Constructing

Orthogonal Arrays

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 Learning Objectives
• Introduce & explore orthogonality
• Study the standard OAs
• Practice computing DOF of an experiment
• Learn how to select a standard OA
• Introduce means to modify OAs
• Consider studying interactions in OAs

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 What is orthogonality?
• Geometry

v v

• Vector algebra x⋅ y =0
• Robust design
– Form contrasts for the columns (i)
wi1 + wi 2 + wi 3 L + wi 9 = 0
– Inner product of contrasts must be zero
w<i> ⋅ w< j> = 0
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 Before Constructing an Array
We must define:
• Number of factors to be studied
• Number of levels for each factor
• 2 factor interactions to be studied
• Special difficulties in running experiments

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 Counting Degrees of Freedom
• Grand mean
–1
• Each control factor (e.g., A)
– (# of levels of A -1)
• Each two factor interaction (e.g., AxB)
– (DOF for A)x(DOF for B)
• Example -- 21x37
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 Breakdown of DOF

n n = Number of η values

1
SS due n-1
to mean

(# levels) -1 etc. DOF for

(# levels) -1
factor A factor B error

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 DOF and Modeling Equations
• Additive model
0
η ( Ai , B j , Ck , Di ) = µ + ai + b j + ck + d i + e
• How many parameters are there?

• How many additional equations constrain

the parameters?

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 DOF -- Analogy with

Rigid Body Motion

• How many parameters define the position

and orientation of a rigid body?
• How do we remove these DOF?
z z
y
β y
γ (X,Y,Z)

x
α x

Rotation Translation

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Notation for Matrix Experiments

L9 (34)
Number of

experiments Number of levels Number of factors

9=(3-1)x4+1

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 Standard Orthogonal Arrays
• See table 7.1 on Phadke page 152
• Note: You can never use an array that has
fewer rows than DOF req’d
• Note: The number of factors of a given
level is a maximum
• You can put a factor with fewer columns
into a column that has more levels
– But NOT fewer!
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 Standard Orthogonal Arrays

Maximum Maximum Number of Columns

Orthogonal Number of Number of at These Levels
Array Rows Factors 2 3 4 5
L4 4 3 3 - - -
L8 8 7 7 - - -
L9 9 4 - 4 - -
L12 12 11 11 - - -
L16 16 15 15 - - -
L’16 16 5 - - 5 -
L18 18 8 1 7 - -
L25 25 6 - - - 6
L27 27 13 1 13 - -
L32 32 31 31 - - -
L’32 32 10 1 - 9 -
L36 36 23 11 12 - -
L’36 36 16 3 13 - -
L50 50 12 1 - - 11
L54 54 26 1 25 - -
L64 64 63 63 - - -
L’64 64 21 - - 21 -
L81 81 40 - 40 - -

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 Difficulty in Changing Levels
• Some factor levels cost money to change
– Paper airplane
– Other examples?
• Note: All the matrices in Appendix C are
arranged in increasing order of number of
level changes required (left to right)
• Therefore, put hard to change levels in the
leftmost columns
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 Choosing an Array -- Example 1

• 1 two level factor

• 5 three level factors
• What is the number of DOF
• What is the smallest standard array that will
work?

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 Choosing an Array -- Example 2

• 2 two level factor

• 3 three level factors
• What is the number of DOF
• What is the smallest standard array that will
work?

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 Dummy Levels
• Turns a 2 level factor into a 3 level factor
(or a 3 to a 4 etc.)
• By creating a “new” level A3 that is really
just A1 (or A2)
• Let’s consider example 2
• Question -- What will the factor effect plot
look like?

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 Dummy Levels Preserve

Orthogonality

• Let’s demonstrate this for Example 2

• But only if we assign the dummy level

consistently

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 Considerations in Assigning

Dummy Levels

• Desired accuracy of factor level effect

– Examples?
• Cost of the level assignment
– Examples?
• Can you assign dummy levels to more than
one factor in a matrix experiment?
• Can you assign more than one dummy
level to a single factor?
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 Compounding Factors
• Assigns two factors to a single column by
merging two factors into one

Before After
C1=A1B1
A1 B1
C2=A1B2
A2 B2
C3=A2B2

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 Compounding Factors --

Example

• 3 two level factors

• 6 three level factors
• What is the smallest array we can use?

• How can compounding reduce the

experimental effort?

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 Considerations in Compounding

• Balancing property not preserved between

compounded factors C =A B1 1 1

C2=A1B2
C3=A2B2

• Main effects confounded to some degree

• ANOVA becomes more difficult
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 Interaction Tables
• To avoid confounding A and B with AxB,
leave a column unassigned
• To know which column to leave
unassigned, use an interaction table

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 Interaction Table Example
• We are running an L8
• We believe that CF4 and CF6 have a
significant interaction
• Which column do we leave open?

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 Two Level Interactions in L4
• AxB Interaction = Interaction Plot

65.0

( y A2 B2 − y A1B2 ) − ( y A2 B1 − y A1B1 ) 60.0 } AxB

55.0

50.0 A1
45.0 A2

• As you learned from 40.0

35.0

the noise experiment 30.0

B1 B2

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 Interactions in Larger Matrices
• AxB Interaction = Interaction Plot

65.0

( y A2 B2 − y A1B2 ) − ( y A2 B1 − y A1B1 ) 60.0 } AxB

55.0

50.0 A1
45.0 A2

• Average the rows 40.0

35.0

with the treatment 30.0

B1 B2

levels listed above

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 Two Factor Interaction

Numerical Example

• 4x6 = ( y A2 B2 − y A1B2 ) − ( y A2 B1 − y A1B1 )

Run c1 4x6 c3 A c5 B c7 N
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.2
2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1.7
3 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2.1
4 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2.6
5 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 4.9
6 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 3.9
7 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 0.9
8 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1.1

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 Three Level Interactions

• AxB has 4 DOF 70.0

60.0

• Each CF has 2DOF

50.0

40.0 A1
A2

• Requires two
30.0 A3

20.0

unassigned columns
10.0

0.0
B1 B2 B3

(the right ones)

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 Linear Graphs

• To study interaction 1

between CF dot and 3 5

CF dot, leave CF on
connecting line 6 4
2
unassigned
e.g., L8

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 Column Merging

• Can turn 2 two level factors into a 4 level

factor
• Can turn 2 three level factors into a six level
factor
• Need to strike out interaction column
(account for the right number of DOF!)
• Example on an L8

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 Branching Design

• One control factor

Baking Method
determines the Conv IR
appropriate choice of C1 C2
other control factors
D Temp F Light Int

• Strike out the parent

E Time G Belt Speed

x child column to
preserve the
balancing property
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 Branching Design
Oven Type Temp / Light Int

Run c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 c6 c7
Is the balancing
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 property
1 1 1 2 2 2 2
2
3 1
T 2 2 1 1 2 2
preserved?
4 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
5 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 How can we
6 I 1 2 2 1 2 1
7 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 recover balance?
8 2 2 1 2 1 1 2

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 Next Steps
• Homework #7 due on Lecture 10
• Next session tomorrow
– Read Phadke Ch. 10
– Read “Planning Efficient Software Tests”
– Tought questions:
• What does software do?
• How is software different from hardware?
• How does this affect the application of RD?
• Quiz on Constructing Arrays
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