METALLURGY AND MATERIALS

ENGINEERING(ME 210)

Module 1

Prepared By
1 Abi Varghese
Assistant Professor
Introduction
 Material Science : Study of the structure & properties
of materials
 Investigation of structure- properties relationship.
 Properties of materials is depend on structure
 Structure: Arrangement of internal component of
matter in materials
 Property : Response of the materials when exposed to
an external stimulus

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Importance of Material Engineering
 Titanic collided with the iceberg, the hull steel and the
wrought iron rivets failed because of brittle fracture.
 Causes of brittle fracture include low temperature, high
impact loading, and high Sulphur content.
 Steel structure- Ductile to Brittle at Sub zero level

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Importance of Material Engineering
Iron Pillar of Delhi ( 7 m (23 ft) column in the Qutb complex)
 High resistance to corrosion
 Even layer of crystalline iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate
forming on the high-phosphorus-content iron, which
serves to protect it from the effects of the Delhi climate

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Importance of Material Engineering
Fuse Wire
 Low Voltage fuse elements are made of copper (Cu).
Fuse elements of fast acting fuses
 High Voltage fuses are primarily made of silver (Ag) Or
Silver plated copper is also commonly used.
 As a rule, fuse elements of time delay fuses contain low
melting point materials, e.g. tin (Sn) or zinc (Zn).

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Importance of Material Engineering
History of Materials Science
 Science of materials engineering has been used since the
ancient times that are referred as the Even our history has
been defined by the materials we use…
 The stone age
 The copper age
 The bronze age
 The iron age

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Mechanical Properties of Engineering
Materials
 Strength
 Toughness
 Hardness
 Hardenability
 Brittleness
 Malleability
 Ductility
 Creep
 Resilience
 Fatigue

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Properties of materials is depend on
structure
 Property : Response of the materials when exposed to
an external stimulus
 Structure: Arrangement of internal component of
matter in materials

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Atomic Structure
 Atom – Basic unit of matter & define structure
 Consist of nucleus, surrounded by electron
 Nucleus contains- Protons & Neutron

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Development of Atomic Structure
Democritus (460-370 BC)
 First proposed the existence of an ultimate particle
 Used the word "atomos" to describe this particle
Democritus proposed 5 points to his theory of atoms. These
are:
• All matter is composed of atoms, which are bits of matter too
small to be seen. These atoms CANNOT be further split into
smaller portions.
• There is a void, which is empty space between atoms.
• Atoms are completely solid.
• Atoms are homogeneous, with no internal structure.
• Atoms are different in: their sizes, their shapes, and their
weight
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Development of Atomic Structure
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
 Four elements, air, earth, water, and fire and that
everything else was a mixture of these

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Development of Atomic Structure
John Dalton : Modern atomic theory was born with Dalton
(1803)
 Elements are composed of tiny particles called atoms.
 All atoms of a given element are identical.
 The atoms of a given element are different from those of any
other element; the atoms of different elements can be
distinguished from one another by their respective relative
weights.
 Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of other
elements to form chemical compounds; a given compound
always has the same relative numbers of types of atoms.
 Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, nor
destroyed in the chemical process; a chemical reaction simply
changes the way atoms are grouped together.

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Development of Atomic Structure
Dmitri Mendeleev
 Created - first organized periodic tables
 Organizing each element by atomic weight
 Cataloged each of the 56 elements discovered at the time
 Organized his table to group the elements according to
known properties.
 Predicted the existence of later-discovered elements
according to patterns found earlier.
Eg: "eka-aluminum" and "eka-silicon" (gallium and
germanium)

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Development of Atomic Structure

J.J. Thomson
 In1889, discovered the electron.
 Soon after the discovery of the electron, Thomson began
speculating on the nature of the atom & suggested a
"plum pudding" model.
 Negatively charged electrons which were floating around
in a "pudding" of positive charge to match that of the
electrons and make an electrically neutral atom

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Development of Atomic Structure
Ernest Rutherford
 Rutherford to conclude that the plum pudding
model is wrong.
According to Rutherford
 Atoms have a nucleus, very small and dense, containing the
positive charge and most of the atom's mass.
 The atom consists of mostly empty space.
 The electrons are attracted to the nucleus,
 but remain far outside it.
Gold foil experiment in 1911
with Alpha particles (positively charged

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 Development of Atomic Structure
Niels Bohr
 Atom is consists of small nucleus at the center and
electrons which rotates in circular orbits surrounding to
nucleus - similar to solar system
 Nucleus is positively charged and electrons are negatively
charged.
 Positively charged nucleus is consists of protons and neutrons.
 Protons are positively charged and neutrons does not have any
charges.
 Electrons revolves around the nucleus in certain orbits. Each
orbit(stationary orbits) is having certain energy level.
 Orbit near to nucleus is having low energy level and the outer
orbit is having higher energy level.
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Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers -address of an electrons in atom.
 Quantum numbers represent the location, energy level
and spin of electron in atom.
 Quantum number of an electron represents the main
energy level or shell or orbit to which the electron
belongs.
 Represented by ‘n’. It has integral values i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, .etc.
 Electrons having principal quantum number, are associated
with same energy levels (shells).
 Energy levels are denoted by the letters K, L, M, N, …….
etc.
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Atomic Bonding
 Atoms will stay close together if they have a shared
interest in one or more electrons.
 Atoms are at their most stable when they have no
partially-filled electron shells.
 If an atom has only a few electrons in a shell, it will tend
to lose them to empty the shell.
 Atom has a nearly full electron shell, it will try to find
electrons from another atom so that it can fill its outer
shell.
 Inter-atomic bonds are primarily of two kinds
Primary bonds
Secondary bonds.
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Primary Bonding
Types of Primary Bond
 Ionic bonds
 Covalent bonds
 Metallic bonds
 Primary Bond -Relatively very strong
 Metals and Ceramics are entirely held together by
primary bonds.
 Ionic and covalent bonds in Ceramics, and the metallic
and covalent bonds in metals.

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Ionic Bonds
 Found in compounds composed both metallic and non
metallic elements.
 Elements such as Li, Na, K, Cl etc.
 Atoms of metallic elements give up their valence electron
to the non metallic atoms
 E.g. Sodium chloride (Nacl)- Na+ & Cl-

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Covalent Bond
 Covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is
a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron
pairs between atoms.
 Electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding
pairs.
 Covalent bonds are more common in liquids & gases
 E.g. Cl2, H2, F2

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Metallic bonds
 Found in metals and alloys.
 Force of attraction that exists between metal ions and
valence electrons.
 Metallic elements with valence electrons not bound to
particular atoms.
 Free electrons (electrons cloud) form around the
remaining non valence electrons.
 Electrostatic attraction between the +ve ions &-ve
electrons form a bond :Metallic bonds

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Secondary Bonds
 Secondary bonds are weak in comparison to the primary
bonds
 Secondary bonds are due to attractions of electric
dipoles in atoms or molecules.
 Dipoles are created when positive and negative charge
centres exist.
 Secondary Bonds are two types
Van der Waal's forces
Hydrogen bonds

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Van der Waal's Forces
 Bonds are due to atomic or molecular dipoles, both
permanent and temporary
 Van der Waal's forces are of two types.
Permanent dipoles bonds
Temporary dipoles bonds

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Permanent Dipoles Bonds
 Result of electrostatic attraction between two permanent
dipoles.
 Permanent dipoles are formed in asymmetric molecules
where there are permanent positive and negative regions
due to difference in electro negativities of the constituent
elements.

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Temporary Dipoles Bonds
 Formed in a symmetric molecule but which has
fluctuations of charges giving rise to partial dipole
moments for only a few moments.

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Hydrogen bonds
 Hydrogen bonds are relatively stronger than Van der
Waal's forces but compared to primary bonds they are
weak.
 Bonds between hydrogen atom and atoms of the most
electronegative elements (N, O, F) are called hydrogen
bonds.
 Hydrogen being the smallest atom provides very little
repulsion when interacting with highly electronegative
atoms in other molecules and thus succeeds in forming
partial bonds with them. This makes hydrogen bonds
strong

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Crystallography
 Deals with internal structure of crystal, their properties.

 Solids Classification (based on Packing)

Crystalline materials
Amorphous (Non-crystalline)

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Crystallography
Crystalline materials: During solidification, atoms of the
metal arranged themselves in regular patterns
-metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers Crystalline SiO2

Non-crystalline materials:Atoms have no periodic packing

Occurs for: Complex structures
Rapid cooling

Non-crystalline SiO2

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Space Lattice & Unit Cell
 Space lattice: Array of points showing how particles
(atoms, ions or molecules) are arranged at different sites in
three dimensional spaces.
 Unit Cell: smallest repeating unit in space lattice which, when
repeated over again, results in a crystal of the given substance.

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Bravais Lattice
 Unit vectors a, b and c are called lattice parameters.
 Based on their length equality or inequality and their
orientation (the angles between them , alpha, beta and
gamma) a total of 7 crystal systems can be defined.
 With the centering (face, base and body centering) added
to these, 14 kinds of 3D lattices, known as Bravais lattices,
can be generated

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Crystal systems (Bravais Lattices)

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Crystal systems (Bravais Lattices)

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Basic Crystal Structures
 • Simple Cubic (SC)

 • Face Centred Cubic (FCC)

 • Body Centred Cubic (BCC)

 • Hexagonal Closed Packing

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Simple Cubic (SC)
 Lattice Points are situated only at the corner of the Unit Cell.

 Each cell has eight corners & eight cell meets at the corner

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Simple Cubic (SC)
 No of Atom per Unit Cell
Each corner share 1/8 of the atom
Effective no of Atom per Unit Cell: 1/8x8=8

 Coordination Number
Six neighbors at a equal distance
Coordination No = 6

Atomic Radius
Half the distance between the centre of the two
neighboring atom

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Simple Cubic (SC)
 Atomic Packing factor
Ratio of the volume of the atom per Unit Cell to the
volume of
the unit cell.
APF = 52%

 Void Space
Vacant space left unutilized in a unit cell
1-0.52=48%

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Body Centered Cubic Crystal (BCC)
 Unit cell, one atom in the centre of the cube and one
atom each at the corners
 Eg: Cr, Fe, W, etc.
 Relation between cube edge length ‘a’ and atomic radius
‘R’.

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Body Centered Cubic Crystal (BCC)
 No of Atom per Unit Cell
Each corner share 1/8 of the atom (1/8x8=8)
One atom at the centre
Effective no of Atom per Unit Cell: 1+1=2

 Coordination Number
Six neighbors at a equal distance
Coordination No = 8

 Atomic Radius
Half the distance between the centre of the two neighboring
atom
(4r)2=a2+2a2

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Body Centered Cubic Crystal (BCC)
 Atomic Packing factor
Ratio of the volume of the atom per Unit Cell to the
volume of
the unit cell.
APF = 68%

 Void Space
Vacant space left unutilized in a unit cell
1-.68=32%

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Face Centered Cubic Crystal(FCC)
 Atom at each corner of the cube one atom at the
intersection of the diagonal of each of the six faces

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Face Centered Cubic Crystal(FCC)
 No of Atom per Unit Cell
Each corner share 1/8 of the atom (1/8x8=8)
Each faces have ½ of the atom(1/2x6)
One atom at the centre
Effective no of Atom per Unit Cell: 1+2=3

 Coordination Number
Six neighbors at a equal distance
Coordination No = 12

 Atomic Radius
Half the distance between the centre of the two neighboring atom
(4r)2=a2+a2
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Face Centered Cubic Crystal(FCC))
 Atomic Packing factor
Ratio of the volume of the atom per Unit Cell to the
volume of
the unit cell.
APF = 74%

 Void Space
Vacant space left unutilized in a unit cell
1-.74=26%

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Hexagonal Close-packed Crystal
 Consist of 12 atoms at the each corner of Hexagonal
prism

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Hexagonal Close-packed Crystal
 No of Atom per Unit Cell
Each corner share 1/8 of the atom (1/8x8=8)
Each faces have ½ of the atom(1/2x6)
One atom at the centre
Effective no of Atom per Unit Cell: 1+2+3=6

 Coordination Number
Six neighbors at a equal distance
Coordination No = 12

 Atomic Radius
Half the distance between the centre of the two neighboring atom
a=2r
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Hexagonal Close-packed Crystal
 Atomic Packing factor
Ratio of the volume of the atom per Unit Cell to the
volume of
the unit cell.
APF = 74%

 Void Space
Vacant space left unutilized in a unit cell
1-.74=26%

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Polymorphism & Allotropy
 Polymorphism is the ability of a solid material to exist
in more than one form or crystal structure.
 In a pure metal, ability of a substance to exist in more
than one physical form.
E.g. Pure iron – BCC structure at room temperature

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Carbon Allotropy
 Exist boy as Diamond & Graphite.
 Transformation occurs at high temperature & pressure

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Miller Indices
 Miller indices form a notation system in
crystallography for planes in crystal (Bravais) lattices.

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Crystal Directions
 Directions in a crystal are given by specifying the coordinates
(u, v, w).
 Indicated as [uvw].

 Set of directions related by symmetry operations of the lattice

or the crystal is called a family of directions
 Family of directions is represented (Miller Index notation) as:
<u v w>.
 E.g.:<100> = [100],[100], [010], [010], [001], [001]
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Examples
 Sketch the following directions : [110], [1 2 1], [ 1
0 2]

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Directions in Hexagonal Crystal
 Directions in the hexagonal system are also written in
terms of four indices as [uvtw].

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Miller Indices
 Miller indices form a notation
system in crystallography for
planes in crystal (Bravais) lattices.
 Orientation of a surface or a
crystal plane may be defined by
considering how the plane (or
indeed any parallel plane)
intersects the main
crystallographic axes of the solid.

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Deformation of Metals
 Deformation: Materials is subjected to an external force
or load,, the materials suffers a change in shape.
 Elastic Deformation
 Plastic Deformation

 Elastic Deformation: If the deformation is temporary

or if the deformation disappears on the removal of the
load.
 Plastic Deformation : If the deformation is permanent
or if the deformation persists even after removal of the
load.

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How Deformation in Metal Occurs
 Internal inter-molecular forces arise that oppose the
applied force.
 If the applied force is not too great these forces may be
sufficient to completely resist the applied force and allow
the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to
return to its original state when the load is removed.
 Larger applied force may lead to a permanent
deformation of the object or even to its structural failure.

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Plastic Deformation
 Deformation is irreversible.
 Object in the plastic deformation range will first have
undergone elastic deformation, which is reversible, so the
object will return part way to its original shape.
 Two Modes of Plastic Deformation
 Slip
 Twinning

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Deformation by Slip
 Slip is a permanent displacement of one part
of crystal relative to the other part.
 Slip involves sliding of one plane of atoms
over the other.
 Slip planes: Plane on which the slip occurs
are called slip planes
 Slip direction: Direction in which this occurs
are called slip direction.

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Deformation by Slip
 Slip occurs when shear stress applied exceeds a critical
value.
 During slip each atom usually moves same integral
number of atomic distances along the slip plane producing
a step, but the orientation of the crystal remains the
same.

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Deformation by Twinning
 When shear force is applied, plane of atom in the lattice
move parallel to a specific plane so that the lattice is
divided into two symmetrical part which are differently
oriented.
 Twinning Plane: Plane parallel to which atomic movement
has take place.
 Twinned Region: Differently oriented region within the
crystal and between the twinning plane.

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Slip & Twinning

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Sl.
Slip Twinning
No

1 Crystal slip is a line defect. Twinning is a surface defect grain boundary defect.

During twinning, the atoms in each successive

During slip, all atoms in a block move
2 plane in a block move through different distances
the same distance.
proportional to their distance from twinning plane.

Slip is commonly observed in Body

Twinning is commonly observed in Hexagonal
3 centered Cubic (BCC) and Face
Close Packing (HCP) metals.
Centered Cubic (FCC) metals.
After the slip, the crystal axis remains
4 After twinning, the crystal axis is deformed.
the same.
The slipped crystal lattice has the same The twinned crystal lattice is the minor image of the
5
orientation. original lattice.
The stress required for slip is The stress required for twinning is comparatively
6
comparatively low. more.
The stress necessary to propagate slip
The stress necessary to propagate twinning is
7 is usually higher than the stress required
lesser than that required starting it.
to start slip.
Slip can be seen as thin lines when Twinning can be seen as broad lines when viewed
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viewed under microscope. under microscope.
Schmid’s Law
 Schmid's Law describes the slip plane and
the slip direction of a stressed material, which
can resolve the most amount of shear stress.

 Schmid's Law states that the critically resolved

shear stress (τr) is equal to the stress applied
to the material (σ) multiplied by the cosine of
the angle with the glide plane (Φ) and the
cosine of the angle with the glide direction

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Schmid’s Law

Plastic deformation by slip is occur only when applied shear

force is Equal to critical resolved shear stress
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Brittleness of BCC, HCP & Ductility of FCC
 FCC- Maximum no of Slip region (12 slip system)
Maximum atomic density in slip region
Plastic deformation is high in FCC- FCC in Ductile in
nature.

 BCC- Maximum no of Slip region (12 slip system)

Minimum atomic density in slip region
Plastic deformation is less in FCC- FCC in Brittle in
nature.

 HCP- Maximum 3 Slip region.

Plastic deformation is less in FCC- FCC in Brittle in
nature.

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Reference
 William D. Callister, Jr, Materials Science and Engineering –
An introduction, sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2004.

 ASM handbook, Metallography and Microstructures, Vol. 9,

ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1985

 E.V Mathew, S Jose, Metallurgy & Materials Science,

second edition, Pentagon Publications, 2015.

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 Abi Varghese
Asst. Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Amal Jyothi College of Engineering
Mob: 9746627877
abivarghese@[Link]
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