Pavement and Foundation
Engineering
Laboratory
Design of Flexible Pavement by
Group Index Method
(U.S. Highway Engineers Group
Index Method)
Design of Flexible Pavement by
California Bearing Ratio Method
(CBR Method)
Design of Rigid Pavement by
Westergaard Method
Design of Flexible Pavement using
AASHTO Guidelines.
Design of Rigid Pavement using
AASHTO Guidelines.
Methods of Pavement Design
Four Groups:
1. Group A
2. Group B
3. Group C
4. Group D
Group A:
Empirical Methods using no soil
strength tests (Basic properties
of soils are involved)
U.S. Highway Engineers Group
Index Method
Civil Aeronautic Administration,
USA Method
Group B:
Empirical Methods using soil strength
(CBR Test is generally performed)
CBR Method
North Dakota Cone Method
U.S. Navy and Flexible Pavement
Committee Method
Canadian Department of Transport
Method
Markwick Method for Rigid Pavement
Overseas Road Note-31
AASHTO Design Guide
Group C:
Methods based partly on theory and partly
on experience
(Fundamental stress strain properties of
subgrade soils and sometimes the base
material are determined by shear or bearing
test)
Westergaard’s Method ( based on Plate Load
Test)
Shear Strength Method
Golder’s Method
Kansas Highway Department Method
V. R. Smith Method
Group D:
Wholly Theoretical Method
(These are based on
mathematical analysis of the
stresses and strains throughout
the pavement and subgrade and
the true stress strain
characteristics of the various
materials)
Burmster’s Analysis and Design
Method
Functions of the Pavement
Reduce and distribute the traffic loading so as
not to damage the subgrade
Provide vehicle access between two points
under all-weather conditions
Provide safe, smooth and comfortable ride to
road users without undue delays and excessive
wear & tear
Meet environmental and aesthetics requirement
Limited noise and air pollution
Reasonable economy
9
Requirements of Pavement Structure
Sufficient thickness to spread loading to a pressure
intensity tolerable by subgade
Sufficiently strong to carry imposed stress due to
traffic load
Sufficient thickness to prevent the effect of frost
susceptible subgade
Pavement material should be impervious to
penetration of surface water which could weaken
subgade and subsequently pavement
Pavement material should be non-frost susceptible
Pavement surface should be skid resistant
10
Types of Pavement
PAVEMENTS
Flexible Pavements Rigid Pavements
11
Flexible Pavements
Asphalt Concrete Aggregate Base Course
Natural Soil (Subgrade)
Aggregate Subbase Course
12
Rigid Pavements
13
Flexible Pavement
Elastic
Three main layers
• Surfacing
Wearing course
Asphaltic Base course
(Intermediate or Binder Course)
• Road base or Base Course
• Sub-base
Supported by Subgrade
14
Flexible pavements are so named because
the total pavement structure deflects, or
flexes, under loading. A flexible pavement
structure is typically composed of several
layers of different materials.
15
Each layer receives the loads from
the above layer, spreads them out,
then passes on these loads to the
next layer below. Thus, the further
down in the pavement structure a
particular layer is, the less load (in
terms of force per unit area) it must
carry.
16
Structure of Flexible Pavement
In order to take maximum advantage of
this property, material layers are usually
arranged in order of descending load
bearing capacity with the highest load
bearing capacity material (and most
expensive) on the top and the lowest load
bearing capacity material (and least
expensive) at the bottom.
17
– Surface Course: This is the top layer and the
layer that comes in contact with traffic.
– Base Course: This is the layer directly below
the surface course and generally consists of
aggregates (either stabilized or un-stabilized).
– Sub-base Course: This is the layer (or layers)
under the base layer. A sub-base is not always
needed.
18
Subgrade:
The "subgrade" is the material upon which the
pavement structure is placed. Although there is a
tendency to look at pavement performance in
terms of pavement structure and mix design alone.
The subgrade can often be the overriding factor in
pavement performance.
19
Surface Course
The surface course is the layer in contact
with traffic loads and normally contains the
highest quality materials.
It provides characteristics such as friction,
smoothness, noise control, rut and shoving
resistance and drainage.
20
• In addition, it serves to prevent the
entrance of excessive quantities of surface
water into the underlying base, sub-base
and subgrade. This top structural layer of
material is sometimes subdivided into two
layers.
21
Wearing Course
This is the layer in direct contact with
traffic loads. It is meant to take the brunt
of traffic wear and can be removed and
replaced as it becomes worn. A properly
designed (and funded) preservation
program should be able to identify
pavement surface distress while it is still
confined to the wearing course. This way,
the wearing course can be rehabilitated
before distress propagates into the
underlying intermediate/blinder course.
22
Intermediate/Binder Course
• Intermediate/Binder Course: This layer
provides the bulk of the HMA
structure. It's main purpose is to
distribute load.
23
Base Course
The base course is immediately beneath
the surface course. It provides additional
load distribution and contributes to
drainage and frost resistance. Base
courses are usually constructed out of:
• Aggregates: Base courses are most typically
constructed from durable aggregates that will
not be damaged by moisture or frost
action. Aggregates can be either stabilized or
un-stabilized.
24
• HMA: In certain situations where high
base stiffness is desired, base courses
can be constructed using a variety of
HMA mixes. In relation to surface course
HMA mixes, base course mixes usually
contain larger maximum aggregate sizes,
are more open graded and are subject to
more lenient specifications.
25
Sub-base Course
The sub-base course is between the base
course and the subgrade. It functions
primarily as structural support but it can
also:
• Minimize the intrusion of fines from the
subgrade into the pavement structure.
• Improves drainage.
• Minimize frost action damage.
• Provides a working platform for construction.
26
The sub-base generally consists of lower
quality materials than the base course but
better than the subgrade soils.
A sub-base course is not always needed or
used.
For example, a pavement constructed
over a high quality, stiff subgrade may not
need the additional features offered by a
sub-base course so it may be omitted
from design.
27
However, a pavement constructed over a
low quality soil such as a swelling clay may
require the additional load distribution
characteristic that a sub-base course can
offer. In this scenario the sub-base course
may also consist of high quality fill used to
replace poor quality subgrade.
28
Subgrade
• Although a pavement's wearing course
is most prominent, the success or
failure of a pavement is often dependent
upon the underlying subgrade, the
material upon which the pavement
structure is built.
29
Rigid Pavements
30
Basic Components of Concrete Pavement
31
Rigid pavements are so named because
the pavement structure deflects very little
under loading due to the high modulus of
elasticity of their surface course. A rigid
pavement structure is typically composed
of a PCC surface course built on top of
either
• the subgrade or
• an underlying base course.
32
Because of its relative rigidity, the
pavement structure distributes loads over
a wide area with only one, or at most two,
structural layers.
There are other types of surfaces also i.e.;
reinforced, continuously reinforced etc.
33
Structure of Rigid Pavement
• Surface course. This is the top layer, which
consists of the PCC slab, reinforced or
continuously reinforced slabs .
• Base course. This is the layer directly below
the PCC layer and generally consists of
aggregate or stabilized subgrade.
• Sub-base course. This is the layer (or layers)
under the base layer. A sub-base is not always
needed and therefore may often be omitted.
34
Surface Course
• The surface course is the layer in contact with
traffic loads and is made of PCC or RCC. It
provides characteristics such as friction,
smoothness, noise control and drainage. In
addition, it serves as a waterproofing layer to the
underlying base, sub-base and subgrade.
• The surface course can vary in thickness but is
usually between 150 mm (6 inches for light
loading) and 300 mm (12 inches for heavy loads
and high traffic). Figure shows a 300 mm
(12 inch) surface course.
35
PCC Surface
Rigid Pavement Slab
(Surface Course) Thickness36
Base Course
• The base course is immediately beneath
the surface course. It provides
•Additional load distribution,
•Contributes to drainage and frost resistance,
•Uniform support to the pavement and
•A stable platform for construction equipment.
•Bases also help and prevent subgrade soil movement
due to slab pumping.
Base courses are usually constructed out of:
– Aggregates base. A simple base course of
crushed aggregates has been a common
option since the early 1900s and is still
appropriate in many situations.
37
– Stabilized aggregate or soil. Stabilizing
agents are used to bind otherwise loose
particles to one another, providing strength
and cohesion. Cement treated bases (CTBs)
can be built to as much as 20-25 percent of
the surface course strength.
– Dense-graded HMA. In situations where high
base stiffness is desired base courses can be
constructed using a dense-graded HMA layer.
– Permeable HMA. In certain situations where
high base stiffness and excellent drainage is
desired, base courses can be constructed
using an open graded HMA.
38
• Lean concrete. Contains less Portland cement
paste than a typical PCC and is stronger than a
stabilized aggregates. Lean concrete bases
(LCBs) can be built to as much as 25-50
percent of the surface course strength. A lean
concrete base, functions much like a regular
PCC surface course and therefore, it requires
construction joints and normally cracks over
time. These joints and cracks can potentially
cause reflection cracking in the surface course.
39
Sub-base Course
• The sub-base course is the portion of the
pavement structure between the base course
and the sub-grade. It functions primarily as
structural support but it can also:
– Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade
into the pavement structure.
– Improves drainage.
– Minimizes frost action damage.
– Provides a working platform for construction.
• The sub-base generally consists of lower
quality materials than the base course but
better than the subgrade soils. Appropriate
materials are aggregates and high quality 40
structural fill.
Subgrade
Subgrade provides support to the
overlying concrete slab. If it is of good
quality then slab can be laid over it
without providing sub-base otherwise if it
is extremely poor then a sub-base layer
should be incorporated.
For design purpose the only thing to
know about subgrade is its classification
and the unit pressure coming from slab
to subgrade should be calculated for its
selection. However, it must be resistant
to moisture damages.
41
Pavements Comparison
Flexible pavements:
• Multi layer construction
• Energy consumption due to transportation of
materials
• Increasing cost of asphalt due to high oil prices
Rigid pavements:
• Single layer
• Generally last longer
• May require asphalt topping due to noise / comfort
issues
42
