 0 and directrix x a focus (7, 0) and directrix x4+7 = 0-———_—_ So parabola has equation o} and directrix 0} and directrix eae Find the coordinates of the focus and an equation for the directrix of a parabola with equation a y= 24x, by? = v32x. ay = 24x and the directrix has equation x + 6 = 0.-—| vex. So the focus has coordinates (V2, 0). and the directrix has equation x + VCoordinate systems Reminder ‘To find the distance d between two points (x44) and (2, ys) you can use the formula, d= it~ xP + We ~ w?. ‘This formula can also be written in the form d= (xy — x1 + a Ws aca A point Ptr, ») obeys a rule such that the distance of P to the point (6, 0) is the same as the distance of P to the straight line x + 6 = 0. Prove that the locus of P has an equation of the form y? = dar, stating the value of the constant a. ¥ ‘The (shortest) distance of P to the linex + 6 = 0 is the distance XP. yoo ‘The distance P is the same as the distance XP. The line XP is horizontal and has distance XP = x + 6. g * ‘The locus of Pis the curve shown. nt6=0 [Neda =0e= =a I tax + 36 + + 12x + 36 = lax + y? = tex which simplifies to y? = 24x, So, the locus of P has an equation of the form y* = 4ax where a1| Find an equation of the parabola with a focus (5, 0) and directrix x + 5 = 0, b focus (8, 0) and directrix x + 8 = 0, © focus (1, 0) and directrix x = ~1, d focus {3, 0) and directrix x = -3, € focus “3, 0) and directrix x + 7 =O. 2| Find the coordinates of the focus, and an equation for the directrix of a parabola with these equations. a y?= 12x by? = 20% © y?= 10x dy? = 43x e y= v2x £ y?= 52x 3) Appoint P(x, y) obeys a rule such that the distance of P to the point (3, 0) is the same as the distance of P to the straight line x + 3 = 0. Prove that the locus of P has an equation of the form y? = dax, stating the value of the constant a. 4) Apoint P(x, y) obeys a rule such that the distance of P to the point (2V5, 0) is the same as the distance of P to the straight line x = ~2V5. Prove that the locus of P has an equation of the form y? = 4ax, stating the value of the constant a. fhe same as the 5) Apoint Px, y) obeys a rule such that the distance of P to the point (0, 2) distance of P to the straight line y = ~2. a Prove that the locus of P has an equation of the form y = kx”, stating the value of the constant k. Given that the locus of P is a parabola, b state the coordinates of the focus of P, and an equation of the directrix to P, © sketch the locus of P wit The point P(8, —8) lies on the parabola C with equation y? = 8x. The point S is the focus of the parabola. The line / passes through $ and P. focus and its directrix. a Find the coordinates of S. b Find an equation for J, giving your answer in the form at + by + ¢ = 0, where a, band care integers. ‘The line I meets the parabola C again at the point Q. The point M is the mid-point of PQ. € Find the coordinates of Q. d Find the coordinates of M. Draw a sketch showing parabola C, the line ! and the points P, Q, Sand M.Coordinate systems This isin the form 92 So 4a ~ 8, gives a ~ 8 = 2. 4ax. bx 8 y The focus, 5 has coordinates (2,0) po Focus has coordinates (a, 0). me 2820 Use m = = 2%, where (%, 1) = (2, 0) and 60 m= — (a.¥) = @, -8) & . Use y — yy = m(x — xy). Here m= ~4 and kb Guy = @, 0 BAR Dye | Multiply both sides by 3. fs The line | has equation 4x + 3y-B=0. pee Multiply out brackets k 4x + 3y-8=C Simplify into the form ax + by + c= 0. | As the line / meets the curve C, we solve these ex+6y-16=0 (3) ‘equations simultaneously. + Gy-16=0 (y + 8)\(y - 2) = 0- | ~_ Matty (1) by 2. y= -8,2.——_ Substitute (2) into (3). 4= bre = Factorise. The point Q has coordinates (4, 2). Bis at Pandy = 2isatQ e+ 2 Use y? = 8x and y = 2 to find the x-coordinate The: mid-point o( a The point M has coordinates (2-3) 7 Simplify. sites Wt ye 52 1), where x yn) = (8, ~8) and (a, Ya) = G, 2).‘The parabola Chas equation y= ox The line |has equation 4x + 3y- 8B =0. ‘The line | cuts the parabola at the points (8, ~8) and Q(z, 2) The points S(2, 0) and MZ, —3) also lie on the line |. ba +3y—8=0 The line y = 2x ~ 3 meets the parabola y? Find the coordinates of P and Q. 3x at the points P and Q. The line y = x + 6 meets the parabola y? = 32x at the points A and B. Find the exact length AB giving your answer as a surd in its simplest form. The line y = x — 20 meets the parabola y? = 10x at the points A and B. Find the coordinates of A and B. The mid-point of AB is the point M. Find the coordinates of M. The parabola C has parametric equations x = 6t?, y = 12f. The focus to a Find a Cartesian equation of C. b State the coordinates of $ and the equation of the directrix to C. © Sketch the graph of C. The points P and Q on the parabola are both at a distance 9 units away from the directrix of the parabola. State the distance PS. € Find the exact length PQ, giving your answer as a surd in its simplest form. f Find the area of the triangle PQS, giving your answer in the form k¥/2, where k is an integer. is at the point S, ‘The parabola C has equation y? = 4ar, where a is a constant. The point ($t?, $2) is a general point on C. a Find a Cartesian equation of C. ‘The point P lies on C with y-coordinate 5. b Find the x-coordinate of P. ‘The point Q lies on the directrix of C where y = 3. The line J passes through the points P and Q. € Find the coordinates of Q Find an equation for /, giving your answer in the form ar + by + ¢ = 0, where a, b and c are integers.Coordinate systems 6) A parabola C has equation y® = 4x. The point S is the focus to C. a Find the coordinates of S. ‘The point P with y-coordinate 4 b Find the x-coordinate of P. The line J passes through S and P. ¢ Find an equation for J, giving your answer in the form ax + by + ¢ = 0, where a, b and c are integers. The line J meets C again at the point Q d Find the coordinates of Q. € Find the distance of the directrix of C to the point Q. 7, The diagram shows the point P which lies on the parabola C with equation y? = 12r. ‘The point S is the focus of C. The points Q and R lie on the directrix to C. The line segment QP is parallel to the line segment RS as shown in the diagram. The distance of PSis 12 units. [ie a Find the coordinates of R and S. 'b Hence find the exact coordinates of P and Q. ¢ Find the area of the quadrilateral PQRS, giving your answer in the form ky3, where k is an integer. 8) The points P(16, 8) and Q(4, b), where b < 0 lie on the parabola C with equation y? = dar. a Find the values of a and b. P and Qalso lie on the line I. The mid-point of PQ is the point R. b Find an equation of /, giving your answer in the form y constants to be determined. ix + ¢, where mand care ¢ Find the coordinates of R. ‘The line 1 is perpendicular to I and passes through R. d Find an equation of 1, giving your answer in the form y = mux + c, where m and c are constants to be determined. ‘The line m meets the parabola C at two points. e Show that the x-coordinates of these two points can be written in the form x where A and pare integers to be determined A+ w/I3,3,3 You know an equation for a rectangular hyperbola and can find tangents and normal: I The curve opposite is an example of a rectangul: equations: hyperbola which has parametric ” x ty =S,tER, t4#0 where cis a positive constant. The Cartesian equation of this curve isxy = @, where cis a XS positive constant. The curve has asymptotes with equations x = 0 (the y-axis) and y = 0 (the x-axis). 1 Ageneral point P on this curve has coordinates P(x, y) or Plct?, 4 } ‘The point P, where x = 2, lies on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = 8, Find a the equation of the tangent T, b the equation of the normal N, to Hat the point P, giving your answers in the form ax + by + ¢= 0, where a, b and care integers. Whenx = 2,y=$=4 Ty-4=-2(- 2) T2x+y-8=0 Therefore, the equation of the tangent to Hat Pie ax +y-6=0.Coordinate systems b Gradient of tangent at Fis my = —2. So gradient of normal is tty Ny—4=i(-2) N:2y-8 Nix-2y+6=0 ees Therefore, the equation of ‘the normal to H at P is: x-2y+6=0. The distinct points A and B, where x = 3 lie on the parabola C with equation y? = 27x. The line J, is the tangent to C at A and the line ly is the tangent to C at B. Given that at A, y > 0, a find the coordinates of A and B. b Draw a sketch showing the parabola C. Indicate on your sketch the points A and B and the lines J, and I. © Find: ian equation for /, 4i_an equation for b, giving your answers in the form ax + by + ¢ = 0, where a, band care integers. ¥ = 273) ya VBI = +9 Hence, the coordinates of A and 6 are (3, 2) and (3, -9) respectively.The tangent line |, has a positive gradient. Hence, at A, the gradient of the WY 6 posits curve S i positive The equation of the curve for y > O io y = +V27x! ory = +3V3x The equation of the curve for y < 0 The tangent line | has a negative gradient. 27x Hence, at B, the gradient of the 4 curve = is negative. ax 6G y= 27x y= vee | 50 y= | ay | ax ay _ 4 3v5 oes —__ yy | 1 ALA, y> O.and 60 ay. v3 Tae Ove t 124 = 10= 0-5) oe T:3x-2y+.9=0 Therefore, the equation of the tangent to Cat Ais 3x ~ 2y + 9 =O.Coordinate systems li AvB,y 0. b Find the coordinates of P. ¢ Find the area of the triangle OPS, where O is the origin. 12x, The point $ is the focus of C. A parabola C has equation y? = 24x. The point P with coordinates (k, 6), where kis a constant lies on C. a Find the value of k. The point S is the focus of C. b Find the coordinates of S. The line / passes through S and P and intersects the directrix of C at the point D. © Show that an equation for lis 4x + 3y ~ 24 = 0. d Find the area of the triangle OPD, where O is the origin. The parabola C has parametric equations x = 12t%, y = 24f. The focus to Cis at the point 5. a Find a Cartesian equation of C. The point P lies on C where y > 0. P is 28 units from S. b Find an equation of the directrix of C. € Find the exact coordinates of the point P. Find the area of the triangle OSP, giving your answer in the form ky3, where k is an integer. The point (4t?, 86) lies on the parabola C with equation y Ax — 9y + 32 = 0 intersects the curve at the points P and Q. a Find the coordinates of P and Q. b Show that an equation of the normal to Cat (4¢2, 81) Isat + y = at + 8t. ¢ Hence, find an equation of the normal to C at P and an equation of the normal to C at Q ‘The normal to C at P and the normal to C at Q meet at the point R. di Find the coordinates of R and show that R lies on C. 16x. The line | with equation € Find the distance OR, giving your answer in the form ky97, where k is an integer,10 Coordinate systems The point P (at?, 2af) lies on the parabola C with equation y? = 4ax, where a is a positive constant. The point Q lies on the directrix of C. The point Qalso lies on the x-axis. a State the coordinates of the focus of C and the coordinates of Q ‘The tangent to C at P passes through the point Q b Find, in terms of a, the two sets of possible coordinates of P. The point P(ct, £), ¢ > 0, t # 0, lies on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy "tT a Show that the equation of the normal to H at Pis t'x ~ ty = c(t ~ 1). b Hence, find the equation of the normal n to the curve V with the equation xy = 36 at the point (12, 3). Give your answer in the form ax + hy = d, where a, b and d are integers. ‘The line n meets V again at the point Q. € Find the coordinates of Q A rectangular hyperbola H has equation xy = 9. The lines J, and J; are tangents to H. The gradients of /, and J, are both —4. Find the equations of /, and I. wet ‘The point P lies on the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2, where c > 0. The tangent to the rectangular hyperbola at the point P(ct, a t> 0, cuts the x-axis at the point X and cuts the axis at the point ¥. a Find, in terms of cand ¢, the coordinates of X and Y. b Given that the area of the triangle OXY is 144, find the exact value of c. ‘The points P(dat?, dat) and Q(16at2, 8at) lie on the parabola C with equation a isa positive constant. a Show that an equation of the tangent to C at Pis 2ty =x + 4at2 bb Hence, write down the equation of the tangent to C at Q. ‘The tangent to C at P meets the tangent to C at Qat the point R. ¢ Find, in terms of a and ¢, the coordinates of R. 4ax, where ‘A rectangular hyperbola H has Cartesian equation xy = C2, ¢ > 0. The point (ct, e £0, t> O isa general point on H. a Show that an equation an equation of the tangent to H at (ct, §) isx + ‘The point P lies on H. The tangent to H at P cuts the x-axis at the point X with coordinates (2a, 0), where a is a constant. b Use the answer to part a to show that P has coordinates, The point Q, which lies on H, has x-coordinate 2a. € Find the y-coordinate of Q i Hence, find the equation of the line OQ, where 0 is the origin. ‘The lines OQ and XP meet at point R. € Find, in terms of a, the x-coordinate of R. Given that the line 0 is perpendicular to the line XP, £ Show that 2 = 20°, a “a find, in terms of a, the y-coordinate of R.cuaeren 3 Summary of key points 1 To find the Cartesian equation of a curve given parametrically you eliminate the parameter t between the parametric equations. 2 A parabola is a set of points which are equidistant from the focus 5 and a line called the direct So, for the parabola opposite, « SP=PX. « the focus, 5, has coordinates (a, 0). «the directrix has equation xta=0. directrix 3 The curve opposite isa sketch of a parabola with a Cartesian equation of y? = 4ax, where aisa positive constant. ‘This curve has parametric equations: x= af, y = 2at, teR. where a is a positive constant. 4 The curve opposite isa sketch of a rectangular hyperbola with a Cartesian equation of xy = c, where cis a po: constant. This curve has parametric equations: x= dy =5,tER, t+ 0, where c is a positive constant.Review Exercise 2,=2+i,z=3+ 4i. Find the modulus and the tangent of the argument of each of bz oe % dee a Show that the complex number 2 can be expressed in the form A(1 + i), stating the value of A. bb Hence show that (2+) "js real and determine its value. = S8ti,m=-2+3i 2a, a Show that Iz? = a Find, in the form p + iq where p and q are real, the complex number z which ation 32@—1=_4 satisfies the equation ie b Show on a single Argand diagram the points which represent z and 2’, b Find arg(z,2)). © Express z and 2’ in modulus—argument form, giving the arguments to the nearest degree. 2, Sri “143,25 a Find fargz, if arg zs b Express 7! in the form a + ib, where a and bare real, and hence find arg (2) sen - awe) © Verify that arg ( a Find the two square roots of 3 ~ 4 the form a + ib, where a and b are real b Show the points representing the two square roots of 3 ~ 4i in a single Argand diagram. The complex number z is —9 + 173. a Show z on an Argand diagram. b Calculate arg z, giving your answer in radians to two decimal places. © Find the complex number w for whieh aw = 25 + 35i, giving your answer in the form p + ig, where p and q are real,The complex numbers 2 and w satisfy the a find the value of A and the value of B. simultaneous equations b For these values of A and B, find 2a + iw=-1,z—w=343i. tanlargiw ~ 2)] a Use algebra to find z, giving your answer in the form a + ib, where a and b are real a Given that z = 2 ~ i, show that 5 2=3-4i b Calculate arg z, giving your answer in radians to two decimal places. eo b Hence, or otherwise, find the roots, 2, and Z,, of the equation (+i =3-4i ‘The complex number z satisfies the t2 2 i ieR © Show points representing z, and z, ona equation 73 ~ AH AER single Argand diagram. = 3ay + x a Show that z eae 4d Deduce that Iz, ~ 231 = 2/5. bli the case when a=, fa la and Find the value of arg(z; + 22). eo arg. @ a Find the roots of the equation 2+ 42 + 7 = 0, giving your answers Th i : oe umber 2 Is given by in the form p + iyg, where p and q are . integers. Find the modulus and tof esianvainiaiieaisisiits cami b Show these roots on an Argand diagram. b Find the modulus and argument of 4. ind forenciivooe © Show on an Argand diagram the points i the modulus, A, Band C representing the complex ithe argument, in radians, numbers z, 4 and 2 + 1 respectively giving youranswers to three significant figures. State the value of ZACB, oe Given that \€ R and that z and w are ‘The complex numbers 2; and 2» are given complex numbers, solve the simultaneous by 2,=v3 +iand z= 1-1 equations z - iw = 2,2-aw= 1-2, fa Show, on an Argand diagram, points giving your answers in the form a + iD, representing the complex numbers 2), where a, DER, and a and b are functions ofA rand 2, + 7. b Express and 2, each in the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers. Given that 2 = 5 ~ 2i, ¢ Find the values of the real numbers a evaluate |2i|, giving your answer as a Aand B such that A+ B= 2 +2. @ surd, 1 b fing, in radians to two decimal places, arg 21. ‘The complex numbers z and w are given Given also that z; is a root of the equation byz= 2 102 + ¢ = 0, where cis a real number, are real numbers. Given that z + w =i, find the value of ¢. eoThe complex numbers z and w are given a Obtain z and w in the form p + ig, where p and q are real numbers. b Show points representing z and won a single Argand diagram ‘The origin O and the points representing zand w are the vertices of a triangle, © Show that this triangle is isosceles and state the angle between the equal sides, alt vw wt Pet a Find the modulus and argument of each of the complex numbers z; and 7). 4 b Plot the points representing z,, 72 and 2, + % ona single Argand diagram. ¢ Deduce from your diagram that Bzj-142 oe tan (32) =1+ x itt H=142i,% fa Express in the form p+ qi, where p, qB, diner ais. In an Argand diagram, the origin O and the points representing 2:22, 3! and z, are the vertices of a rhombus. b Sketch the rhombus on an Argand diagram. ¢ Find 2. dl Show that |2,) = 9/5 5 e 2, = -30 + 15i. a Find arg 2,, giving your answer in radians to two decimal places. ‘The complex numbers z, and z, are given by = -3 + piand z, = q + 3i, where p and q are real constants and p > 4. b Given that zz, = 2, find the value of p and the value of q. © Using your values of p and q, plot the points corresponding to 2), z) and z, on an Argand diagram. Verify that 22, + 2, ~ 2; is real and find its value. Given that z= 1 + V3i and that 2 + 2i, find a win the form a + ib, where a, DER, b the argument of w, ¢ the exact value for the modulus of w. On an Argand diagram, the point A represents 2 and the point B represents w. Draw the Argand diagram, showing the points A and B. ¢ Find the distance AB, giving your answer as a simplified surd. ‘The solutions of the equation 2 + 62+ 25 = Oare 2 and zp, where 0 < arg z, < wand ~7< arg z) <0. a Express 2, and z, in the form a + ib, where a and b are integers ‘b Show that z’ © Find iz3, d Find arg (2?). -7 = 24i, € Show, on an Argand diagram, the points which represent the complex numbers a, Zand 22, z= 3 ~i.2* is the complex conjugate of z. b Find the value of | ¢ Verify, for z = v3 ~ i, that arg = arg 2 — arg 2 @ Display z, z* and é ona single Argand diagram.€ Find a quadratic equation with roots zand z* in the form ax? + bx + ¢ = where a, b and ¢ are real constants to be found. 147i 443i a Find the modulus and argument of z. b Write down the modulus and argument of. In an Argand diagram, the points A and Brepresent 1 + 7iand 4 + 3i respectively and O is the origin. The quadrilateral OABC is a parallelogram. ¢ Find the complex number represented by the point C. 4 Calculate the area of the parallelogram, z+2i_ Given that 2+ 2! = j, where A isa positive, real constaitt, y: A a show that z= (4+ 1) +4(4~ 1). A 2 , calculate e Given also that tan (arg 2) b the value of A, © the value of lz? ‘The complex numbers 2; = 2+ 21 and z, = 1 + 3i are represented on an Argand diagram by the points P and Q respectively. a Display z, and z, on the same Argand diagram. b Find the exact values of lz, lz! and the length of PQ. Hence show that © AOPQ, where O is the origin, is right- angled. Given that OPQR is a rectangle in the Argand diagram, find the complex number 2, represented by the point R. The complex number z is given by = (1 + 310 + qi), where p and g are real and p > 0. Given that arg 2 =F, a show that p + 24 =0. Given also that zl = 10v2, b find the value of p and the value of g. ‘The complex numbers z; and z) are given by 2 =5 + i,2)= 2-31. © Write down the value of arg 7’ a Show points representing 2; and z; on an Argand diagram. b Find the modulus of z= 22. in the Z ¢ Find the complex number 7! form a + ib, where a and bare rational numbers. a Hence find the argument of 7, giving your answer in radians to three significant figures. € Determine the values of the real constants p and q such that ptig+ 345 e paiq 32, 2= a+ ib, where a and b are real and non- 2010 a Find 2 and 1 in terms of a and b, giving each answer in the form x + iy, wherex and y are real b Show that Iz41 = a? + Be © Find tan(arg 2) and tan(arg?), in terms of aand b. On an Argand diagram the point P represents 2’ and the point Q represents + and 0 the origin. d Using your answer to ¢, or otherwise, show that if P, O and Qare collinear, then 3a? = BP,© Starting with x apply the Newton— Raphson procedure once to f(x) =x ~ 3 to obtain a better approximation to the cube root of 3, giving your answer to three decimal places. f(x) = 2° +x ~ 4. The equation f(x) = 0 has a root a in the interval (1, 2]. Use linear interpolation on the values at the end points of this interval to find an approximation to a. Given that the equation 2! = Ohas a root near 1.3, apply the Newton-Raphson procedure once to f(x) = x3 ~ x ~ 1 to obtain a better approximation to this root, giving your answer to three decimal places. gn fi) =x! — 12e + 7. a Use differentiation to find f(x) ‘The equation f(x) = 0 has a root a in the interval} 0, lies on the parabola with equation y? = dar. The tangent and normal at P cut the x-axis at the points T and N respectively. Prove PT that Fat oe The point P lies on the parabola with equation y? = 4ax, where a is a positive constant. a Show that an equation of the tangent to the parabola P (ap?, 2ap), p > 0, is py =x + ap’ The tangents at the points P (ap?, 2ap) and Q (agp, 2aq) (p * q, p > 0, q > 0) meet at the point N. b Find the coordinates of N. Given further that N lies on the line with equation y = 4a, find pin terms of g. eo The point P (a, 2at), ¢# 0 lies on the parabola with equation y? = 4ax, where a is a positive constant. a Show that an equation of the normal to the parabola at P is y txt =2at + at. The normal to the parabola at P meets the parabola again at Q. b Find, in terms of ¢, the coordinates of Q a Show that the normal to the rectangular hyperbola xy = ©, at the point P{ct, $. t # 0, has equation y = fx + £ — ct’, t The normal to the hyperbola at P meets the hyperbola again at the point Q b Find, in terms of t, the coordinates of the point Q. Given that the mid-point of PQ is (X, Y) and that ¢* +1, Xo © show that @ the rectangular hyperbola C has equation xy = c?, where cis a positive constant. a Show that the tangent to C at the point Pcp, £) has equation py = —x + 2cp. The point Q has coordinates Q{cg, 4q*P. a)The tangents to C at Pand Q meet at N. Given that p+ q #0, b show that the y-coordinate of N is Pre ‘The line joining N to the origin O is perpendicular to the chord PQ. © Find the numerical value of p>. @ ‘The point P lies on the rectangular hyperbola xy = c?, where cis a positive constant. a Show that an equation of the tangent to the hyperbola at the point P| (er >) p> 0, isyp? +x = 2cp. @ ‘This tangent at P cuts the x-axis at the point S. b Write down the coordinates of S. © Find an expression, in terms of p, for the length of PS. ‘The normal at P cuts the x-axis at the point R. Given that the area of ARPS is 41c%, find, in terms of ¢, the coordinates of the point P. @ The curve € has equation y* jax, where ais a positive constant. a Show that an equation of the normal to Cat the point P (ap®, 2ap), (p # 0) is y + pe = 2ap + ap’. ‘The normal at P meets C again at the point Q (aq?, 2aq). b Find q in terms of p. Given that the mid-point of PQ has coontnates (1254, ~ 3a, © use your answer to b, or otherwise, to find the value of p. ‘The parabola C has equation y? = 32x. ‘a Write down the coordinates of the focus SofC. 1b Write down the equation of the directrix of C. The points P (2, 8) and Q (32, ~32) lie on C. © Show that the line joining P and Q goes through S. ‘The tangent to C at P and the tangent to C at Qintersect at the point D. Show that D lies on the directrix of C. raAfter completing this chapter you should be able to + add, subtract and multiply matrices e find inverses of 2 x 2 matrices * represent some geometrical transformations with 2X 2 matrices * use matrices to solve linear simultaneous equations. Matrix algebra This chapter will give a brief introduction to matrices and some of their applications. Matrix algebra is used in many branches of mathematics, especially those areas where large volumes of data are handled as the rules for combining matrices are easily implemented ‘on computers. Transformation, mattices are often used to create 3-D computer graphics: You will meet some further properties and applications if you study FP3.Matrix algebra You can find 1 limension of a matrix. ‘A matrix can be thought of as an array of numbers (a collection of numbers set out in a table) and they come in different shapes and sizes. You can describe these different shapes and sizes in terms of the dimension of the matrix. This is given by two numbers n and min the form n x m (read as n by m), where nis the number of rows (horizontal or across the page) and m is the number of columns (vertical or down the page) in the matrix. ‘An n x mmatrix has n rows and m columns. Matrices are usually denoted in bold print with a capital letter e.g. A, M etc. ‘There are two rows. ‘There are two columns. ‘There is ust one row. ‘There are three columns. ‘There are two rows. ‘There is just one column. SAG =(5 | + ‘There are three rows. Ci __|__ there are two columns. ‘The dimension is therefore 3 X 2,APTER 4 You can add and st ‘To add or subtract matrices you simply add or subtract the corresponding elements of the two matrices. Find a ( eS 4B) Top row Given that A + B = G, find the values of the constants a, b, x and y is) a2 b -1)_ (3 y ct alle ulate al You can describe the position of individual elements in Comparing corresponding elements: fone or thee Fale anid Firat row, first columm: 2+ b=S 90b=1 column e.g. second row, celui 2st soe ese first column of Cis x. BY First row, second column: 3+-1=y coy=2 | — considering the equivalent Second row, first column: 1+ 2= elemens nA ane B youre SOLS form the equation for x. x Second row, second column: a+4=3 soa=-11] Describe the dimensions of these matrices. 10 1) ali 3 * (a) (i 2 ef 3 aa 23) j1 0 04 e@ -1 flo 10] ‘oo 4/ 2) For the matrices -{2 1) p-{ 4 1) ¢=(6 9) aa(T ab B=(4 ab e=lo ab find aA DB-A 3) For the matrices =(!), B= as A=(3),p=( -,€ 1 0, D=@ 1 -1,E 1 3, find where possible: aA+B DA-E cF-Dic aBic eF-D+Q fA-F g C-(F-D) a a 2)_(1 o_(s 4] Gwent 5)-(4 3)=(5 5) 8) Giventhat [1 2 9 js 3 6 Given that |0 -1]+| \2 4! + (2 b e\_fc 8 120) le ¢ ab) i7 4 c aj=|2 \e ft Na al cA+B-C “|, find the values of a, b and c. 0 } find the values of a, b, c, d, eand f Matrix algebra ©}, find the values of the constants a, b, cand d.APTER 4 M Ascalar is something that isn’t a matrix. In FP1 a scalar will simply be a number, To multiply a matrix by a number you simply multiply each element of the matrix by that number. Top row el 2x2 ec _{a 0 a 2. ole find the values of the constants a, b and This gives four equations. You only need three, so select the relevant ones. First row, first column: First row, second column: second column:Matrix algebra (2 0) 1) 1) Torthe matrices A= |) _¢), B (_}), Ana a 3A biA c 2B. (fo 1 0 2\_/0 7 2) Find the value of k and the value ofx 0 that (9 oA 1 ol le of a 0) 1b) 3] Find the values of a,b, cand d so that 2[ a) | 0) j , 8) Find the value of kso that ( i} 4 2) (ih 4 Find the values of ab cand d so that {> Whilst the rule for adding and subtracting matrices appears to be quite natural, for multiplying matrices that gives them their useful properties. the rule The basic operati consists of multiplying each element in the row of the left hand matrix by each corresponding element in the column of the right hand matrix and adding the results together. The number of columns in the left hand matrix must equal the number of rows in the right hand matrix. The product will then have the same number of rows as the left hand matrix and the same number of columns as the right hand matrix. So if rom the number of rows in A. AXB G __ kis from the number of columns in B. Dimensions: (n x m) x (mx k) (XK) \_1_____ These numbers must be the same. Example @ 7 -2 [-3\5 h and B= d AB. Given that A= |} ~4) and B=(~}}find A First culate the dimensions of AB___ The number of rows is two from here. (2 2) x (2X 1) gives (2 X 1) — The number of columns is one from here.a AB b BA. a Alea 2X2 matrix and Bisa 2X2 matrix 60 they can be multiplied and the product will be a 2x2 matrix a=(-1)X4+0x0= =1) X1+0X (-2) 2X4+3X0=8 4=2X1+3% (- 4 -1) So AB = | | b BAwill also be a 2 X 2 matrix ‘Two numbers are required in the answer. ‘The top number is the total of the first row of A multiplied by the first column of B. ‘The bottom row is the total of the second row of A multiplied by the second column of B. Matrices with the same number of rows and columns are called square matrices. ‘The product of two square matrices of the same size will always give a square matrix of the same size. ‘This time there are four numbers to be found. ais the total of the first row multiplied by the first column, bis the total of the first row multiplied by the second column, Cis the total of the second row multiplied by the first column, dis the total of the second row multiplied by the second column, First row times first column 4x (-1)+1K2==-2 First row times second column 4X O+1X3=3 Second row times second column 0x0+(-2)x3=-6 —__ Second row times first column Ox (1) +(-2)x2= 4Matrix algebra Notice that in Example 6 you could not find BA because the dimensions do not allow you to use the rule. In the case of square matrices though, like Example 7, you will always be able to find both AB and BA, and usually these answers will be different. (The technical term for this is to say that matrix multiplication is not commutative.) This means that, when you are finding the product of two ‘matrices, itis very important that you place them in the correct order. Given that A= (1 -1 2),B=(3 —2)and€= |, determine whether or not the following products can be evaluated and, if they can, find the product. a AB b BC © AC aca e BCA a AxB Dimensions (1X3) x 0x2 lee | es U2) These two numbers are not the same Not possible 30 the product can not be found. b Bx ‘These two numbers are the same so Dimensions: (1x2) x Ox 1) r the products possible and the answer {4 Bo=(3 -2) ; Is NB Matrix B is written (3 ~2) ie. without a comma, to avoid confusion with the coordinates of a point (3, ~2). Row times column: 3x44 (Dx S=2, c AXxC Dimensions: (1X 3) X (2X1) Not possible ‘ These two numbers are not the same 0 the product can not be found. 4 cxA Dimensions: (2X 1) X (1X 8) ones 2s OSC) These two numbers are the same and the product will have dimension 2 % 3. first row X first column gives 4x 1 = 4 first row x second column gives 4 x (—1) = —4 (ex 4x(-1) 4x2) OI eae first row X third column gives 4 x 2 second row x first column gives 5 1 $0 CA = ey second row X second column gives 5 x (1) = -5 10) second row x third column gives 5 x 2 = 10APTER 4 e BxXC XA Dimensions: (1X 2) X (2X 1) X (1X3) ——_} ‘These two numbers are the same AND these two numbers are the same. So the product is possible and will This can be calculated as B(CA) or (BC)A. have dimension 1 x 3. We shall do both. B(CA) 2) eee o Using CA from part d. =(2 -2 4) (BOA =(2(1 -1 3)=(2 -2 4) Using BC from part b. H_ When evaluating the product of three or more matrices, provided the order is kept the same it does not matter which product pair is evaluated first. (We say that matrix multiplication is associative.) Sometimes a little forward planning can make the evaluation simpler; (BC)A was easier than B(CA) in this case. Some calculators will evaluate matrix products and, whilst this facility may be useful to you in the FP1 examination, you should know how to calculate the product by hand as sometimes you will be given matrices containing unknown letters. ead b 2) a=("l)ande Given that BA =(0), find AB in terms of a. BA=(b 2)(~')=(-b+ 20 al BA will be a1 x matrix. $0 BA = (0) implies that b = 2a AB will be a 2 x 2 matrix.Matrix algebra 1] Given the dimensions of the following matrices: Matrix A B c D E mension | 2x2 | 1x2 | 1x3 | 3x2 | 2x3 Give the dimensions of these matrix products. a BA b DE © cD d ED e AE f DA 2) Find these products. {1 2\/-1) 1 20 5 aly aa bis ala] ; 1-2 . 10 1) 3] The matrix A=(~ — Jand the matrix B= [1 1 of Find Abmeans AX A a AB be 4) The matrices A, B and C are given by C=(-3 -2). Determine whether or not the following products are possible and find the products of those that are. a AB bac © BC aBA e cA foo 2 afl 3 0 5] Find in terms of a(7 ‘ir >} 3 2\[x -2) 6 Find in terms of x (_ alt | ae ‘The matrix A 7) Twemarixa=(1 2) Find You might be asked to prove this a formula for A* in FPL using induction from Chapter 6. ba Ee © Suggest a form for A’. 8) The matrix A= (7 4 a Find, in terms of a and b, the matrix Given that A? = 3A b find the value of a.Find a ABA b BAB jar with the idea of a transformation from GCSE. There you may have met transformations such as rotations, translations, reflections and enlargements. There is more about these specific types of transformations in Section 4.6. A transformation moves all the points (x,y) in a plane according to some rul You can describe a transformation in terms of its effect on the position vector |* |, this is simply the vector from the point (0, 0) to the point (x, 9). You call the new point to which (5) is moved the image of 5 I Example [J ‘The three transformations §, T and U are defined as follows. Find the images of the point (2, 3) under each of these transformations. .(2-¥ \rty. +) (rh )(,) x( (2), Substituting x = 2 and y = 3 into ie, the point (1, 5) 2x — y gives 1 and into x + y gives 5. ie. the point (6, 2) Substitute x =2 and y = 3 into the S formulae. le. the point (6, ~4) NB. when x = 2, —x?= -2? = ~ 1 Alinear transformation has the special proper involves linear expressions of x and y (so U in Example 10 is not linear) and that the origin (0, 0) is not moved by the transformation (so S in Example 10 is not linear).Matrix algebra H Alinear transformation T has these properties. Example 11 illustrates how the te) a(® definitions of linear transformations area aly ), where kis a constant. ‘work and is not typical of questions ‘you will find in the FP1 examination. aa(s)+(3)] f | -2) For the transformations $, T and U from Example 10, use the vectors { a Jana ( | to show (+18) that $ and U do not satisfy property 2 and prove that T satisfies both properties. ‘These two points are not the same so $ is not linear. So $ is not a linear transformation. Using U LHS. u(7')=(2%2) \o, al 1 afte) —fax—tye | 21 rie = uf) +uf—2) = (2% o1}4( 2X1) (72) 4/2) Va La ae l-ceaye al (- These are not the same 60 U ie not a linear traneformation. To prove that T is a linear transformation you need to use general pointe, not specific vectors like we did for $ and U. (x) _, (2x - 7) ‘il Ease Therute (8) PH) means Vey! \ kee + ky that the new top number is twice the old top number minus the old 2x-y)— plz bottom number. =a 7 xtyl ly) So T satisfies property 1 Compare LHS and RHS of property 2 Using the rule for 7. () + ()]= [2 22) - (2 4x1 ~ + va) WP? lyell ys + ye x, +2, + [y+ yo 2x— yi) (22 — yo} yay! \ ey (204 + a) ~ (w+ yd {x,\. ofxe Teen) eta So T satisfies property 2. Therefore T is a linear transformationAPTER 4 Any linear transformation can be represented by a matrix. f The linear transformation T:| since (2 (2) = (28%). x y! aT: | (2+) pv:|*|— a a Transformation T ie equivalent to x + 2) Tee y. 3x + Oy. co the matrixie [7 - (+o) . ) (ere can be represented by the matrix M \d matrices to represent these linear transformations. White the transformation in the form. White the transformation in the form (259) Use the coefficients of x and y to form the matrix. ‘The square 5 has coordinates (1, 1), (3, 1), (3, 3) and (1, 3). Find the vertices of the image of § under the transformation given by the matrix M = | The vertices of S can be represented by the matrix () Se a} Wit 3 8, To find the image of S you need the matrix product: [-1 2yr 3 24/14 Foo " yd oo oo 1 2\ 21) Write each point as a column vector so 1 (1, 3) becomes (Gy Then combine all four column vectors into 2 single 2 x 4 matrix. Use the usual rule for multiplying matrices. .g. fist row and fourth column: -UX1+2K3=5 e.g. second row and third column: 2X3+1x3=9Matrix algebra Which of the following are not linear transformations? a)(,) wadl?)-(") emG)-(3]} as(3)]-(3) | {y+3 { en (}-[223) ~ (Fos! Identify which of these are linear transformations and give their matrix representations. Give reasons to explain why the other transformations are not linear, as(3)-(2 | (223) {x\ [xy 2 eeds)-(0) a © w(3)-(2) Identify which of these are linear transformations and give their matrix representations. Give reasons to explain why the other transformations are not linear. \_ {x?) s:(*|-|*,} a \) \y! e u(z)—-(r72 yt x-y Find matrix representations for these linear transformations. a (F)-(27%] »(*}-( re ay) The triangle T has vertices at (—1, 1), (2, 3) and (5, 1). Find the vertices of the image of T under the transformations represented by these matrices, 4 «(2 2) (1 0) | } D loAPTER 4 6) The square § has vertices at (~1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (0,-1). Find the vertices of the image of § under the transformations represented by these matrices. 0) (1-1) 3} | You can use matrices to represent rotations, reflections and enlargements. I In GCSE you may have met some simple transformations such as rotations, reflections, enlargements and translations. 1 e(} }) A translation is not a linear transformation (since the origin moves) but all the others are and in this section we shall see how to represent them using matrices. representing a particular transformation you should consider the effect of the matrix or the transformation on two simple vectors (3) (sometimes denoted asi) and (°) (sometimes denoted by j). (a) Given any matrix M = ( t) you can see that (j=(2 9) (°) mo) (?) ad mi d so the first column of M gives the image of () and the second column of M gives the } image of (°). You can use this information to identify the transformation represented by a matri In FP1 you should be able to identify matrices representing the following linear transformations. Rotation about (0,0) of angles that are multiples of 45° Enlargement centre (0,0) of scale factor Kk # 0, KE ). Reflection in coordinate axes or the lines y = =x. Identity the matrix (e Gh is called I and does not carry out any transformation. (This is equivalent to multiplying by 1 in arithmetic.)Matrix algebra Describe fully the geometrical transformations represented by these matrices. 3 0) 7 my oy ef 0 4) 0 3] ona} fla o a o (9) aba z (0) Under the action of (2 ©}, chis becomes \Oo 3! ’ 0 (3) 3 (a) The transformation is therefore an enlargement, scale factor 3 and centre (O, 0). b This transformation is therefore a rotation of 160” (anticlockwise) about (0, 0). A diagram is very useful. Use it to show the images of (4) and () 1 0 The images of (t) (blue) and (9) (red) are in the same directions as the | vectors but 3 times as long. This indicates an enlargement. ‘When describing an enlargement you should state the scale factor and the centre (always (0, 0)). Draw a diagram showing the images 1 0 of (3) ue) and (9}red). ‘The vector (2) has moved to {~}) This could be due to a reflection in 2 = 0 ora rotation of 180°. The vector (9) has moved to { 9). This could be due to a reflection in y= 0 ora rotation of 180°. Since the same transformation has caused both movements it must be a rotation. N.B. This transformation could also bbe described as an enlargement centre (0, 0) scale factor ~1.‘When describing a rotation you should c state the angle, direction (anticlockwise is positive) and centre (always (0, 0)) The diagram shows that (3) has moved to[_9}. This could be due toa rotation of ~90°0r a reflection in y Also (0) has moved to (1). This could be due to a rotation of +90°or a reflection in y = —x. Since the same transformation has carried out both movements it must be a reflection. This traneformation ie therefore a reflection in the line y = ‘To describe a reflection you must state the mirror Tine. Parts b and € of this example are often confused so a carefully drawn diagram is useful. Another way of identify ga reflection isto look itm = (2 2) the determinant at the determinant of the matrix (see Section 4.8), d) of Mis given by ad ~ be. If this is negative the transformation involves a reflection. id matrices to represent these transformations. a Rotation of 45° anticlockwise about (0, 0), b Reflection in the y-axis, ¢ Enlargement centre (0, 0) of scale factor ~2. Draw a diagram showing the images of the original vectors after the rotation of 45°Matrix algebra Consider the image of (eB) \val Similarly the image of (°) is Therefore the matrix representing this ‘traneformation The matrix representing a reflection a) inser ot(T)e-2x (1) =( 5] The matrix representing an enlargement of scale factor —2 about (0,0) 18 Re Sh inthe tine x = O16 (2) eh o 1] image of (1 -2x (IF (1] Describe fully the geometrical transformations represented by these matrices. {1 0 (0 -1 04 b aly al (ro) la ol 2| Describe fully the geometrical transformations represented by these matrices. (0) jo 1 10 ato 2) wl ol elo a} 3) Describe fully the geometrical transformations represented by these matrices. {4 0\ 1/-1 1 lo 4) z\ 1 a) 1 2 1 a | Find the matrix that represents these transformations. a Rotation of 90° clockwise about (0, 0) b Reflection in the x-axis. € Enlargement centre (0, 0) scale factor 2. 5] Find the matrix that represents these transformations. a Enlargement scale factor ~4 centre (0, 0) b Reflection in the line y = a. € Rotation about (0, 0) of 135° anticlockwise. You can use matrix products to represent combinations The points A(1, 0), B(O, 1) and C(2, 0) are the vertices of a triangle T. The triangle T is rotated through 90° anticlockwise about (0, 0) and then the image T’ is reflected in the line y = x to obtain the triangle T". a On separate diagrams sketch 7, T’ and 7" b Find the matrix P such that P(T) = 7’ and the matrix Q such that Q(T) = T’ © By forming a suitable matrix product find the matrix R such that R(T") = 7". Describe the single geometrical transformation represented by R. € Find the single matrix representing a reflection in the line y = « followed by a rotation of 90° anticlockwise about (0, 0). £ Describe the geometrical effect of the matrix found in part e as a single transformation.Matrix algebra This is the original triangle T. Rotate 90° about (0, 0) so that (3) moves (n(n) This gives T. Reflect 7" in y = x so that (°| moves we Jae(-2 mes [9 This gives T". Note that OA moves to OA’ and then to OA’ and OB moves to OB" and then to 08", P represents a rotation of 90° about (0,0) and 20 Calero n=) = (9) Q represents a reflection in y = x 60 a=(h o] (ol —()era(G)~ (0) PCT) = 1’ and Q(T") = 7" So Q(P(T)) = 7" Substitute P(T) for 7” ‘And therefore QP = R Q(P(7) can be written as QP(7)Kear =(? Dae a ={1 10} \o -1} R represents a refection in the x-axis or the line y =O The transformations are the other way around, The required matrix is PQ. ra ee | ol (ae 2) PQ represents a reflection in the y-axis (or the line x = Q). In general: the matrix PQ represents the transformation represented by Q followed by the transformation represented by P. You can combine more than two transformations in a similar fashion. Use the usual rules of matrix multiplication met in Section 4.4. a SATUS ; ° of ("te ana (2) ea under 8 6 in and is unmoved (since ties on the mirror 0 0 9 2) hich ons the reflection. moves to ( To transform with Q first followed by P you calculate PQ. Draw a diagram showing the images, ot (3) (ue) and (2) ced). The fact that (9) does not move suggests that the y-axis is a mirror line. Consideration 1 i of (| contims thisMatrix algebra ‘The matrices P 11 [2 s}@ 4 3 )represent three transformations Find the matrix representing the transformation represented by R, followed by Q followed by P and give a geometrical interpretation of this combined transformation. The combined transformation is given by 7\ i R first so start on the right with R, then Q ~2) then P. ‘You can choose whether to multiply PQ or QR first but the order PQR must be maintained. This is PQ. To interpret this transformation, draw a diagram, Note that (o1-(o}ana(t} = (0) which points to a rotation. PQR represents a rotation (ie. 90° clockwise) about (0, 0) (-1 0) -1 2 0 TA=(y 4} oy &=(6 a) Find these matrix products and describe the single transformation represented by the product a AB DBA © AC aa ec2 A = rotation of 90° anticlockwise about (0, 0) B C= reflection in the x-axis D n of 180° about (0, 0) jeflection in the y-axis, a Find matrix representations of each of the four transformations A, B, C and D. b Use matrix products to identify the single geometric transformation represented by each of these combinations. i Reflection in the.x-axis followed by a rotation of 180°about (0, 0) ii Rotation of 180° about (0, 0) followed by a reflection in the x-axis, iii Reflection in the y-axis followed by reflection in the x-axis. iv Reflection in the y-axis followed by rotation of 90° about (0, 0), ¥_ Rotation of 180° about (0, 0) followed by a second rotation of 180° about (0, 0). vi Reflection in the x-axis followed by rotation of 90° about (0, 0) followed by a reflection in the y-axis Reflection in the y-axis followed by rotation of 180° about (0, 0) followed by a reflection in the x-axis, 3] Use a matrix product to find the single geometric transformation represented by @ rotation of 270° anticlockwise about (0, 0) followed by a refection in the x-axis. 4 Use matrices to show that a refection in the y-axis followed by a reflection in the line y = ~x is equivalent to a rotation of 90° anticlockwise about (0, 0). 4 -1\ 5| The matrix Ris given by|¥2 v2 tL 2 2 a Find R?, b Describe the geometric transformation represented by R’. © Hence describe the geometric transformation represented by R. Write down R®, -1 -2 slr ( 3 a} elas The transformation represented by the matrix R is the result of the transformation represented by the matrix P followed by the transformation represented by the matrix Q. a Find. b Give a geometrical interpretation of the transformation represented by R. " 43 \ 7 a=(5 7) 43) ¢.(-2 1 7-10) Bo (3. 2) -11 Matrices A, B and C represent three transformations. By combining the three transformations in the order B, followed by A, followed by Ca single transformation is obtained. Find a matrix representation of this transformation and interpret it geometrically. Matrices P, Q and R represent three transformations. By combining the three transformations in the order R, followed by Q, followed by Pa single transformation is obtained. Find a mat representation of this transformation and interpret it geometrically.Matrix algebra m WAS (? ‘) then at=_1_ ~4) ‘The value of ad — bc is called cd a the determinant of A and 1 ‘written deta). and then AA“! = A~'A = (} \an ab _ 1(4 4) . a=( 8), det(ay = a be so A asf ° : 7 1 Notice that if det) = 0 you wil not be able to find A~ because gatas is not defined, in such cases we say Ais singular. If det(A) = 0, then Ais a singular matrix and A~! cannot be found. If det(A) + 0, then Ais a non-singular matrix and A-'exists. 1) ofl 3 i © l2 0 For each matrix A, B and C, determine whether or not the matrix is singular. If the matrix is non-singular, find its inverse. a=(% = det(A) = 3 X1— 2.x (-1) Use the determinant formula with - a= 3,b=2,c=—landd=1. det(A) = 5 Since 5 # 0, Ais non-singular ___— vfopig.and dang. change ihe tors (02 -0.' 02 06 “can be left in either form. B 2) so det(B) = 2x 1-1X2=0 1} Remember if det(B) =0 then B is singular. So B is singular and B~ can not be found Note that a determinant can be < 0 This is non-zero and 60 Cis a non-singular matrix. a ‘Swap a and d and change the 4] signs of b and c. Then multiply by 1 6 weyAPTER 4 Some calculators will find inverse matrices and you may wish to use your calculator to check your answer. You may be asked to find the inverse of a matrix in algebraic form, 4 p+2\ (4 39) When p = x the matrix A is singular a Find the value of x, Given that p 4.x b find A“! leaving your answer in terms of p. 4B - p)- (p+ 2-1) O then we could have 10 = =(2p + 6) leading to =8. Remember =2p det(M) <0 this tells you that : the transformation represented So p=2 by M involves a reflection. © When p = ~3 then, 1g the answer to part a, ‘the image of Ais (-6, 6) the image of Bis (— hos ‘Sketch OAB and its image. A singular matrix will always transform points onto a straight line. The image of OAB ie a straight line with equation y = ~x. This is confirmed by det(M) = (3) 2-3 x (-2)=-6 +6=0 considering the determinant 0 for singular the transformation has ‘squashed’ the triangle into a straight line of ze 0 area. 2-1) 1) The matrix A= (7 ; )is used to transform the rectangle R with ve (0, 0), , 1), (4, 1 and (4, 0), a Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of R. ices at the points b Calculate the area of the image of R.Matrix algebra 2 The triangle T has vertices at the points (—3.5, 2.5), (-16, 10) and (—7, 4), a Find the coordinates of the vertices of T under the transformation given by the matrix \ 3 $f b Show that the area of the image of Tis 7.5. © Hence find the area of T. 3] The rectangle & has vertices at the points (~1, 0), (0, ~3), (4, 0) and (3, 3). ‘The matrix A = ( ? 3 a “|, where a is a constant. a Find, in terms of a, the coordinates of the vertices of the image of R under the transformation given by A. b Find det(A), leaving your answer in terms of a. Given that the area of the image of R is 75 € find the positive value of a 4) { 1 2) 1 2 ip Oly ah ( 1} A rectangle of area 5 cm? is transformed by the matrix X .Find the area of the image of the rectangle when X is: ore aP ba cR aRQ © QR £ RP 5] The triangle T has area 6cm? and is transformed by the matrix ig 4 $ a where ais a constant, into triangle T’, a Find det(A) in terms of a. Given that the area of T” is 36 cm* b find the possible values of a.APTER 4 Find the inverse of M. Multiply on the left by M1. Since M-"M = | It is usually easier to leave a fraction such as ~} outside until the last step of the calculation. 1) Use inverse matrices to solve the following simultaneous equations a 7x +3y=6 b 4y-y =-1 Sx - 2y = 2x + 2| Use inverse matrices to solve the following simultaneous equations 1 a ax-y 3x+2y=0 1] The matrix A (i 3 transforms the triangle PQR into the triangle with coordi ates (6, ~2), 4, 4), (0, 8). Find the coordinates of P, Qand R. 2| The matrix A -3) _(4.19 pandAB=(T 5 4): Find the matrix B.Matrix algebra -2 1) 3) A= ( 7-3) Bo ‘The matrices A, B and € represent three transformations. By combining the three transformations in the order A, followed by B, followed by C, a simple single transformation is obtained which is represented by the matrix R. a Find R, b Give a geometrical interpretation of the transformation represented by R. © Write down the matrix R’. 4) The matrix ¥ represents a rotati a Find Y. ‘The matrices A and B are such that AB = Y. Given that B= ( b find A. © Simplify ABABABAB. n of 90° about (0, 0). 32 2 1) 5] The matrix R represents a reflection in the x-axis and the matrix E represents an enlargement of scale factor 2 centre (0, 0) a Find the matrix C = ER and interpret it geometrically. b Find €-! and give a geometrical interpretation of the transformation represented by C-! (l+p \2-p 6) The quadrilateral R of area 4 cm? is transformed to R’ by the matrix P p isa constant. a Find det(P) in terms of p. Given that the area of R ) ?), where 2 em b find the possible values of p. B Sa ap)r Where @and b are non-zero constants \2a 3b) 7) The matrix A a Find A"! a 2b Sa ‘| nd the matrix X is given by XA = ¥. ‘The matrix ¥ ( b Find X, 8) The 2X 2, non-singular matrices A, B and X satisly XB = BA. a Find an expression for X. =(5 3Janan b Given that A 2APTER 4 Summary of key points 1 Ani X mmatrix has 1 rows and m columns, 2 The transformation represented by the matrix product ABC means c second do the transformation represented by B. first do the transformation represented by third do the transformation represented by A. 3 The matrix t= (f 4 matrix or an object. Jis the identity matrix or transformation. It does not change a lab) 4 The determinant of a matrix A = (¢ His deta) = ad — be Disa reat (a ~b) 5 The inverse of a matrix A= | 1 = qa) a lc d \-e a]After completing this chapter you will know how to: ‘© use the result for the sum of the first n natural numbers, > use the results for the sum of the squares, and the sum of the cubes, of the first n natural numbers, So rand 5 P respectively use the results for 1 ve Yorand ye to fat fat fat ft sum series where the general term is a polynomial in rof degree at most 3, e.g. (2? +P — 3r+ 6) 2 You will also be more familiar with the © notation and know Seri es . D Bel its the result 1 =n, Series, and particularly infinite series, form an important part of the study of mathematics. Functions that you may be familiar with, such as sin x, Inx, e* can all be written as infinite series: for example, 7 2 oa eo w=) Blsnt 5 The fact that a wide range = of functions can be expressed algebraically, as infinite series, is both a unifying aspect of the subject and a very useful one. This chapter primarily considers a special group of finite i series, the sums of powers of the first n natural numbers, (BBS Lconharc Euler introduced a the notation “°’ to mean Son fork = 0,1, 2 and 3“CHAPTER S The sigma notation is a very useful, and concise way, to define a series. It makes further study of series more manageable. As you saw in Book C1, Chapter 6, where the > notation was first introduced, DY Y= Uy + U, + Ur+ Us + Up, where U, is a function of r. Hi Itis also used to mean ‘the sum of the series’. For example, ° r? = mm but you will also see that > r? = 2(n + 1)(2n + 1), the sum of the series (this result will be 1 24 RHR + + Re proved in Chapter 6). I Series such as arithmetic ser 's, geometric series and the binomial series, which you have in already studied, can all be written in > notation: for example, Sar! ‘sums up’ the —_ 2 i iso geometric series a + ar + ar? + ...+ar""', Write out the series defined by the following a Yer- ) ma < ‘These expressions represent a general bern term in the series © ye +2) mi a e@r-) =@x1-)+@x2-)+@x35-)+@x4-1 4 ut Qn) =14 34547424 2n—1) ‘The same series can be = expressed in different b S@rtn =@xo+n+@xitn+@x2+1 ways in)" notation. +(2XS 40+... + (An) +1 =14+ 545474 ...4 (20-1) 2 Seen (P+ 2) + (242) + (B42) + (4 +2) + .4(0? +2) =S+G+N +184... + (+2)Write these series using the ” notation. a3+s+749411413 b2+54+10+..4+ (+1) © 1X242K34 3x44... + (0 2\(n- 1) a S+5 +749 +11 + (Bis the sum of the odd numbers from 3 to 13. ‘An odd number may be represented by (2r — 1), where ris an integer The values of r corresponding to 3 and 13 are 2 and 7 respectively, 60 the series can be written as) (2r— 1) = Equally) (2r + 1) could be used. th b 2+5+10+. +@+n= deen ¢ The general term of the eeries 1X2+2X 343X440. + (n— 2)(n— 1) can be written as r(r + 1). Using this expression the firet term corresponds to r = | and the final term corresponds to r= (n= 2), 90we can write 9 rr +1) 1) Write out each of the following as a sum of terms, and hence calculate the sum of the series. Se £ S213 - 47) 2p? + 3) m 2] Write each of the following as a sum of terms, showing the first three terms and the last term, a oar» bers » t © Su =4ani+ay app +3) = =‘CHAPTER S (3) Ineach part of this question write out, as a sum of terms, the two series defined by fir); for 10 1o example, in part ¢, write out the series ) “7? and S)“r. Hence, state whether the given met statements relating their sums are true oF not. ade n-Sern2y — wYaeSa ¢ See [Sy] ayes |yy) © Yores ie+4 |4| Express these series using > notation. a3+4454+64+7+84+9+10 b 1 +8 +27 + 64+ 125 + 216 + 343 + 512 © 114214354... + Qn? + 3) 11+ 21435 +... + (20? ~ 4n + 8) © 3XS4+5X74+7X94... + 2r—12rt 1) +... tok terms. The sum of the first n natural numbers, 1 + 2 +3 +... +n, is an arithmetic series of n terms, with a= 1 and/=n. Using the formula 5 = %(a + 0 for the sum of an arithmetic series, re gent). ple so Evaluate a dor = 1275 — 210 = 1065,Series N-10,N23 YEE Show that )) k= 8 Acommon mistake is to use eo So Spe. = MN =1)+ 1] _ 4x5. 2 2) = (2N — I(N ~ 10) " = 2N-N=10 4inBaa+ 1), a b Ly © Sr+ Yo 5, where k < 80. mt th 2 a show that m’ +n — 1056 =0 b find the value of n. » 3) a Find ethat'S> , = 3% = b Hence show tar Fin - n> 2. a K+ BEK-D psy 2 = nin — 1), b Hence evaluateCHAPTER 5. of the form ) “(ar + b), where a and b are constants, are co their sums can always be found by using the appropriate formula, m Allser metic series and so However, by splitting up yor + b)intoa ye + bY“, you can find such sums using the = otat results for Sirand y mpl Show that }7(3r + 2) can be written as 377+ 29> DVert+2) =@x1+2)+ @x24+2)+Bxs+2) 4 t+.n+ (5X nt2) =GX1IFSX243X34..43X a) As r= 1 for all positive 242 integers r, the sum of +(2424+24...42) one =SXI+24+54..4n) (l+1414...41) F20+1H14 041) can written as sun on ones (8 +29 +3°4 B54 2901 7 where > (41414... 41) Evaluate )“(3r + 1) Soe a 25 X 26 ees = 975 + 25 = 1000Series a Show that der 4) =F 1). 0 b Hence calculate 7 (7r~ 4). h n+ 1) — 4n «| Itisacommon mistake to write this as 4, not 4n. = 1} = 1247119) ~ }—— Using the result from a, = 6725 — 1254 = Tan (in this exercise use the results for “rand 1.) a 1) Calculate the sum of the series: s +0 a a @r-1) bye-m ce Yo+2n a a a 2) Show that a 2Gr+ 2) =2an+7) b S(5i— 4) = nln ~ 3) 6 Vert a=in+2n+6) ad ap +5)=@n+ yin-2) = pt ‘ 3) @ Show that)” (4r~ 5) = 2k? ~ 3k. b Find the smallest value of k for which )( 4r ~ 5) > 4850.‘CHAPTER § Given that u, = ar + band Su, = 3(7 + V) find the constants a and b. = pea] [5] a Show that )7(1 + 39) = 24n? = 20-1051 mt * b Hence calculate )“( + 37). 4 Show that )_ (4 — 51) = ~(2k + 1)(5k + 1), k> 0 ‘The standard results Mir HPHPEP EPs. t= Bat DQnt Y SPR PEPER e+ tm Bint? will be used without proof in this Chapter. Proofs will be given in Chapter 6. E nple EI 40 (40 +1)(60 +1) - Bae +168 +1) = 22140 ~ 2470 = 19670 2 b doe = X26 - 105605Series a Find) b Verify that the result is true form = 1 and n __ Replacing m by 2n in (n+ 12 + 1). Qn + Nan +1) — (n+ N(2n +1) - rt is als Ol | 2n + 1)2¢4n + 1) — (n+ 1} feared otal a general result for 2n-+ 1)(7n +1) a sum itis good practice to test it for small values of n. It will not prove that you are correct, 3)(6) = 4v_ butifone value of n does not work, ‘you know that your result is incorrect. 24, gen +1)(7n+1) = P+ a = 26, Been + 1)(7n +1) 26105) = 24 1) Verify that )? = Bor + Qu + 1) is true form = 1, Zand 3. 2) a By writing out each series, evaluate )? for n= 1, 2, 3and 4 a b By writing out each series, evaluate for n = 1, 2, 3and 4, mt © What do you notice about the corresponding results for each value of m? 100 “o 3) Using the appropriate formula, evaluate a Sor? ob SP oe YY it ih 4) Use the formula for “ror }7r* to find the sum of a P+ 2432+ 4+. +52 b 243+ 48+ © 26? + 27 + 287 + 29 +... + 100? a ++ ate e P+ 2943+ ..4 Qn- 1)?‘CHAPTER S 5| For each of the following series write down, in terms of n, the sum, giving the result in its simplest form a b = a . n> 0. ont 6| Show that i ao a Lr = Hn ~ (en? + Sn + 6) b yu = Bins naan +1) 3 + 1)(5n + 1) > 2 7| a Show that DF F 8) a Show that r= (n+ 1. b By writing out the series for 70 show tat (on? yor mt mm i ¢ Show that 1° + 3% + 5? +... + 2m ~ 1)! can be written as)" S°(2n°. Hence show that the sum of the cubes of the first n odd natural numbers, B+ 33+ 53+. + Qn 1, is PAM - 1). In Example 5 we saw that S7Gr+ 2) can be written as aScr + a. This demonstrates the = mm use of two general rules relating to sigma notation. n rule) “(U, + V,) = SU, + >> mF multiple rule } kU, = k)_U,, where kis a constant mt mt These rules mean that more complicated sums tke (art + br+ o and tat Yor + br + r+ d) can be found using the results for yn ya Srana or mmSeries a Show that (7? + r= 2) = Fan + 4) 1) b Deduce the sum of the series 4 + 10 + 18 + 28 + 40+... + 418 Using the addition rule and the multiple rule, any number of terms can be ‘split up’ a Ben +1)(2n+1)+ Bq +1)-2n Use the results forS>r randy mm = Gla + Nn +1) + Bin +1) ~ 12] = ler + Bn 1+ Sn + 3 — 12) = ler" + on - 8) = Afr? + Sn 4] = Ent ayn 1) b (+r 2)= 0444104184 264404... +418 S04+10+18+26+40+.., + 418 Substitute n= 20 in Sin + 4Y(n — 1). 020 + 4)(20 - 1) = 3040 a Find the sum of the series ) rir + 3)(2r~ 1) ao b Hence calculate } “(r+ 3)(2r— 1) 17‘CHAPTER § a See 3)(2r- 1) “cee + 6r? = 31) ay =22 (n+ 17 + 52m + Nan +1) - S5(n +1) ann +t 2 D F3n(n + 1) + 5(2n + 1) - 9] = wa "en? + 13n - 4) bd or(r + Br 1) =D irr + BY2r— 1) - Dore + 3Y(2r = 1) = 40X41 X 5316 _ 10 X 1X 426 6 = 1453040 - 7810 = 1445230 (1) Use the formulae for $*r3, $12, $“rand $71, where appropriate, to find 20 “ 0 as a Sur -1) byrr+ 4) © rr? +3) ayr-2 |2| Use the formulae for )“r, }“r?, and “1, where appropriate, to find . a a res an bY rer-1 e Prato, a = giving your answer in its simplest form. 3] a Write out )“r(r + 1) as a sum, showing at least the first three terms and the final term. by Use the results for) “rand 7? to calculate at 1X24 2X34 3K444x545X64...4 60% 61,Series a Show that ) "(r+ 2\(r + 5) = (a? + 12m + 41), rr b Hence calculate ) (r+ 2)(r + 5). (n= Dn + In + 2) 5) a Show that )°(r— 1r(r + 1) = + b Hence find the sum of the series, 13 14 x 15 + 14x 15 X 16 + 15 X16 X 174. + 44 x 45 X 46, 6 Find the following sums, and check your results for the cases = 1, 2.and 3. aye-1 b er- vy © r+ yp a 7 7) a Show that } P(r ~ 1) = hin? — Gn + 2) a b Deduce the sum of 1 x 2? +2 32+ 3x 42+... +30 x 312 8) a Show that) (r~ 1)(¢ + 1) = 2Qn + 5)(n~ 1). a bb Hence sum the series 1 x 3+ 2x 4+3%5 +4... +35 x 37. 2 9 a Write out the series defined by ) “(2 + 3r), and hence find its sum. b Show that) 1(2 + 39) = $(14n? + 18n + 3). vont ¢ By substituting the appropriate value of 1 into the formula in b, check that your answer for a is correct. 10 Find the sum of the series 1X 1 + 2X3 435+... tomterms. 1) a Write down the first three terms and the last term of the series given by )_(2r + 39. b Find the sum of this series. mt Verify that your result in b is correct for the cases = 1, 2and 3. x 2) Finda S’ar+s) ob Yer-) ee m+ 4n, 3) Given that )7U, a fina b Deduce an expression for U,, © Find) 4) Evaluate )“7(3r— 1)CHAPTER S. Find) °r- 3), 20 Show that )(2r— 1° = 2416n?— 1), n+ 1)(2n + 7). a Show that) “rr + 2) b Using this result , or otherwise, find in terms of n, the sum of Blog? + 4log2? + Slog2® + ... + (n+ 2)log2”. Show that) “1? Gl + fan + b), where a and b are constants to be found a Show that) “(77 — r— 1) = Bin ~ 2)(n + 2). ~ b Hence calculate) (1? ~ r~ 1), a Show that) “rr? + 1) = Bn + 1)? +n +1), fot b Hence calculate r(2r? + 1), % Find a SG@r-1) bb r+ Gr+5) © SQrs-2r +0) a Show that) rr + 1) = Fan + Yin + 2) b Hence calculate (r+ 1). tt a Show thal Sr + D+ 2) = Fan + Yor + 2y(n + 3). b Hence evaluate 3X 4x 5 +4 5X64+5X6X7 +... +40 41 x 42, =n a Show that S“r(2(n ~ 1) +1} = Bin + YQn+ V). 'b Hence sum the series (2n ~ 1) + 22n~ 3) + 3@2n-5)+..+0 a Show that when ris even, B= 2433-14 234334 + nd — 16(13 + 23 + 38+ b Hence show that, for n even, I¥ ~ 2 + 35—... — n= ~4°2n + 3) © Deduce the sum of 1? — 2° + 3*— ... ~ 403,Series Summary of key points Ailrrhenetstan NU aennes Poteet Us eer Us tae Oy We pene eee the series; it also is used to mean ‘sum the series’. 2. Ifthe series is summed from r= k tor = n, then 9_U,= 9_U, = 3. The sums of powers, k, of the first n natural numbers, for the cases k = 0, 1, 2 and 3 are ‘i These should be learnt. 142434..+0= Rant 1) 1+1+1..+1=0 PHB +34. +m = Bin + Qn + 1) B+P43+ 40 4 If the general term is a more complicated function ofr, the sum can be ‘split up’ so that some, or all, of the above basic results can be used. For example: a Set Br? — 2r + 8) ee > b Year+ airsAfter completing this chapter you will know how to: * use the method of mathematical induction to prove general statements which involve positive integers. Proof by mathematical induction The structure of a proof by induction can be compared with a line of falling dominoes. If the first domino falls, then so will its neighbour, until all the dominoes fall. The first example of rigour in proof by \ induction was a proof that the sum of the w first n odd numbers is n?. This was given \ by Francesco Maurolico (1494-1575)Proof by mathematical induction 6,1 You can obtain a proof for the summation of a series, using induction. piel ; 14354 ; 14345=9 1+34+5+7=16 1+3454+74+9=25 14345+749+11=36 Looking at the summations above we can easily spot a general result which is true, General Statement: If you add up the first positive odd numbers you obtain the squared number 1? ‘This general statement can be written as: 1+34547+9+..+Qn-1)= Using the series notation learned in Chapter 5 the general statement can be also rewritten as: Yer -)=R ‘The diagram below is also a pictorial representation of the result for n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 1 eocee eooe eeeeoe eee eoce eooee oo eve eooe eooee ee eee eoce eocoe naa n=s This may give more insight about why the general statement is true. In this chapter, however, you will learn a more formal method of proof, known as proof by induction, to prove general statements, such as the one above, which apply to positive integer values, n, where n> 1 Proof by mathematical induction usually consists of the following four steps: Step 1: Basis: Prove the general statement is true for n = 1. Step 2: Assumption: Assume the general statement is true for n= k. Step 3: Inductive: Show that the general statement is then true for = k + 1. Step 4: Conclusion: The general statement is then true for all positive integers, n.= — ET Prove by the method of mathematical induction, that, for n€ Z*, )\(2r— 1) = 1? 1 LHS = (ar = 1) = 2(1) — RHS = 1? =1 Aa LHS. ‘true for n HS, the summation formula is Agsume that the summation formula is true for n =k. ‘ ie. Ser- =k, With n = k + 1 terme the summation formula becomes: Mer-1 H14+2434..4 (2-1) 4 ~ +(2{k+1)-1) = ke + (Ak +1) 1) =k? + (2k+2-1) | = (k+ 1" Therefore, summation formula ie true when n=kt4, If the summation formula ie true for n = k ‘then it is shown to be true for n =k +1. As ‘the result is true for n = 1, it Is now also true for all n= 1 and nEZ* by mathematical induction. forn =k, ie, )(2r~ 1) = k* a In step two, it has been assumed (but not yet been proved) that the general statement is true k ‘The assumption has then been used in step three to show that the general statement is true when n= k + 1. At this point we are now able to apply step four, the conclusion.Proof by mathematical induction © In step one, it has been found that the general statement is true for n = 1 * In step two and step three, it has been found that for all n€Z*, Sear 1) is assumed true form = k= Sr ~ 1yistrue forn =k +1) © By applying step one and (*), it can be deduced that the general statement is true for n = 2. By applying (*) again it can be deduced that the general statement is true for m = 3. By continuing to apply (*) it can be deduced that the general statement is true for n= 3,2 = 4,2 = S,.., - n=k,n=k+1,n=k +2, etc. Therefore the general statement is true for all n= 1 and neZ* by mathematical induction. # Therefore the general statement "(2r~ 1) = n? has been proved to be true for any positive integer by mathematical induction. * Note that proof by induction is not used, however, to derive a general statement from first principles. Proof by induction is used to check whether a given statement is true, Prove by the method of mathematical induction, that, forn 2", Sov? = 2n(n + Qn + 1). RIS = GAN2N®) = = 1 hte orl As LHS = RHS, the summation formula is ‘true for n Ageume that the summation formula ie true for n BMK + 1)(2k + 1),k +1 terme the eummation formula becomes: | -B.Inductive step: | Ce ee ee Hk + 12k + 1) + (e+ 1) (k + NIK 2k +1) + 6k +1) (k + 12k? + k + 6k + 6) (k + 12k? + 7k + 6] ( ( k + Nk + 2)(2k + 3) ka Nk ET + NACK + 1) +1) Conclusion step: ‘Therefore, summation formula is true when n =k +1 mph result Continuing to apply If the summation formula ia true for n= k, then it is ba shown to be true for n= k+ 1. As the result is true for n= 1, 1b io now algo true for all n > 1 and n€ Z* by mathematical induction Prove by the method of mathematical induction, that, forn€Z*, )“r2' = 2[1 + (n ~ 1)2". LHS = or" = 1(2)' 4 RHS = 2[1 + (1-120) = (1) =2 Ae LHS = RHS, the summation formula is true for n Assume that the summation formula ie true for te. Soran = apt + (k= 124) With’ Sora 12) + 22%) + 32%) +... + KH) + (k + NAR TT matt (k= 124 + (k + Natt 2+ (k= 12 F RF ae =2+(k-1+k+ 12k! 2+ 2k2t+! 21 + k2k+ 9) Qll + ((k + 1) — 2k] Therefore, summation formulae true whenn=k+1, + Cancluston step If the summation formula is true for n = k, then it ie shown to be true forn = k + 1, As the result is true for n = 1, it is now also true for all n >= 1 and n€ Z* by mathematical induction. k +1 terms the summation formula becomes: This is the same expression a at + (n — 1)2"] withProof by mathematical induction 2 Se= bras M4 = nin + 1m 1) 4 (1X6) + 2X7) + BXB) +... + nln + 5) = INK + Din + 8) 8) or@r- 1) = n+ 1) 6 @r~ 1% jntan? = 1) ri a 7) Yoaaaer-2 8 > - a 9 Srey= m4 yr-1 10 oP =2nQn+ Yams 1) 6,2. You can use proof by induction to prove that an expression is divisible by a certain integer. Prove, by induction that 3?” + 11 is divisible by 4 for all positive integers 1. Let f(r) = 3"+ 11, where n€ Z* 20, which is divisible by 4. f(n) Ie divisible by 4 when n = 1. Asoume that for n= k, Ak) = B+ 11 15 divisible by 4 for ke Z*. Ak y= 3941 BB+ (8) +11 . Hk +1) = A) = (9(S%) + 1) — [+ 11) 8S) = 4(2.(39)) f(k + 1)= fH) + 4(2.(3%9) ‘Therefore f(n) io divisible by 4 when a = k +1. IF f(r) is divisible by 4 when ) EES ) i 2. f(k ( ) ; then it has been shown that f(n) is also divisible by 4when n= k + 1..As f(n) io divisible by 4 when n = 1, f(n) is also divieible by 4 for all n= 1 and n€Z* by mathematical induction.HAPTER 6. = Prove, by induction that 1° ~ 7n + 9 is divisible by 3 for all integers for n © Z* Let f(n) =n? — 7n + 9, where ne Z* 1=7+9=3, which io isibe by 8. (LBasisstep 0) f(n) is divisible by 3 when n= 1. ‘Agoume that for n Df = 6 = 7k + 9 te divisible by 3 for KE Z* (K+ IP = 7k+ N49 P+ SP 5k+1-Mk+)+9 B+ 3P-4k+3 [+ 3k - 4k +3) — [ke — 7+ 9) BE + 3k- 6 ae + k= 2) AA f() + BE + k= 2) Therefore f(n) is divisible by 3 when n= k + 1. IF f(r) ie divisible by 3 when n shown that f(n) is also divisible by 3 when n ‘As f(n) ie diviible by 3 when n = 1, f(n) is also divisible by 3 for alln > 1and n€Z* by mathematical induction. then it has been Example 6 illustrates a more demanding problem involving divisibility.Proof by mathematical induction Prove, by induction that 11"! + 122" ‘is divisible by 133 for all positive integers 1 Let f(n) = 1+! + 122", where nEZ*. :. (1) = 1? + 12 = 133, which is divisible by 133. (1) le divisible by 133 when Asaume that for n F(Q) = We + 12% visible by 138 for ke Z*. Ak 1) =k poet ae (nyt + 12-1 (12y2 = (M1) + 148121) fk + 1) = (= [na + 14 aci2 ) focnik*) + 143 (124 ) = 1O(nik+) + 100129 + 1330122"~ 1 10 [E+ 8 + 12-1] + 1935 (122«- FH) + TOT + 12 =") + 1330122") f(k) + 10K) + 13801221) TNE(K) + 133(124 =") Therefore f(1) is divisible by 183 when a = k +1 IF f(r) is divisible by 133 when f(n)I6 also divisible by 183 when n = k +1. As f(r) Is divisible by 133 when n = 1, (n) Is also divisible by 133 for all n > 1 and n@Z* by mathematical induction. then it has been shown thatIn Questions 1-8, use the method of mathematical induction to prove the following statements fornez*. 1, 8"= Lis divisible by 7 2 3% = 1 is divisible by 8 3. 5" +9" + 2is divisible by 4 4 2*— 1 is divisible by 15 5 3-1 + Lisdivisible by 4 6 1 + 6? + Bn is divisible by 3 7 n+ Snis divisible by 6 8 2",3% — 1 is divisible by 17 (9) fin) = 13"- 6, nez* a Express for K€ Z*, f(k + 1) ~ 6f(K) in terms of k, simplifying your answer. 1b Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that f(1) is divisible by 7 for all nez’. 10. gn) = S* — 6n + 8,neZ* a Express for ke Z*, g(k + 1) ~ 25g(&) in terms of k, simplifying your answer. b Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that g(7) is divisible by 9 for all nez’. 11 Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that 8” ~ 3" is divisible by 5 for all ne Z*. 12 Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that 3%? + 8n ~ 9 is divisible by 8 for allnez". 13 Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that 2+ 32"~?is divisible by 5 for allnez. 6,3. You can use mathematical induction to produce a proof for a general term of a recurrence relation. In Core 1, you saw recurrence formulae which allowed you to generate successive terms of a sequence. A sequence can be described by the recurrence formula Uyar = Buy + 4,0 Leah = Ae a Find the first five terms of the sequence. b Show that that the general statement u, sequence. Y" — 2, n> 1, gives the same first five terms of theProof by mathematical induction Ups = Buy + 4 Substituting n Substituting n Substituting 1 Substituting n Su +4= a) +4=7 Up + 4 = 3(7) + 4 = 25 Us + 4 = 3(25) + 4 b General etatement, u, Substituting n Substituting n Substituting n Substituting 1 Substituting n 3-2 = 2435 241 The first five terms of the sequence are also 1, 7, 25, 79, 241 Example 8 demonstrates how to apply the method of proof by induction to show that the general statement 1, = 3" — 2 is true for the recurrence formula ti, = 3u, + 4, with first term m = Land n> 1. ena Given that 1, = 3% + 4, 4, = 1, prove by induction that u, = 3" ~ 2. u,= 3'— 2 = 1, a9 given. Up = Be 7, from the general statement, and us = Su, + 4 = 3(1) + 4 = 7, from the recurrence relation, So u, is true when n = | and is also true when n= 2, Aseume that for n= ku, = 3*— 26 true for kKEZ*. Su +4 (5! = 2) Then Ue ss Therefore, the general statement, u, is true when if-u, is true when 1 +1. As u, is true for n then it has been shown that: u, is aleo and n= 2 then ‘true when 1 uy lo true for all n> 1 and n€Z* by mathematical induction. In the basis step of the proof, the general statement was checked for both n = 1 and n = 2. This is because the first application of the recurrence formula t,.: = 31, + 4 yields u by using the first given term a, = 1Given that u, . >= Sty, ~ 6thy tt; = 13, 2 = 35, prove by induction that 1, = 2"*! + 3"*!, 22 + 3? = 13, as given. 2+ 38 5, as given, 17, from the general statement, Sup — Gu, = 5(35) —6(13) = 176 = 76 = 97, from the recurrence relation. So u, Is true when n= 1, 1 = 2 and aloo when n= 3. Ageume that, forn = kand n= k + 1, that both 2 Assumption step Ug= 2k* 1+ BE and Una = BENTH BOT tm EZ SAY? are true for ke Z* Bie 2 + Bt) — GEE BETH B+) + 5(BE*4) — B(2k* 4) = AGA = 2(2k 2) + 3B?) LI Dk 4 BETS Coy QEe2Y 14 getaet ‘Therefore, the general statement, u, Is true when n = k + 2. that u, is also true when n= k + 2. As u, ls true for n= 1, = 2 and n = 3, then u, Is If u, is true when n= kand n= k + 1 then it has been shown true for all n= 1and n€Z" by mathematical induction. In Example 9, each term of the sequence depends upon the two previous terms. Therefore 1, was assumed to be true for both n = kand m= k + 1. 1. Given that ,, ; = Su, + 4, 4, = 4, prove by induction that u, = 5" ~ 1. 2) Given that u,. 1 = 2u, + 5, 1m = 3, prove by induction that u, = 2"°2 ~ 5, 3) Given that u, , , = Su, ~ 8, 1 = 3, prove by induction that u, = 5"! + 2.Proof by mathematical induction 4 Given that u, . , = 3u, + 1, m, = 1, prove by induction that 1, Given that 2 = Su, .~ 6tt,, 1 = 1, us = 5 prove by induction that u, = 3" ~ 2", Given that 1, . »= 6uy 5 ~ 9tt,, th = —1, tl = 0, prove by induction that u, = (r ~ 2)3" Given that 1, ;2 = 7,1 ~ 100, tt; = 1, ty = 8, prove by induction that w, = 2(5"~ ')—2"— 1, eam Given that thy 2 = Gt, 1 ~ My th = 3, Uy 6, prove by induction that 1, = (@n ~ 2)3°. = 6.4. You can use proof by induction to prove general statements involving matrix - multiplication. Use mathematical induction to prove that () re Oo 2. urs = ( as =(1 tS 1 =) 0 a \O 2) As LHS = RHS, the matrix equation is true for n = 1. ‘Asoume that the matrix equation is true for n= k. 7 = ie With n= k +1 the matrix equation becomes [? a (i yf 3) \O 2, O 21\0 2, “602 ——— aie -1+2-2(24) O+0 0+2(25 ie }—— ‘Therefore the matrix equation ie true when n= k + 1 If the matrix equation is true for n= k, then it ie shown to be true for n = k + 1. Ae the matrix equation Ie true for n = 1, it is now also true for all n= 1and n€Z* by mathematical induction.wse( (2 9 -1 4) \-1 4, FHS. (Qe 91) ) =) 3q) +1 As LHS = RHS, the matrix equation Is true for n Assume that the matrix equation io true for n = k, le ( 2 aye ok } 14 ko Bk+1 With n= k-+ 1 the matrix equation becomes (2 ay" = (22 ae 8) “1 4, -1 4ll-1 4, _[-3k+1 9k Ne | —k Sk +th=1 4, a (Reha ta sete eaeccs) 2k-Bk-1 -Ok + 42k +4 mk-1 Bk+4 Sect a! ey) =(k+1) kt) +1 =i ke eu Therefore the matrix equation is true when n = k +1 if the matrix equation is true for n= k, then it is shown to be true for n = k + 1. Ao the matrix equation is true for n = 1, it is now also true for all n= and n€Z* by mathematical induction. Prove by the method of mathematical induction the following statements for # Z* i Q y_(} 2m) 2(? Af 2 (2a i) oO 1 ool 1 =i n -2n+1 2 oy _[ 2 0 Ss -8\"_ [ant —8n 2 ( lent 1) 4 ( -3) “| an nl e i 5(2"— ») 50 3 o 4Proof by mathematical induction 1 Prove by induction that 9” ~ 1 is divisible by 8 for nZ*. 2 The matrix Bis given by B = (3 ° a Find B* and B’. 'b Hence write down a general statement for B", for nZ”. © Prove, by induction that your answer to part b is correct. 3 Prove by induction that for n= 2°, that )“(3r-+ 4) = jn(3n + 11). feat 4 Asequence 11, tt, ty tty, ... is defined by u, , = Sty, —3(2"), m, = 7. a Find the first four terms of the sequence. b Prove, by induction for m€Z*, that u, = 5" + 2". 5 The matrix A is given by A ( j 15). . na [8n+ 1 16m " a Prove by induction that A” = ( vin 1 ‘) fornez The matrix B is given by B = (A")"! b Hence find B in terms of n. 6 The function fis defined by fn) = a Show that f(n + 1) — f(n) = (5%), where jis an integer to be determined. b Hence prove by induction that f(77 is divisible by 6, 7 Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that 7” + 4” + 1 is divisible by 6 for all nez’. 8 Asequence ih, tty, ty, ty, ... is defined byt, .) = u a Find the first five terms of the sequence. b Prove, by induction for nZ*, that u, = 4(})" 9 Asequence i, tty, Uy Uy -.. is defined by u, = 32" + 7-1, a Show that u,,;— 9u,, = A(72*~}), where A is an integer to be determined. bb Hence prove by induction that 1, is divisible by 8 for all positive integers n 10 Prove by induction, for all positive integers n, that (LX 5) + (2X 6) + 3X7) +... + ml + 4) = nln + 12 + 13). rt + 1, where nEZ*.Review Exercise 0 2 -1}8 Os Determine whether or not the following products exist. Where the product exists, evaluate the product. Where the product does not exist, give a reason for this. bBA G2 1) 3. (2 4) “\3 =1 a AB © BAC 4 CBA. _{ 03),_/10 _ [0 0 ex-() ab¥=(4 2 }ando =() of Find the values of the constants a and b such that M* + aM + DI = 0. 4 Or-o6 Show that A? — 10A + 211 = 0. ab Os-(i i Find an expression for A, in terms of a, b, c and dso that A? ~ (a + d)A = AL, where I is the 2 x 2 unit matrix. A= (7 _}), where is area constant. Given that A is singular, fa find the value of p Given instead that det (A) = b find the value of p. Using the value of p found in b, © show that A? — A = KI, stating the value of the constant k 2-1 Ba-(5 :) a Find A”), { 281 ~109 ' s Given that A’ = | waa} b find A‘. A triangle T, of area 18 cm’, is transformed into a triangle T’ by the matrix A where, kok-1 “3 2k a Find det (A), in terms of k. Given that the area of T’ is 198 cm’, b find the possible values of k. a-( \ eer, Ee© A lincar transformation from R? — R? is defined by p = Nq, where Nis a2 x 2 matrix and p, q are 2 1 column vectors Given that p = that p = ( } when a a Find A” b Find (AB)~+, in terms of p. Given also that AB (3 i} € find the value of p, 2-1) @a-() 2) a Show that A* = 1. b Deduce that A? = Av! © Use matrices to solve the simultaneous equations a-y =3, 7x - By = 2. a Find A”! b Show that AIBA = (3 0 the values of the constants A, and Ay. 0) atine (3 4 ~4), where p and q are al pand q a Find A", in terms of p and q. (7% “pa! b find X, in tetms of p and g. Given that AX Ba-(53 Find a AB, b AB- BA. Given that C= AB ~ BA, c find, give a geometrical interpretation of the transformation represented by C2. @ The matrix A represents reflection in the axis. ‘The matrix B represents a rotation of 135°, in the anti-clockwise direction, about (0, 0). Given that C = AB, a find the matrix C, b show that The linear transformation T: R? — R? is represented by the matrix M, where ab Me (° a} The transformation T maps the point ‘with coordinates (1, 0) to the point with coordinates (3, 2) and the point with coordinates (2, 1) to the point with coordinates(6, 3). a Find the values of a, b, cand d. b Show that M? = I. ‘The transformation T maps the point with coordinates (p, q) to the point with coordinates (8, ~3). Find the value of p and the value of . The linear transformation Tis defined by (é | . (* - x), y ay J ‘The linear transformation Tis represented by the matrix €. a Find C.‘The quadrilateral OABC is mapped by T to the quadrilateral OA’B’C’, where the coordinates of 4’, B’ and C’ are (0, 3), (10, 15) and (10, 12) respectively. b Find the coordinates of A, Band C. ¢ Sketch the quadrilateral OABC and verify that OABC is a rectangle. 08 -0.4 ~(3 -0.6) 04 a Find. b Give a geometrical interpretation of the transformation represented by €. ‘The square OXYZ, where the coordinates of X and ¥ are (0, 3) and (3, 3), is transformed into the quadrilateral OX'YZ’, by the transformation represented by C. © Find the coordinates of Z’. 5 3 at Given that A =( 5, 3 Janae (f Bt} find the matrices € and D such that a AC=B, b DA= A linear transformation from R? defined by the matrix B. € Prove that the line with equation y = mx is mapped onto another line through the origin O under this transformation. d Find the gradient of this second line in terms of mi. Referred to an origin O and coordinate axes Ox and Oy, transformations from R® — R? are represented by the matrices L, MandN, where a Explain the geometrical effect of the transformations L and M. b Show that LM = N2, ‘The transformation represented by the matrix N consists of a rotation of angle @ about O, followed by an enlargement, centre O, with positive scale factor k. ¢ Find the value of @ and the value of k. Find N’, eo A, Band Care 2 x 2 matrices. a Given that AB = AC, and that A is not singular, prove that B = C. b Given that AB= AG, where A=(}§) and B () 4) find a matrix € whose elements are all non-zero. eo @®) se standard formulae to show that Sone 1) = nn? = 1). ® se standard formulae to show that Se-v=2 (2n+ s\n — 1), oe Use standard formulae to show that " ee Veer 1p = pnw D. oe Use standard formulae to show that qn + 1) 2y(n + 3). ® a Use standard formulae to show that Ser) = Mt dyn -1) bb Hence, evaluate } r(2r ~ 1) eowvaluate )(r? + 2), eo ® Using the formula ee Birt Dns 1), = a show that }“(4r? ~ 1) = 4(4n?+ 6n—1), Evaluate ) "(r+ 1)(r+ 2). eo x Given that $“(4r? + kr = 1) = 2120, Use standard formulae to show that aS Se 7 wee = =) where k is a constant, b find the value of k. @ 4 Use standard formulae to show that fa Use standard formulae to show that S2rGr + 1) = min + 1p. Sorar— 5) = nn + yin 2) 100 an b Hence evaluate )1(3r + 1). @ _—P Hence show that "(3 — 5)= 2n(n?—1). ‘a Showrthat ® a Use standard formulae to show that . += + An +2 Meer year+ 3) = fan? + 120 ~ 1), de Dwg Fle 42) 1s b Hence, or otherwise, show that b Hence find )°(2r— 243). @ ow a Sar +) = tnQn + ipa + q), stating a Use standard formulae to show that the values of the integers pandg. @ Lor + 4r~ 5) = n(Qn? + Sn 2). Given that 5-720" 1) b Hence calculate the value of = bmn + (pn? + qn +n), a find the values of p, q and r. Yor + ars) oe pa 10 bb Hence evaluate 9 r°(r- 1). €B a Use standard formulae to show that a Use standard formula to show that inln + 7)(2n + 7) Sone +2) = nin + Hans 7). b Hence calculate the value of ta Yes yess) oe b Hence, or otherwise, find the value of Sir + 2y10g, 2 ri a. Use standard formulae to show that 3 n(n + 1)Gn? + Tn + 2) Use the method of mathematical Sre+y- Soa i a 12 induction to prove that, for all po: is 71 lon b Find )°(2n?C2r + 2) oe lniiegers y ied) net e€D Use the method of mathematical Prove by induction that, for all ne Z*, induction to prove that = : ei . Legy-2- (yer, e nin + 10 + §). : 301 @a- Prove by induction that, forn € 2°, -4-1 1 Prove by induction that, for all positive Ver- 1 =inen-yen+y. @ integers n, Mm+1 om An= © The rih term a, ina series is given by \ -4n 0 -2n 41 a,= r+ W2r+ 1) Prove, by mathematial induction, that the J) Given that fin) = 3" + 22, sum of the first 1 terms of the series is ‘a show that, fork", f(k + 1) ~ f(&) is Lain + 120 + 2), e divisible by 15, b prove that, for n€ 2", f (is divisible Prove, by induction, that bys. re = y= gnn= y+ ye@n+2), BD fiw = 24 x 2” + 3%, where w isa non- @ _ rezative integer. a Write down fm + 1) — fin). b Prove, by induction, that f(m) is divisible bys. Given that u, = 8 and u,., = 4u,, — 9n, use mathematical induction to prove that u, = 4" + 3n+ 1 neZz. Prove that the expression 7" + 4" + Lis divisible by 6 for all positive integers 1. Given that u, = O and u,,;= 2r~ u,, use mathematical induction to prove that @ Prove by induction that 4" + 61 — Lis 2u, = 2n— 1+ (-17",nEZ*. eo divisible by 9 for nEZ*. Prove that the expression 34” =! + 2@"14 5 fin) = Qn + 7 1 is divisible by 10 for all positive integers n. Prove by induction that, for all positive integers n, f(r) is divisible by 4. q 6x +10 & a Express oe + 70 in the form p + 45, le @a- ( 5) where c is a constant. where p and q are integers to be found, Prove by induction that, forall p ‘The sequence of real numbers t,t, ty, + integers 1, is such that u, = 5.2 and ty 4, = a ~ bb Prove by induction that u, > 5, forne 2" er aM) Given that u, = 4 and that 2u, ,, + u, = 6, use mathematical induction to prove that yy? Given that n€ 2", prove, by mathematical induction, that 24" 1) + 3™* is yforneZ*. divisible by 11.Examination style paper v 2 3" a Use the standard results for “rand for 5 “7? to show that, for all positive integers n, Mir + Gr + 2) = nan? + bn + 0), where the values of a, b and ¢should be stated. (5) f(x) =x" + 3x 6 ‘The equation f(x) = 0 has a root ain the interval [ 1, 1.5] a Taking 1.25 as a first approximation to a, apply the Newton—Raphson procedure once to f(x) to obtain a second approximation to a. Give your answer to three significant figures. (5) ‘b Show that the answer which you obtained is an accurate estimate to three significant figures. @) —1 v2 v2 - ( 2 0 R=| YY [ands =(") Fl \v2 v2} a Describe fully the geometric transformation represented by each of Rand S, “ b Calculate RS. 2) ‘The unit square, U, is transformed by the transformation represented by $ followed by the transformation represented by R. Find the area of the image of U after both transformations have taken place. @ f(z) = 2! + 322-62 +10 Given that 1 + iis a complex root of f(z) = 0, a state a second complex root of this equation. @ b Use these two roots to find a quadratic factor of f(z), with real coefficients. 8) Another quadratic factor of f(z) is 22 + 22 + 5. ¢ Find the remaining two roots of f(z) = 0. 3)5 o n 8 * Examination style pay ‘The rectangular hyperbola H has equation xy \e points P. (@, » and Q (ca, a) lie on the hyperbola H. ‘@ Show that the gradient of the chord PQ is “i The point R, (3, $) also lies on H and PR is perpendicular to QR. 'b Show that this implies that the gradient of the chord PQis 9. {x %&- 7) Mell) gta a Find the inverse of matrix M, in terms of x, given that M is non-singular. b Show that M is a singular matrix for two values of x and state these values. ‘The complex numbers z and w are given by 7 = a Express z and w in the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers. b Find the modulus of w. € Find the argument of w in radians to two decimal places. d Show z and w on an Argand diagram e Find Iz ~ wi, ‘The parabola C has equation y? = 16x. a Find the equation of the normal to C at the point P, (1, 4). ‘The normal at P meets the directrix to the parabola at the point Q. b Find the coordinates of Q. © Give the coordinates of the point R on the parabola, which is equidistant from Q and from the focus of C. a Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that, for €Z*, Drs (rt = dette ay (Hh ms b fin) = 3"? + (-1)"2", nez*. By considering 2f(0+1) ~ f(n) and using the method of mathematical induction prove that, for ne Z*, 3"? + (~1)"2"is divisible by 5. per @) (4) @ 4 GB) @ (2) (2) (2) (6) 3) (2) (6) (6)cry Index addition complex numbers 3-4, 12-13 matrices 74 series 116-18 angles complex numbers 15 rotations 86-9 approximations see numerical ‘methods area scale factor 101-2 arg z 15 Argand diagrams 10-20 addition and subtraction 1213 axes 10 modulus and argument 14-20 vectors 11-18 argument 14-20 arithmetic series 110, 112-13 see also series arrays see matrices associative property 80 assumption step 123-5 asymptotes 52 basis step 123-5 Cartesian coordinates 10 see also coordinate systems Cartesian equations parabolae 43, 45 rectangular hyperbolae 43-4, 52 columns 73, 77 commutative property 79 completing the square 3 complex numbers 1-31 addition 3-4, 12-13 ‘Argand diagrams 10-20 argument 14-20 complex conjugates 7-9, 11, 248 division 7-8 format 2 modulus 14-20 ‘modulus-argument form 19-20 multiplication 5-6, 19 polynomial equations 24-8 problem solving 21-3 simplification 5-6, 8 square roots 21-3, subtraction 3-4, 13 conclusion step 123-5 conjugate pairs 7-9, 11, 24-8 coordinate systems 41-62 Argand diagrams 10-20 normals 52-3, 57 parabolae 42-50, 53-5, 57 parametric equations 42-5, 52 rectangular hyperbolae $2-3, 578 tangents 52-5, 57-8 cubes 114 cubic equations 24-6 curves gradient 52, 54, 57 normals 52-3, 57 parabolae 42-50, 53-5, $7 parametric equations 42-5, 52 rectangular hyperbolae 52-3, 57-8 tangents 52-5, $7-8 determinants 88, 95, 101-2 differentiation gradients 52, 54, 57 Newton-Raphson process 38 dimensions 73, 77-9 directrix 45-6 discriminant 2 distance between points 47 divisibility 127-30 division 7-8 elements, matrices 74 ‘enlargement 86, 87, 89 see aso linear transformations ‘equations Cartesian form 43-4 complex roots 24-8 directrix 45-6 normals 52-3, $7 ‘numerical solutions 32-40 parabolae 42-3, 45-6 parametric form 42-5, 52 polynomial 24-8 quadratic 2, 8-9, 24 rectangular hyperbolae 43-4, 52 simultaneous linear 103-4 tangents 52-5 focus 45-6 formulae, sums of series 110-15 general statements 123-5, 133-4 general terms recurrence formulae 130-2 series 108 ‘geometric series 108 see also series ‘geometrical transformations see linear transformations gradients 54, 57 hyperbolae, rectangular 43-4, 52-3, 57-8 i Gmaginary number) 2, 5-6 see also complex numbers i (vector) 86 identity matrix (1) 86, 95 images 82-93 imaginary axis 10 ‘imaginary numbers see complex numbersimaginary part 3 induction 122-36 Inductive step 123-5 interval bisection 33-4 inverses 95-100 linear transformations 99-100 simultaneous equations 103-4 j (imaginary number) 2 j (vector) 86 linear interpolation 35-7 linear transformations 82-93 area scale factor 101-2 combinations 90-3 enlargement 86, 87, 89 matrix representation 84 origin 82 properties 82-3 reflection 86, 88, 89 reversing 99-100 rotation 86-9 locus 45 mathematical induction 122-36 divisibility 127-30 matrix multiplication 133-4 recurrence formulae 130-2 steps 123-5 sums of series 123-6 matrix algebra 72-106 addition 74 area scale factor 101-2 determinants 88 enlargement 86, 87, 89 identity matrix 86, 95 inverses 95-100 linear transformations 82-93 matrix notation 73, 95 multiplication 76-80, 95, 96, 133-4 non-singular matrices 95, reflection 86, 88, 89 rotation 86-9 simultaneous equations 103-4 singular matrices 95 square matrices 78, subtraction 74 mid-points 48-50 mirror line 88 modulus 14-20 ‘modulus-argument form 19-20 multiples of series 116-18, multiplication complex numbers 5-6, 19 matrices 76-80, 95-6, 133-4 natural numbers, series sums M0-11, 114, 125-6 Newton-Raphson process 38-9 non-singular matrices 95 normals $2-3, $7 notation complex numbers 3, 19-20 matrices 73, 95 sigma 108-9 ‘numerical methods 32-40 interval bisection 33-4 linear interpolation 35-7 ‘Newton-Raphson process 38-9 origin Argand diagrams 11-12 linear transformations 82 parabolae 42-50 equations 42-3 focus and directrix 45-6 normals $7 tangents 53-S parametric equations conversion to Cartesian form 34 parabolae 42-3, 45 rectangular hyperbolae 43 52 polynomial equations 24-8 polynomial series 116-18 position vectors 82 powers of i 5-6 principal argument 15 products see multipl proofs by mathematical induction 122-36 quadrants 15-18 quadratic equations complex numbers 3 conjugate pairs 8-9, 24 discriminant 2 quartic equations 26-8 real axis 10 real part 3 reciprocal curve see rectangular hyperbolae rectangular hyperbolae 43-4, 52-3, 57-8 recurrence formulae 130-2 reflection 86, 88, 89 see also linear transformations roots, equations numerical methods 32-40 polynomials 24-8 rotation 86-9 see also linear transformations rows, matrices 73, 77 scalars 76 scale factors 87, 101-2 series 107-21 addition 116-18 cubes 114 general terms 108 geometric 108 multiples 116-18 polynomial 116-18 sigma notation 108-9 squares 114, 125-6 summation formulae 110-15, 123-6 sigma (2) notation 108-9 sign change, numerical methods 33, 35 similar triangles 35-6 simplification, complex numbers 56,8 simultaneous equations 103-4 singular matrices 95 sketching curves 42, 44 square matrices 78 square roots. complex numbers 21-3 interval bisection method 33, squares 114, 125-6 subtraction complex numbers 3-4, 13 matrices 74 sums of series 110-15 refirst n natural numbers 110-11 proof by induction 123-9 sigma notation 108-9 symmetry, parabolae 45 tangents $2-5, 57-8 transformations see linear transformations translation 86 vectors Argand diagrams 11-18 position 82 vertex 45 re? alas