Carbon Sequestration: Nutrient Management

M.C. Manna
Muneshwar Singh
R.H. Wanjari
Asit Mandal
A.K. Patra
Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, India

Abstract
The carbon (C) sequestration is a cost-effective strategy to mitigate climate change during the first few
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decades of the 21st century. There are five global C pools, and the third largest pool exists in soil and is
Carbon

estimated at 2.5 trillion tons (1-m depth). The conversion of natural ecosystems to agricultural ecosystems
disturbs the soil ecological balance, soil processes, organic C, and biotic C pools. Extractive farming
practices, low external inputs, and soil degrading land use all deplete terrestrial C pools. Approximately,
1.6 Pg C yr−1 depletion can be attributed to deforestation and land use change in agriculture. In tropical
agriculture, the application of manures at 10–15 Mg ha−1yr−1 along with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas-
sium (NPK) increased soil organic C sequestration at the rate of 50.7–900 kg ha−1 yr−1 over 28–33 years of
management. Globally, agricultural soils are estimated to potentially sequester 0.4–0.8 Pg C yr−1 by the
adoption of recommended management practices on croplands, 0.01–0.03 Pg C yr−1 on irrigated soils, and
0.01–0.3 Pg C yr−1 on grasslands. In rangelands, integrated nutrient management in horticulture crops,
C sequestration rate was estimated at 58–1190 kg ha−1 yr−1. Improved nutrient management in existing
agroforestry system sequestered C about 0.012 Tg C yr−1. Globally, there is a C crisis in soil especially in
tropical and subtropical ecosystems because of increased carbon dioxide emissions from soil. Therefore,
there is huge challenge to maintain the soil C status. Nutrient management is a viable option for
soil C sequestration and the mitigation of C emissions.

INTRODUCTION natural vegetation, agronomic practices, soil and nutrient

management, and cropping systems.
The increase in concentration of greenhouse gases in the C sequestration is an important strategy for the mitiga-
atmosphere is a major threat to agricultural food security tion of climate change effects by means of storing C in
and climate change in the 21st Century. Anthropogenic soils and biomass. Soil cultivation with agricultural pro-
activities have led to notable changes over the 20th cen- duction may lead to significant loss of C from soil.[2]
tury in the earth’s climate including the increase in Stagnating and declining crop yields are attributed to
global temperature by 0.6 ± 0.2°C at an average rate decline in soil quality caused by removal or burning of
of increase of 0.17°C/decade. Since 1950, there has been crop residues, imbalanced fertilization, and inappropriate
a rise in sea level by 0.1–0.2 m, increase in precipitation use of irrigation water. Most agricultural soils have lost
by 0.5–1.0%/decade, coupled with an increase in fre- 50–70% of their original soil organic carbon (SOC) pool,
quency of extreme events and heavy precipitation by and the depletion is exacerbated by further soil degrada-
2–4% over the 20th century.[1] The conversion of natural tion and deforestation/desertification.[3] The restoration of
ecosystems to agricultural and forestry ecosystems can degraded soils, the conversion of agriculturally marginal
disturb the natural ecological balance, carbon (C) pools, lands to appropriate land use, and the adoption of recom-
soil processes, and biotic C pools. Tropical and subtrop- mended management practices (RMPs) on agricultural
ical ecosystems have a great impact on global C cycle, soils can reverse the land degradative trends and lead to
environmental concerns, and socioeconomic issues. The SOC sequestration. Technological options for C seques-
numerous experiments from around the world have dem- tration on agricultural soils include adoption of conserva-
onstrated that the conversion of tropical ecosystems to tion tillage, use of manures, and compost as per integrated
agricultural, pastoral, and silvicultural land uses substan- nutrient management, precision farming strategies, con-
tially enhanced soil C pools. The magnitude of this var- version of monoculture to complex diverse cropping sys-
iation, however, depends on the method of removing the tems, meadow-based rotations winter cover crops, and

Encyclopedia of Soil Science, Third Edition DOI: 10.1081/E-ESS3-120052914

288 Copyright © 2017 by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 Carbon Sequestration: Nutrient Management 289

establishing perennial vegetation on contours and steep C SEQUESTRATION POTENTIAL UNDER

slopes. Proper soil and nutrient management may play key DIFFERENT NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
role for improving the C sequestration in the soil. The IN AGRICULTURE
impact of ecosystem processes on global C cycle is com-
prehensive, but systematic information is needed on soil C emissions from agricultural activities contribute to
nutrient management for C sequestration. The objective of enrichment of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), but C
this entry is to discuss global C potential and its impor- sequestration in agricultural soils, through the use of proper
tance in agriculture and to discuss the best nutrient man- management practices, can mitigate this trend. Different
agement practices for enhancing soil C sequestration in sources of organic, either alone or with, chemical fertilizer
agriculture. application enhance C sequestration potential in arable
crops, agroforestry, forage and fodder, and horticulture
crops.
GLOBAL C POTENTIAL
Nutrient Management in Arable Cropping
There are five global C pools of which the largest oce- System for C Sequestration
anic pool is estimated at 38,400 Pg and is increased at

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the rate of 2.3 Pg C yr−1 followed by the fossil/fuel

Carbon
The restoration of SOC pool in arable lands represents a
(4130 Pg). The third largest pool is in the pedologic soil potential sink for atmospheric CO2. The cropping system
and is estimated at 2500 Pg to 1-m depth. The biotic and soil type influence crop biomass under different
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pool is 602 Pg, and atmospheric pools are estimated fertilizers and manures application. Data from different
at 800 Pg. The soil C pool has two distinct compo- long-term field experiments on rice–wheat, maize–wheat,
nents: SOC pool estimated at 1550 Pg and soil inorganic soybean–wheat, sorghum–wheat, rice–wheat–jute, and
C pool at 950 Pg.[4] The SOC pool includes highly maize–wheat–cowpea were analyzed to assess the impact
active humus and relatively inert charcoal C. Most meth- of fertilization practices on soil C sequestration rate in
ods for determining SOC do not account for resistant Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Vertisols (Table 1).[2,6–13] Long-
forms, such as inert charcoal, and thus, they find it term application of NPK or farm yard manure (FYM) sig-
difficult to quantify this source of organic C in global nificantly increased the C sequestration rate in rice–wheat
C budgets. system (55% higher SOC in FYM plots and 70% higher in
NPK plots) than in maize–wheat cropping system.[6] The
incorporation of green manure with FYM sequestered rel-
IMPORTANCE OF TERRESTRIAL C POTENTIAL atively low organic C as compared to green manure with
FYM and crop residue. Manna et al.[14] observed that C
C concentration in the atmosphere is increasing at the rate sequestration rate was greater in Vertisol followed by Incep-
of about 4 billion tons (2 parts per million) per year with tisol than Alfisols under integrated nutrient management.
transfer primarily from the fossil fuel, biotic, and soil pools. The humification process can be severely constrained by
Fossil fuel combustion emits about 8 million t C yr−1 annu- the lack of N, P, sulfur, and other building blocks of soil
ally, and deforestation and land use conversion emit humus. The efficiency of C sequestration is reduced when
another 1.6–2 million t C yr−1, for a total of 9.6–10.80 C and N are not adequately balanced.[14,15] Therefore, the
billion t C emission yr−1. Thus, roughly 8% C being photo- SOC sequestration rate is enhanced by an increase in the
synthesized by the biosphere is retained in the soil and application of biomass C and N.[16] Liebig et al.[17]
biotic pools. observed that high N rate treatments increased C seques-
The long-term use of extractive farming practices and tration rate by 1.0–1.4 Mg ha−1 yr−1. The application of
conversion of natural ecosystem into crop lands decline in FYM at 10–15 Mg ha−1 yr−1 along with NPK increased
soil quality and exacerbate food insecurity. Therefore, judi- SOC sequestration at the rate of 50.7–900 kg ha−1 yr−1 over
cious use of fertilizer and integrated nutrient management 28–33 years.[2,6–8,11,14]
as well as application of biosolids and other agricultural Some of the strategies for enhancement of C seques-
waste are of paramount importance to improve soil health, tration potential are no-till farming with crop residue
nutrient use efficiency, and crop productivity; to increase mulch and cover cropping (conservation agriculture),
soil biodiversity; and to enhance the environment quality. integrated nutrient management including use of com-
Hence, the rate of soil C sequestration depends on the use post and manure, and liberal use of biosolids. Globally,
of precious inputs such as crop residues, fertilizer, manure, agricultural soils are estimated to potentially sequester
compost, and good quality of irrigation water for which 0.4–0.8 Pg C yr−1 by adopting conservation agricultural
farmers must be compensated. Rate of SOC sequestration practices, which represent 33.3–100% of the total poten-
(kg ha−1 yr−1) may be 500–1000 for croplands, 50–500 for tial of C sequestration in world soils.[18]
grazing lands, and 2–10 as pedogenic carbonates in Biofertilizers are an essential component of organic
drylands.[5] farming. They contain living microorganisms that
 290 Carbon Sequestration: Nutrient Management

Table 1 Long-term effects of different nutrient managements on C sequestration rate under different cropping systems.
C sequestration Soil type and
Cropping system Nutrient management rate (kg ha−1) depth References
Rice–wheat (33 years) NPK 260 Typic Ustochrept [6]
FYM 310 (0–60)
Maize–wheat (33 years) NPK 80 Typic Ustochrept [6]
FYM 140 (0–60)
Soybean–wheat (32 years) NPK 332.5 Typic Haplustept [7]
NPK + FYM 936 (0–45)
Soybean–wheat (30 years) NPK 327 Typic Haplustept [8]
NPK + FYM 900 (0–45)
Rice–wheat–Jute (30 years) NPK 18.2 Typic Entrochrept [9]
NPK + FYM 50.7 (0–15)
Sorghum–wheat (15 years) NPK 189 Typic Haplustert [9]
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Carbon

NPK + FYM 295 (0–15)

Maize–wheat–cowpea (31 years) NPK 84 Typic Haplustept [10]
NPK + FYM 149 (0–15)
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Maize–wheat–cowpea (34 years) NPK 380 Typic Haplustept [11]

NPK + FYM 513 (0–15)
Soybean–wheat–maize (38 years) NPK 146 Typic Haplustert [2]
NPK + FYM 333 (0–15)
Soybean–wheat–maize (28 years) NPK 89.2 Typic Haplustert [12]
NPK + FYM 228.5 (0–15)
Rice–fallow (10 years) FYM 110 Aeric Endoaquept [13]
FYM + GM 90 (0–15)
FYM + GM + crop residue 120
Source: From Manna, Bhattacharyya, et al.[2] ©2013 Elsevier; Kukal & Rehana-Rasool Benbi[6] ©2009 Elsevier; Bhattacharyya, Pandey, et al.[7] ©2010
Elsevier; Bhattacharyya, Prakash, et al.[8] ©2010 Elsevier; Manna & Singh[9] ©2001 Elsevier; Masto, Chhonkar, et al.[10] ©2008 Springer; Mandal, Patra,
et al.[11] ©2007 Elsevier; Hati, Swarup, et al.[12] ©2007 Elsevier; and Bhattacharyya, Roy, et al.[13] ©2012 Elsevier.

colonize the rhizosphere and promote plant growth by Plain has to be replaced by introducing legume crops in
increasing the supply of nutrients through N fixation or the system in different ways like replacing rice by pigeon
enhancing the availability of primary nutrients to the pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in summer or wheat by lentil in
host plant by solubilizing P and other nutrients. The winter or introducing a summer green manure crop
microorganisms in biofertilizers restore the soil’s natural dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) after the harvest of wheat
nutrient cycle and help in building soil organic matter. and before the planting of rice. Growing of pea (Pisum
The studies indicated that biofertilizers sequestered sativum L.) or pigeon pea as compared with maize and
about 1.4 t C ha−1 yr−1. gram or black gram as compared with soybean (Glycine
Several experiments in Europe have shown that the max L. Merrill) substantially increased SOC.
rate of C sequestration is greater with the application of
manure than chemical fertilizer alone. Long-term use of Nutrient Management in Grassland and Fodder
manure when compared with chemical fertilizer was Crops for C Sequestration
found 10% to have greater C sequestration over 100
years in Denmark, [19] 100% over 144 years in The disturbance of grassland by means of removing bio-
Rothamsted,[20] and 44% over 21 years in Sweden.[21] mass, changing the vegetation, or altering soil function is
Uhlen and Tveitnes[22] reported that manure application an integral part of traditional grassland management sys-
would increase SOC sequestration at the rate of 70–227 kg tems. Practices like overgrazing and burning can also
ha−1 over 37–74 years. deplete C sequestration in grassland systems.[23] Harvest-
For sustainability of intensive cropping systems, it is ing a large proportion of plant biomass increases yields of
desirable to grow a sequence of crop on a soil type. For useful material but at the cost of C inputs to the soil.[24]
example, rice or wheat crop sequence in Indo-Gangetic It is widely accepted that continuous excessive grazing is
 Carbon Sequestration: Nutrient Management 291

Table 2 C sequestration in different grassland species. Table 3 C sequestration rate under different horticulture-based
Tree/crop/cropping system C sequestration rate systems.
C sequestration (Mg ha−1 yr−1) (Mg ha−1 yr−1) Horticulture crop C sequestration rate (kg ha−1 yr−1)
Vetiveria zizanioides 15.24 Site A (10 years)a
Lemongrass 5.38 1. Coconut 58
Palmarosa 6.14 2. Coconut + sapota 318
Vetch (V)–maize (M)–oat(O)–soybean 7.26 3. Vegetable 373
(S)–wheat (W)–soybean(S) 4. Coconut + guava 337
O–M–W–S 8.56 Site B (38 years)a
V–M–W–S 7.58 5. Coconut 160
Ryegrass–M–R–S 8.44 6. Coconut + guava 910
Source: From Kaul, Mohren, et al.[28] ©2010 Springer and Santos, 7. Coconut + banana 1,060
Dieckow, et al.[29] ©2011 Elsevier.
8. Coconut + custard apple 780
9. Coconut + sapota 1,190

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Carbon
detrimental to plant communities and soil C sequestra- 10. Coconut + litchi 1,130
tion.[25] When management practices deplete the reversed a
Nutrient such as organic manure (FYM) was applied for 3 years initially
soil C stocks, grassland ecosystem C stocks can be rebuilt at the rate of 25 kg per pit mix with 0.225 kg, 0.450 kg, and 0.225 kg of
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and sequester atmospheric CO2.[26] N, P2O5, and K2O per pit, respectively. In vegetables, crops manure was
applied at the rate of 10 Mg ha−1, and chemical fertilizer was applied at
Agriculture management techniques such as livestock
80, 50, and 50 kg ha−1 of N, P2O5, and K2O per pit, respectively.
forage production also have the potential to augment soil Source: From Manna & Singh[9] ©2001 Elsevier.
C stocks through fertilization, irrigation, intensive grazing
management, and sowing of favorable forage grasses and
legumes. The global potential of SOC sequestration is from 58 to 373.0 and 160 to 1190 kg ha−1 yr−1 after 38 and
estimated at 0.6–1.2 Pg C yr−1, comprising 0.4–0.8 Pg 10 years, respectively.[9]
C yr −1 through the adoption of RMPs on cropland
soils, 0.01–0.03 Pg C yr−1 on irrigated soils, and 0.01–
Nutrient Management in Agroforestry
0.3 Pg C yr−1 through improvements of rangelands and
for C Sequestration
grasslands.[27] The synthesis by Smith et al.[23] suggest
that adding manure or biosolids to soil could sequester
C sequestration in agroforestry systems can be broadly
C at the rates of between 0.42 and 0.76 t C ha−1 yr−1
divided into sequestration in aboveground and below-
depending on the region. A comparison of C sequestration
ground plant parts. The aboveground C sequestration
of different grassland and fodder crops is presented in
rates in some major agroforestry systems around
Table 2.[28,29] The potential for C sequestration by Veti-
the world are highly variable, ranging from 0.29 to
veria zizanioides was the highest (15.24 Mg ha−1 yr−1)
15.21 Mg ha−1 yr−1[30] and differ greatly depending on
followed by oat–maize fodder–wheat–soybean in rotation
a number of factors, such as the agroclimatic region,
(8.56 Mg ha−1 yr−1). The ryegrass–fodder followed by
type of system, site quality, previous land use, and man-
rice–soybean in rotation substantially improved C seques-
agement practices adopted. Agroforestry enhances C
tration (8.44 Mg ha−1 yr−1).
uptake by lengthening the growing season, expanding
the niches from which water and soil nutrients are drawn
Nutrient Management in Horticultural Crops and, in the case of N-fixing species, enhancing soil fer-
for C Sequestration tility. Improved management in existing agroforestry
systems could sequester 0.012 Tg C yr−1, while conver-
Management practices for horticulture are more complex sion of 630 million hectares of unproductive or degraded
because of multiple species possessing varied phenologi- croplands and grasslands to agroforestry could sequester
cal, physiological, and agronomic requirements. The con- as much as 0.59 Tg C annually by 2040.[31]
version of long-term arable cropland to agro-horticulture In a typical agroforestry system, about 69% of soil C in
resulted in a significant increase in C sequestration the profile was confined to the upper 40 cm soil layer
(Table 3).[9] Under a system of different intercropped wherein C stock ranged from 0.87 to 13.7 Mg C ha−1 yr−1
fruit trees, the cultivation of fruit trees—i.e., coconut (Table 4).[32] In a Leucaena agri-silvi system, C sequestra-
(Cocos nucifera L.) intercropped with guava (Psidium tion was the highest (13.7 Mg C ha−1 yr−1) followed by
guajava L.)—enhanced the soil biological activities Prosopis silvi-pasture system (2.36 Ta Mg C ha−1 yr−1). A
approximately twofold after 38 years over 10 years of the mix of agroforestry with crop fields is a promising option to
same intercropped system, and C sequestration rate varied enhance C sequestration in soils. In general, agroforestry
 292 Carbon Sequestration: Nutrient Management

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Res. 2009, 102 (1), 87–92.

Carbon

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