Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics
Intra- and Intercultural Translation
Author(s): Rolf Kloepfer and Ph. Shaw
Source: Poetics Today, Vol. 2, No. 4, Translation Theory and Intercultural Relations (Summer -
Autumn, 1981), pp. 29-37
Published by: Duke University Press
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INTRA- AND INTERCULTURAL TRANSLATION*
ROLF KLOEPFER
RomanceStudies,Mannheim
I. DO LITERARY STUDIES HELP CULTURAL INTERCHANGE AT ALL?
It sounds a trivialor rhetoricalquestion. In fact,however,one can assume,at
least forthe countriesfamiliarto a Germanstudentof Romance literaturelike
myself,thatthe enormousquantitativeexpansionof academic literarystudies
has tended rather to harm internalcultural development,and has hardly
promoted interculturalexchange either. The reason is simple: although
developmentssuch as the expansion of 'literature'as a fieldof researchto
proletarian, trivial, and minority-culturetexts, the improvement of
metalanguageachievedbyliterarytheory,and theattemptsto correlateliterary
systemswithsocial ones, mayhave been productivein some respects,theyhave
been made mostly under the auspices of 'hermeneutics.'The 'science of
literature'is a scienceof passive understanding,whichhas sincetheeighteenth
century been moving steadily away from practical knowledge about text
production,textprocessing,and meaning-generation. In otherwords,literary
studieshave paid littleattentionto the traditionof rhetoricand poetics,ifthey
have notabandoneditaltogether.Onlyinthestructuralist-semiotic schoolofthe
last fewdecades has a reversalof thisprocessbeen foreshadowed(see further
Kloepfer,1978and 1979a).
The academic studyof literature,therefore, some timeago lost contactwith
thepeople who producedthetexts.Its definition ofitselfas an institution
forthe
investigation of understanding and readingor of text-reception in generalhas
nowbeen underpinnedbythedevelopmentof a fewtheoriesofa scientistic (S.J.
Schmidt,N. Gr6ben,etc.) or neo-hermeneutic (H.R. Jauss,W. Iser,etc.) kind.
But makingliterarystudies'scientific'in thisway is morelikelyto scare people
off.There is littleor nothingin sucha disciplineforliterarycriticism,theessay,
*
Paper presentedat Synopsis1: "TranslationTheory and InterculturalRelations," held at the
Porter Institutefor Poetics and Semiotics in collaboration with the M. BernsteinChair of
TranslationTheory,Tel Aviv University,27 March - 1 April 1978. TranslatedfromGerman
by Ph. Shaw.
? Poetics Today, Vol. 2:4 (1981), 29-37
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30 ROLF KLOEPFER
the variousformsof adaptationwithinthe mediumof printor forothermedia
like filmor television,or for translation.Above all, it failsto contributeto
literary production or 'literary life' in general. The change from a
'culture-consuming' to a 'culture-producing'
disciplinehas not yettakenplace.
Literarystudiesremaintheirown justification (see Kloepfer,1979b).
2. LITERARY ANALYSIS AS A SERVICE TO THE TRANSLATOR
The old-stylehermeneuticsof men like Schlegel or Schleiermacherwas, like
literarystudywhichis semioticallyaware,orientedtowardproduction.Thiswas
less truein relationto theindividualauthorthaninrelationtohisintersubjective
base in his own culturalcommunity,whichhe enrichedas he recreatedit in
literature.The old maxim'I understandnothingthatI do notacceptas necessary
and cannotconstructmyself'impliesthatthisreconstruction is a realizationofan
active co-authorship,destined to produce a new text, whether this is a
conversation,an essay,a translation, or even,as withRoman
an interpretation,
Jakobson,a linguistictheory.It is thedutyoftheacademicanalystofliterature
and culture,who mustofcoursehave a largeelementofthelinguisticin him,to
graspand reconstruct themanyandvariousculturalsystemsand theirdynamism
both as aspects of the all-embracingphenomenonof cultureand as theyare
concretizedand createdin individualworksof art.In doingso he is willy-nilly of
use to translation,forhe allows the translator'slargelyunconsciousand only
partlyconsideredabilitiesto be extended(Holmes et al., 1978).
Let me clarifytheseideas by an example.Cervantes'Don Quixotehas had an
immeasurableinfluenceon the European novel, in Germanyforexample as a
result of the response it aroused in the Romantics,who had in Tieck an
importanttranslator.Since thentherehave been manyothertranslations, butall
have in commona curious'flatness'by comparisonwiththeoriginal.The most
importantreason for this is the novel's 'polyphony'of voices, styles,and
languages (in Bakhtin'ssense). These develop moreand morein thecourse of
thenovel intoa dialogue.Theirvarietyis necessaryfortheintegration ofwidely
differingculturalsystems.The novel consistsonly of speeches: spoken and
writtenlanguage are differentiated; everydaylanguageconfronts us, coarse or
rusticallybombastic,and contrasts with underworldjargon or the penetrating
style of courtlyreflectionand moralizing.There are specialized vocational
registerslike that of the clergy;and the nobles, craftsmen, innkeepers,and
shepherds must deal withthehighstyle of thehero'schivalry justas he mustwith
his Dulcinea's plebeian attitudes.Moorish traditionsare set againstChristian
ones and abstractlanguage against concrete: scholasticdisputationand the
conversationaltone of humanismrun withoutwarninginto the language of
traditionalliteraryforms- romance and folksong,puppet-playand novella,
farce, interlude,comedy, and serious formsfromthe baroque theatre,the
exalted medieval language of courtly love and Petrarchan echoes, all
representedagainstthebackgroundof thenovelof adventure,pastorallife,and
chivalry.The charactersin thenovel all speak severallanguagesand bylearning
new ones reveal thegrandeurof theirapparentlybanal natures.Sancho Panza
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INTRA- AND INTERCULTURAL TRANSLATION 31
preaches, makes use of legal language and of medieval courtlyformsof
argumentation, and progressesfromtheinflatedletter-writing stylethroughnew
formsof courtlinessto an entirelynew style of friendship.In thisway the
discoursestructure of thenoveldevelopstheastonishingsjuzhet.
However well a translatorknowsSpanishand German,and howeverfamiliar
he is withthehistoryofthetwocultures,he willalwaysbe able to profitfroman
analysisof this'social dialogue,' and it is the academic litterateurwho has to
provide it. Of course there are exceptionaltranslatorswho are themselves
capable of carryingout thisspecialisttask. In general,however,the textsthe
translatorworkson are too varied,hisopportunities to acquiresuchknowledge
are too limited,and his timeis too short;he simplycannotaffordto attemptsuch
exhaustiveinvestigation. Hence theliteraryscholar'swork- especiallywhenit
is deliberatelyformulatedto help the translator- can be treated as a
'pre-reading';it shows himthe texture(the threadsand weavingtechnique)of
thework.1
This conceptof the 'pre-reading'was developed in co-operationwithElmar
Tophoven, the well-knowntranslatorof Beckett. I was able to test it in an
interesting'experiment'whichshowed that it is not merelya matterof the
difficultyinvolvedin our historicaldistancefromCervantes,or the extreme
culturalmixturewhichis a familiarcharacteristic oftheRenaissance.I tookpart
in a colloquium in Paris which was supposed to bringtranslators,'literary
scientists'and linguiststogetherto intensify the culturalinterchangebetween
France and the German-speakingcountries.At thisconferenceI presenteda
'pre-reading'ofWalterKempowski'snewnovel Tadell6serund Wolff. Thisnovel
shows the German bourgeoisiemaintainingitselfbefore,during,and afterthe
Nazi period,despiteimmenseexternalchanges.It answersthequestion:'Whatis
"bourgeois identity"when on the surface everythinghas changed?' The
pre-readingfora potentialtranslator showedwhatwouldpresentno problemsin
a translationintoFrench.Above all, though,it triedto definewhytheauthor's
handlingofthethememustrepresenta considerablechallengeto thetranslator.
The novelcould be describedin a simplified way as a modelingofa particular
formof homeostasis:the characterslive undera linguisticorderin whichsocial
roles are related to particularways of using eitherthe standardlanguage or
North German dialect forms,to restrictedlanguagesforcertainsituationsor
groups,to the sociallyrecognizedformationof ideolects,and above all to the
patternformedby the interactionof these 'languages.' All of them,withthe
voicesof the'heroes,' theirstyleof leisurelychat,theuse ofclichesand slogans,
and the echoes of politicalspeeches refractedby the media or theinstitutions,
are transformed in thecourseofthenovel. The same transformation affects
the
The differencebetween a pre-readingand an interpretation residesin the factthatthe former
too does, indeed, reconstructthe text on a basis of and then places it as a
analysis/synthesis
complex sign, whereas the pre-readingneed only hint at the culturalaffinities as opposed to
outliningthe systematicdifferences.Pre-reading,then,is an interpretation with regard to the
other culturalparadigm.
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32 ROLF KLOEPFER
clothing system and other highlyindexical systemslike those of housing
arrangements, greetingformulae,building,or cooking,as well as thetransport
systemas a whole and its individualelements(the formand functionof the
bicycle,the tram,the buses, etc.), and yet the novel shows how horrifyingly
unchanged the underlyingdynamismand the relationshipof the individual
functionsremain.
The pre-readingproved that an examinationof the various strandsof the
linguisticpolysystemof Germanis indispensable.Nor couldone affordto ignore
the otherculturalsystems,fortheirinherentdynamismis crucialto the novel.
It was necessaryto sketch out equivalentsin French linguisticand cultural
history;forboyscoutsand HitlerYouth thereare the'camelotsdu roi' organized
by theActionFranqaise,schooltraditionsand theinitiationritesofthe'Grandes
Frenchversionsof thelinguistic
Ecoles,' and characteristically gamestypicalof
the period and preserved for us in the of
literature the fortiesand fifties-
French equivalents of Kempowski's 'dictionnairedes idees reques' of two
decades. However,forcertainreasonswhichare discussedin thenextsection,I
made the claim thata satisfactory translationwas neverthelesspossible if the
translatorperceived and understoodthese systemswithinthe two national
cultures;theimportantthingwas ratherto reconstruct thedynamicofthewhole
thanto preservetheindividualexponents.The surprising thingwas,though,that
translatorBernard Kreiss was not only present,but had actuallytranslated
severalchaptersand had come to the same conclusionsin hisreflections on the
of his task.Translationcan, then,be done excellentlywithout
centraldifficuties
the literaryscholar,but he can make the laboriousprocessconsiderablyeasier
and faster(Even Zohar, 1978;Yahalom, 1978).
3. INTRA-AND INTERCULTURAL TRANSLATION
Two objectionscould be raised: first,thattheseare extremecases; and second,
thatthe scholarwho is supposed to help withhis 'pre-reading'mustbe a par-
ticularkindofcomparativist. I would agreewithboth.Ifone followsJakobson's
distinctionof threeformsof translation- intralingual(betweentwo subsys-
tems of one language), interlingual(in the conventionalsense, between two
languages),and intersemiotic (betweendifferent semioticsystems)- itis clear
thatbothmyexamples involve extremely heavy loads ofintralingualtranslation;
in
furthermore the case of Kempowski thereis also the need to make switches
withinthe semioticsystems. But the two texts are by no means unique: in
Renaissance and modernliterature- at the latestsince Flaubert- discourse
structure has playedan increasingly dominantrole.But thoughthisproblemhas
recently become crucialinside Europe, a comparableone has alwaysexistedin
the translationof textsbetweenculturesmoreremotefromone another.As for
thecomparativist aspectofthe'pre-reading,'itis notanything veryunusual;as a
semioticscience of culture,literarystudies always need to make use of the
contrastofsystems,thatis theoppositionsbetweenculturalsubsystems, inorder
to graspa givensystemin an appropriateway.Diachronicapproachescan helpin
this,but transcultural
investigations can do muchmore(and thisexplainswhy
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INTRA- AND INTERCULTURAL TRANSLATION 33
'comparative literature' is little more than a substitute for the study of the
various national literatures).
If the academic, with the translatorin mind, not only prepares a model of the
text in question, but also produces a sketch in the targetlanguage, he is not really
doing much more than systematicallyextending the processes already embodied
in the text. This can be explained by a quotation fromNietzsche (1962: 1016):
It is notfornothingthatI have been - perhapsstillam - a philologist, thatis tosaya
teacherofslowreading- intheend a slowwritertoo. These daysitis notonlya habit
of mine but also my preference- a maliciouspreferenceperhaps? - to write
nothingthatwillnotdriveeverykindofpersonwho is 'in a hurry'todistraction. For
philologyis thehonorableartwhichdemandsfromitsadmirersabove all one thing-
to stand aside, to give themselvestime,to be still,to slow down - it is the artand
connoisseurship of a goldsmithofwords,and has nothingbutfineand carefulworkto
do and achievesnothingthatis notachievedlento.But itisjustthisthatmakesitmore
necessarytodaythanever,itis preciselybecause of thisthatit attractsand enchants
us mostofall, in themidstof thisage of 'work,'thatis ofhurrying, ofungraceful and
sweaty haste,that wants to 'have done' witheverything quickly,and witheveryold
and new book as well.But philologyis notdone withanything so easily,she teaches
us to read well,thatis, slowly,deeply,withcare and sympathy, reservingjudgments
and leavingdoorsopen, readingwithdelicatefingersand sensitiveeyes.
This kind of reading generally has to include a translation,in the way directed by
the text itself,of the various signs which are intralinguallyand intersemiotically
realizedin thetext.A literary
textis intendedfor'autotranslation'
on thebasisof
many procedures whose existence has now been demonstratedby literary
Justas withlinguistictranslationin thenarrowsense,thetextdoes not
theorists.
say thesame thingin differentwordsbutitembodiesa possibleunderstanding in
one 'language' and then immediatelyuses a translationto commenton it in
another language. How otherwisecould a South German reader with no
experienceof thewar period understandan authorwho is consciouslyrealizing
North German cultural and linguistictraditions? Even in everyday life the mass
of varieties within a language - the fact that every language is a polysystem-
requires fromus a continuous act of translation. This is one essential element of
dialogue. And literature makes use of it by systematically extending this
possibility,so that it is in fact a major part of the writer's task to make use of the
various systems of tensions to generate meaning. Cervantes and modern
literature just provide particularly clear examples of this general truth.Thus
autotranslationtakes place on all levels and in all semioticdimensions:in
Cervantesa partnerin a dialogue takes up the new varietyand repeatsitin his
own speech; a new textformor,forexample,a typicalpatternofargumentation
is namedas such; and thecurioustypesof interference betweentheselanguages
thatare translating
one anotheris commentedon at length.The same happensin
intersemiotictranslation,of which Walter Kempowski's 'bourgeois novel'
providesgood examples,forit is preciselytheway thatthecharacterstranslate
themselvesthroughthe changes of historythat the novel thematizes.The
adaptability of the middle-class 'Tadelloser and Wolff' familyis proved by their
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34 ROLF KLOEPFER
capacityto realizethecontinuedidentity oftheirsystemevenwhenmost,though
notindeed all, ofitsexponentshave been changed.It is notthefactthathe has a
particularkindofbicyclewitha spurformountingthatcharacterizestheroleofa
figure,but thefunctionofthisdetail:thathe is 'open toeverything modern.'This
can as well be evidencedby thepurchaseof a particularmodelofcar.
The two examplesare indeed reallyverydifficult and mightwell- especially
aftera preliminaryreadingwithoutfundamentalsemioticconsiderations-
drivethetranslatorto despairat hisendlesstask,buttheyalso showparticularly
clearly that the text itself must make compensatoryprovision for its
comprehensibility, and in thisway guaranteeits translatability. The processes
used in thisautotranslation, whichare reconstructed in poeticsand thescienceof
narrative(in the investigationof discoursestructure),are manyand various.
They mostlyrelyon multipleencodingwithall possibleformsof repetitionwith
variation. Their second functionis to allow the author to teach 'his own
language' in the text.Elsewhere I have called thisthe autodidacticelementin
literature:thetextteachesitself.The effectiveness oftheprocessesin questionis
only possible because of the close connection between the poetic and the
metalinguistic functions of language. These two functions are the centerof the
'dynamic which
structures' really make a piece of writing into a work of
literature.Since I have devoted a whole articlein thisjournalto thisquestion,I
can restrictmyselfhere to sayingthismuch: the literarytexthas not onlyan
autotranslation system,but also a systemforteachingitsown language.This is
the mostimportantpreconditionforthatprocessof semanticconcentration, of
'loading every riftwith ore' whichallows the punningGerman definitionof
poetry(Dichtung)as a processofcondensation(Verdichtung). Unfortunately, it
-
has been assumed as so often thatthisis a mererhetoricalmetaphor;it
-
would be betterto investigatethe basis in semioticsand information theoryof
such an appropriatedescription(see Kloepfer,forthcoming).
It is, then,thedutyof thetranslator to reconstruct thisautotranslationand the
'autodidactic'training in the new language. The academic literaturespecialist
must thereforeidentifyand displayin his preliminaryreadingthe structures
embodied in theindividualtext.In thisway he can encouragethe translatorto
undertakea taskwhichwe recognizedmoreand moreto be similarto thatofthe
poet (Kloepfer,1967: 123-127).
4. 'TROUVER UNE LANGUE...' (Rimbaud)
Thus the professionalstudentof literaturecan help the translatorto recognize
not merelythe systemsof equivalence between(national)languageswhichare
no longerto be seen as monolithic,butratheras polysystems, butbeyondthem
the othersemioticsystemswhich- accordingto theirdegree of dominancein
thetext- mayor maynotalso have to be translated.This particularquestionis
discussedbelow. Like the creativewriterhimself,the translator, withhis 'ser-
vant' the literaturespecialist,is in searchof all these 'languages.'Hence he has
to translatein threesenses. Firstly,he could be, and oftenis, satisfiedto make
the textsuperficially comprehensiblein a new language,in whichprocesshe
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INTRA- AND INTERCULTURAL TRANSLATION 35
must oftenlose its essence by a reductionisttreatmentof the 'polyphonyof
languages,voices and styles.'Secondly,he can also providein the translation,
workinganalogouslyto the authorhimself,the means of autotranslation of the
new textand theautodidactictrainingin his specific'language' in the broadest
sense of the word. In this way he makes his translationmore proof against
historicalchangeand also bringsitcloserto theoriginalinitsdynamiccontent-
assumingof course that thistoo has such characteristics! If he manages this
exceptionallywell,ifhe discoversthenewlinguistic possibilitiesoftheoriginalin
his own language, then he has reached the thirdlevel and given his own
community themeansto expressitselfin a newway; he has made newlanguage.
FromthispointofviewachievementslikethatofDante forItalianand thatofthe
translatorLuther for German are completely equivalent. It is said of
Baudelaire's translationsof Poe that they were the real foundationof the
American'sfame.
The second and thirdtypesof translationare verymuchdependenton pre-
liminarywork by the literaryexpert.It is only thisthatmakes it clear where
translationis possible(or obligatory)and wherethereare possibilitiesofchoice.
For afterall these decisionsmustbe made on the basis of a systemof values
whichis not necessarilyinherentin the text.Let me illustratethisproposition
withanotherextremeexample: thetranslationofAmericancomics.This genre,
whichis not of course theexclusivepreserveof childrenand teenagers,was for
manyyearseverywheretranslatedcrasslyalongthelinesof thefirsttype.But as
political consciousnessand awareness of culturalimperialismbecame more
widespreadamongworkersin the media in general,the translators of cartoons
foundthemselvesa new role. They realized the truenatureof Walt
Disney's
'message' and, thanksto A. Mattelard,A. Dorfmann,and others,became more
capable ofdecidingwhethertheyreallywantedto go on translating in thisnaive
way. It is by no means surprising thatin Spain and Latin America thephase of
moreself-conscious translationofthesecondand thirdtypeshas made itpossible
to produceoriginalanimationand comicstrips.
I intendto show withthisexample thatthe work of this
typeof academic
extendsto theaveragetranslatorthefreedomto recognizeor
rejecttheprimacy
oftheoriginaltext.It enableshimtodeterminetheextentofhisown and
activity
his own artisticproductivity withconsciousreferenceto definitegoals. At the
beginningsof thevariousEuropean languagesand literatures alienmaterialwas
used to develop thenativepotentialforsemiosis,and
todaytoo itis necessaryto
transform dependence on foreignculturesinto freeuse of the opportunity it
provides for learning the possibilitiesof one's own. This is of particular
significancein view of the floodingof Third World countrieswithcultural
importsfrom,forexample,the USA, the USSR, or France. Translationhere
normally does nothing but destroy the country's identityand must be
recognized,and attacked,as a mostimportantelementin theenslavingofother
cultures.
But thisagain is onlypossibleif,firstly,
thetranslatoris supportedbyscientific
literaryanalysis,and, secondly,this analysisis not used only for individual
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36 ROLF KLOEPFER
translationwork,but has become usefulforall forms.This is truenot onlyof
everydayformsof literary'text-processing'but also, and especially,for the
transitionalregion between native and foreignliterature,the center of the
culturaldialogue.
5. TRANSLATION AS A PRELIMINARY FOR CULTURAL STUDIES
The theses behind these condensed remarksare simple: 1. The study of
literaturedoes not serve culturalexchange adequately. 2. It could, however,
do so if it were to offsetthe hermeneuticfixationwitha semioticconception
of itself.3. Intra- and inter-cultural translationare similar- especially in
-
the European cultures and thereforeprimaryliteratureis already a form
of "translation." 4. Therefore, the discovery of linguisticpossibilitiesis
equally the task of both poet and translatoras well as it is the task of the
exchange between entire culturalsystems.
If this really is the case, then the studyof literaturecan not only serve
translation(amongstotherthings)but vice versa; good translationsserve the
study of literatureas a reconstruction of the mechanicsof culturalsystems
via aestheticcommunication.From the mannerin whicheverydayor literary
textsfor various reasons and in various epochs are translatedone can, with
relative ease, decipher the respectivecultural systemsand their dynamics.
Translation,as one of the linkswithculturalinfluencecontrol,can and must,
therefore,once again become an object of literarystudies. Of course it
cannot be seen in isolation from other formsof assimilation:forewords,
essays, adaptations, parodies, etc., and, naturally,the writingof literary
historyitself.It would thus be dangerousif a "science of translation"were
to separate itselffromother formsof (literary)culturalinvestigation.For it
is preciselythispolymorphicapproach thatis requiredif we are to do justice
to culture's immense variety,for which reason a theory of translation
practicallyencompasses the studyof literature.Converselyone can - from
a semiotic standpoint- understandthe studyof literatureas a systematic
translationof cultural phenomena into a meta-language- as a specific
form,then, of intralingualtranslation.
It is difficultbut essential that the study of literatureshould come to
regard itselfas only one formof the realization of culture.
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HOLMES, J.S, LAMBERT, J. AND VAN DEN BROECK, R., eds., 1978. Literatureand Translation
(Leuven: ACCO).
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KLOEPFER, R., 1967. Die Theorieder literarischen
1978 "Consommation ou creation litteraire: Critique de quelque principes de base,"
Oeuvres et CritiquesII 2, 39-50.
1979a "Lesen und Schreiben," in: H. Mainusch, ed., Literaturim Unterricht
(Miinchen:
Fink), 175-183.
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INTRA- AND INTERCULTURAL TRANSLATION 37
1979b "Fluchtpunkt'Rezeption': Gemeinsamkeiten'szientistischer'und 'hermeneutischer'
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