CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This section includes principle, theories foreign and local literature of

authorities that have bearing to the study. Likewise, other similar researches are

also included to give sufficient background and information necessary for the

realization of this study.

The study will be clearly elaborated and emphasize through putting the

different information which is very relevant to the context in proper and arranged

presentation. Thus, it will start from the first variable which is the comprehension

level with its indicators.

Review of Related Literature

Solid Waste Management

The Philippine Republic Act 9003 of 2001 (Senate and House of

Representative of the Philippines) defines solid waste management (SWM) as the

discipline related with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and

transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that coincides

with the principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation,

aesthetics, and other environmental considerations, and is also responsive to the

public’s attitude. To be more precise, solid waste management is the collection,

transport, recovery, and disposal of waste, including the actions that are taken.

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Management of solid waste is a problem that is most significant in developing

countries as compared to those of developed countries (Essuman, 2017). It is to

be noted that the difference between the developing and the developed

countries is not solely on waste composition, but it also includes the standard of

waste management services provided. Nathanson (2018) comments that

improper disposal of MSW can create unsanitary conditions which can lead to

pollution of the environment and outbreaks of diseases.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is defined as wastes produced from activities

within the local government units which include a combination of domestic,

commercial, institutional and industrial wastes and industrial wastes and street

litters (Senate and House of Representative of the Philippines, 2001). In other

definitions, MSW is the by-product of human activity which includes all wastes

generated within a municipality and is mainly comprised of food waste, and

rubbish from residential areas, commercial and institutionalized non-hazardous

wastes, and in some countries, construction and demolition of waste. It should

be noted, however, that the definition of MSW may vary from country to country

(Periathamby, 2011). Some developing countries include industrial waste and

fecal material, though not usually part of the MSW, are sometimes found in the

list of MSW, which in turn, is disposed of together in regular landfills. Generally,

MSW refers to all wastes that are generated, collected, transported and disposed

of within the command of a municipal authority.

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 Pongáz, Phillips, and Keiski (2004) introduced the Theory of Waste

Management, which represents a more in-depth account of the domain and

includes the conceptual analysis of waste, the activity upon garbage, as well as a

holistic view of the goals of waste management. Pongáz defines Waste

Management Theory (WMT) as a unified body of knowledge with regards to

waste and waste management and is founded on the expectation that waste

management is to prevent waste to cause harm to human health and the

environment and as well as promote resource as an optimization. WMT is based

on the hypothesis that the way a target is described prescribes action upon it,

which, in turn, implicates that sustainable waste management is much

dependent on how waste is being defined. Moreover, this theory stands as an

effort to organize the various variables of the waste management system as it is

today and has been introduced to channel environmental sciences into

engineering design. The Theory of Waste Management, as differentiated from

waste management practice, illustrates a more in-depth account of the domain

and contains the conceptual analysis of waste, the activity upon waste, as well as

a holistic view of the functions and goals of waste management.

Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (Republic Act 9003 or RA

9003) which, under the law, refers to the “systematic administration of activities

which provide for segregation at source, segregated transportation, storage,

transfer, processing, treatment, and disposal of solid waste and all other waste

management activities which do not harm the environment,” was approved in

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January 26, 2001 and came to effect on February 16, 2001. In summary, the

Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 aims to address the growing

problem on solid wastes in the country, which also provides for the necessary

institutional mechanisms with the creation of solid waste management plans and

prescribe policies as well as incentives to achieve objectives of the Act. In line

with this, it was stated in the RA that the local government units (LGUs) in the

country hold the primary responsibility for effective and efficient solid waste

management.

The management of waste become complex and the facilities provided

cannot cope with the increasing demand and needs. Therefore, best approach

need to be implemented immediately while considering environmental, social and

economic aspects (Aye & Widjaya, 2006). The drivers of sustainable waste

management were clarified by Agamuthu et al. (2009), which include human,

economic, institutional and environment aspect. The study suggests that each

driving group should be considered in local context as managing solid waste for a

particular society may differ from the others.

Awareness

Lack of education and awareness of effective waste management

practices is one of the major issues in developing countries. A study in Gaborone,

Botswana, shows that although citizens were aware of recycling and other

sustainable waste management techniques, it does not necessarily translate into

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involvement in beneficial environmental activities such as recycling, as stated by

McAllister (2015) as cited by Enssuman (2017). Meanwhile, Enssuman gathered

data through a descriptive survey method, using a questionnaire, an interview,

and an observation out of two hundred forty two (242) respondents from three

(3) coastal communities in Ghana, wherein the results showed that despite the

respondents knowing what the implications of waste are, no action was taken in

the communities to lessen improper dumping of waste.

Enssuman’s findings agree with that of McAllister, which is also consistent

with other studies (Alp et al., 2006; Dimopoulos & Pantis, 2003; Kuhlemeier et

al., 1999; Makki et al., 2003 as cited by Enssuman) that were done years prior.

To summarize, the studies show that environmental knowledge is influential with

the behavior of their respondents; however, not directly; instead, it is mediated

by their behavioral intentions. The studies aforementioned that were undertaken

in other countries signify that both elementary and high school students resulted

in low levels of knowledge regarding fundamental environmental issues, which,

however, have relatively uniform and favorable attitudes with regards to the

environment. Furthermore, the results indicate that although the students are

willing to make sacrifices as well as taking precautions to protect the

environment, they lack the necessary knowledge needed to make proper and

informed decisions, which shows that there is an existing need to educate people

to enhance their knowledge regarding environmental conservation (McAllister, as

cited by Enssuman).

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 Maddox et al. (2011) state that students’ awareness regarding

environmental problems and solutions can be increased through education (as

cited by Adelou et al., 2014). Not only will the introduction or integration of

waste management concepts and themes through school curriculum at all levels

improve the students’ understanding about waste management, but it will more

likely change their negative attitude and practice involving waste management

Moreover, Laor et al. recent study in 2018 in permanent highland

residents in Chiang Rai province, Thailand, which consisted of four hundred fifty

one (451) respondents, notably shows that the socio-demographic such as age,

education level, and occupation of the respondents played a part on the level of

knowledge, a result that they found out to be similar to Garang et al. (2016) and

Laabar et al. (2016).

Garang et al. findings exhibit that the age of an individual influence the

respondents’ level of knowledge, attitude, and practices on waste management.

They interviewed three hundred eighty-four (384) respondents using a close and

open questionnaire from different households in Bor, the capital of Jonglei State,

which is located in central South Sudan. Young and middle-aged individuals are

said to not only be receptive when it comes to adapting to new technology but

due to their level of knowledge, are more likely to have a positive attitude

towards modern waste management practices (Smith, 2014 as cited by Garang

et al.). Additionally, since the majority of the respondents lacked formal

education, the results imply that level of education of the household head can

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significantly influence the kind of decision they make in behalf of the entire

household with regards to handling waste. On the other hand, more educated

individuals are more likely to make better decisions when it comes to managing

their waste due to their higher knowledge, which would likely affect their

attitude.

The findings of the study of Alp et al. notably shows that the higher grade

level students have a significantly higher level of knowledge regarding

environmental issues, and is due to the higher level of experience with nature as

the students grow older, thus it is much easier to comprehend basic

environmental issues surrounding them. It also reveals that the students’

understanding of the environmental issues was still inadequate regardless of the

grade level. However, Abdullahi and Tuna (2014) contradicts this claim as their

study showed that there was no significant difference between educational levels

in the conceptions of the students in the average of the three schools that they

surveyed.

Attitudes

In terms of attitude, Fishbein and Ajzen, (1975) and Ajzen (1991) (cited

by Madrigal and Oracion, 2018) states that the excessive awareness and attitude

of respondents regarding waste management can favorably influence their solid

wastes disposal at home and in school. However, despite this, the respondents’

practices on waste management do not match their high-level of awareness.

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 A study regarding the statistical analysis of children’s environmental

knowledge and attitudes in Turkey determined the environmental knowledge of

1,997 total respondents from sixth (6th), eighth (8th) and tenth (10th) graders

of 22 randomly selected schools located in urban areas in Turkey (Alp, et al.,

2006). Their findings showed that there was a statistically significant difference

effect of grade level on environmental knowledge and attitudes.

Negative behavior towards waste management comes due to the

insufficient social pressure to prevent the lack of knowledge on the

environmental effects on littering. A study of the coastal communities in Ghana

shows that an “I do not care” attitude is manifested when it concerns waste

management because of what they say is the responsibility of the waste

management companies, which in turn becomes a challenge to the companies,

making them function inefficiently and ineffectively (Enssuman, 2017).

Furthermore, the majority of the communities in Ghana have an attitude of “If I

do not litter, the waste companies will get no job,” which eventually turns waste

management companies into waste collector companies.

Another finding attributes the children’s willingness to preserve nature and

having a strong bonding to animals or pets with the Turkish children’s favorable

attitude toward the environment ((Dettmann-Easler & Pease, 1999; Dimopoulos

& Pantis, 2003 as cited by Alp et al.). At the same time, the children from this

study suggested that environmental problems in Turkey would increasingly

become more complicated unless individuals make the necessary changes in

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their lifestyle that would positively impact the environment. Furthermore, Alp et

al. study exhibits a significant correlation between grade level and environmental

attitudes, contrasting the works of other studies. Alp et al. cite the work of

Fennessey et al. (1974) who found no significant difference in the attitude

among the third (3rd), fourth (4th), and eighth (8th) grade students. They also

cited that Armstrong and Impara (1991) reports there is no significant effect of

the grade level of students, all of which are concluded to be caused by students

gradually losing favorable attitudes that may cause them to lie in the way the

environmental issues are presented.

A different study specified that in terms of attitude on MSW management,

three demographic profile affected the level of attitude including age, education

level, and source of waste management’s information (Laor et al., 2018). Based

on the influencing factors of the attitude of the respondents, two factors stood

out as the important ones, which are the age and education level. The results

showed a similarity to other studies (Panyako, Wakhuhgu, and Kioli, 2012;

Barloa, Lapie, and de la Cruz, 2011 as cited by Laor, Suma, Keawdoungkek and

Hongtong), and the group that is younger than twenty (20) years old with no

educational background and secondary school level, showed a negative attitude

than the other groups. Additionally, the online community media was statistically

significant when it was associated with the level of attitude.

Furthermore, socio-demographic such as sex also contributed as a factor

in the attitude of people towards waste management. Through a stratified

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random sampling, Poswa (2004) obtained an initial sample size of four hundred

(400) households, who will become his respondents for his study since they are

one of the most important institutions in society, and wherein gender norms are

often expressed and reinforced. Poswa was able to receive a response rate of

ninety-two percent (92.5%) of the four hundred (400), which translates to a

total of three hundred seventy (370) households. Women represented seventy

percent (70%) of the total respondents. One notable observation of the study

was that women in the majority of the households were more active in the

inquiry, and was interpreted as an indication of their active role in family affairs,

including the waste handling in their respective homes as compared to men.

Additionally, the high number of female respondents has attributed the fact that

the majority of the male respondents assigned the female respondents to give

their answer to the questions.

Poswa’s (2004) study supports the analysis of Adelou et al. (2014) of the

knowledge and attitude and practices of secondary school students in Nigeria,

which also confirms the study of Raudsepp’s (2001; as cited by Adelou et al.)

work, who discovered that women were significantly more likely to be concerned

with environmental issues as compared to males. The study consistently showed

that females tend to have conscious environmental attitudes than man. They

added that the common reason for gender differences in the significant

difference in socialization between boys and girls. More often than not, girls are

made to carry out more of the cleaning activities as compared to their male

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counterparts. Additionally, citing similarity with previous studies (Riechard &

Peterson, 1998; Tosunoglu, 1993; Tuncer et al., 2005; Worsley & Skrzypiec,

1998), Alp et al. (2006) their findings also exhibits that girls have a significantly

favorable attitude toward the environment, as compared to boys; however the

effect of gender on students’ environmental knowledge was not significant. They

also noted that girls have a higher environmental sensitiveness rather than boys,

but it can also be dependent on being more susceptible to experiencing

depressive moods.

Practices

The East Asia and Pacific region consists of 37 countries and economies

on the Asian continent, Australia, and along with the surrounding island states in

the Pacific Ocean (Kaza et al., 2016). Overall in 2016, the region is home to a

population of 2.27 billion people. Furthermore, the East Asia and Pacific region

generate an estimated 468 million tons of waste in 2016, at an average of 0.56

kilogram per person daily. Usually, the most significant waste producers come

from high-income countries. High-income countries and economies such as

Singapore, Hong Kong, China, and Japan collect almost 100 percent of their

waste (Kaza et al., 2016). The majority of the waste is collected through a door-

to-door basis in 18 out of the 25 countries that were studied. Additionally, it was

found out that the cities in the cities that were studied in this region commonly

practice source separation. Furthermore, a total of 46 percent of waste is

disposed of in landfills in this region, and it was noted that more than one-fifth of

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waste is incinerated in modern facilities. Incineration is usually practiced by high-

income countries with limited availability of land. On the other hand, open

dumping is relatively uncommon compared to other regions, likely because of the

advance waste practices of high-income countries within the regions.

In an assessment of secondary school students’ knowledge, attitude and

practice towards waste management in Nigeria, findings indicated that the

tendency to practice waste management might differ by the sex, age, as well as

their class (Adelou et al., 2014; ). This contradicts the findings of a survey made

by Ferrer (2015) regarding the reduce, reuse, recycle practice on three hundred

(300) college students from various course in Pamatasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila,

a chartered university in the Philippines showed otherwise. He stated that the

students’ recycling practices are consistently not dependent on any of their

profile variables. Since no demographics obtained was associated to the level of

practice of the students, this led Ferrer to suggest that the reduce, reuse, and

recycle practices at all times, regardless of the profile, should be given the same

attention in the care for the environment.

A study was also conducted in Benguet State University, in the Philippines

on five hundred eleven (511) selected first-year to fourth-year undergraduate

students from different colleges and institutes of the university through a survey

questionnaire (Dolipas et al., 2015). The results of the study showed that the

students usually practice waste segregation by classifying their solid wastes and

disposed of their waste according to their designated waste bin. It was also

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noted that it was the younger years, particularly the freshmen and the

sophomores, who have frequently practiced waste disposal compared to other

year levels.

Correlation between Awareness, Attitude, and Practices

Findings in a recent study indicated that their respondents’ knowledge of

MSW management is high; however, the levels of their attitude and practice are

neutral and moderate, respectively (Laor et al.,2018), and a positive correlation

was found between knowledge and practices.

Moreover, Madrigal and Oracion (2018) confirms previous studies

(Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen 1991) that behavioral intention and attitude

influences behavior, which can be further explained as the very high awareness

and attitude of respondents on SWM can favorably influence their practices of

solid waste disposal at home and in school. Noting that solid waste disposal

practices do not match the very high-level awareness of the respondents, they

further implied that while knowledge and attitude may be a factor to determine a

person’s course of environmental action, they must also be aligned with the

benefit that a person may receive from being involved in environmental

initiatives.

Furthermore, a study explains that a significant relationship was observed

between the students’ sex, age, and class as well as their level of attitude,

knowledge, and practices of waste management (Adelou et al., 2014). Adelou et

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al. surveyed four hundred (400) students from selected schools, 358 of which

were completely filled and used for analysis, using a questionnaire and the

results revealed that there is a need for behavioral and attitudinal change which

is essential and effective participation in regards to waste reduction, reuse, and

recycling. Their findings were greatly supported by previous studies such (Jones

and Dunlap, 1992; Scott and Willet, 1994; McKenzie-Mohr et al., 1995; Bradley

et al., 1999; Fransson and Garling, 1999; Eero et al., 2001 as cited by Adelou et

al.) that documented an existing relationship between certain socio-demographic

variables such as sex, age, and education as well as practice. The issue of SWM

and people’s perception and attitude in society can be linked to levels of formal

education.

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