Interaction between Bhakti and Sufi Saints
Sufism
According to Dabistan, ''Sufism belongs to all religions; its adherents are
known under different names among the Hindus, Persian and Arabians, it
appears to be nothing else but rationalism of any sort of doctrine. It could never
be the religion of the whole nation; it remained confined to the precincts of
schools and societies."''
During the 12"' century a large number of Sufi saints came to India with
the Muslim conquest and took shelter especially in Multan, Punjab and Sind.
Sufism in India underwent a considerable change till the end of the 17* century.
It is the branch of Islamic Mystics as Yusuf Husain rightly said ''Sufism was
born in the bosom of Islam." Sufism. and Bhakti tradition are a particular type
of mysticism which has many traits in common, including the centrality of
Divine Love in their approach of the ultimate Reality, God.^ In India it was
completely influenced by the Hindu thought, belief and practiced the best
conception of a loving God the relation between God and soul as the relation
between beloved and lover is very unique in Hinduism and it was too adopted
by the Sufi, saints in India.
Generally scholars trace its origin by the Arabic root 'Safa' (purity) says
those who keeps their heart pure with God are Sufis. The Sufi Mystics who had
the doctrine of universal brotherhood and a definite way of community life
Fani, Musin, Dabistan-i-Mazahib or School of Manners, tr. Sheba and Troyer, Paris, 1943 p. CLVIII,
" Husain, Yusuf Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, op. cit., p. 33.
' Giiaffurova, Nine!, 'Divine Love in Sufism and Bhakli-Marga (Kabir Das and Sri Ramkrishna)' Sufi
and Sufism, (ed.) Neeru Mislira, Manoliar, Delhi, 2004, p. 83.
'' Nicholson, R.A., Literaiy History of Arabs, Curzon, Richmond, rpt.1993, p. 228.
144
were generally wearing a particular kind of woollen garment, known as Sufi.^
Abu Nasaral Sarraj the author of Arabic treatise on Sufism declared that in his
opinion the word Sufi is derived from Suf (wool)*" after the Muhammad Sahib
those saints who used to wear woolen garb, became famous by the name of
Sufi?,.
Advent oiSufism in India
With pious mission of love to all many Sufi's, and Dervishes from Arabia,
Iraq, Syria, Samarqand and Bukhara came to India during (1000 A.D. to 1150
A.D.)- For example Shaikh Ismail of Bukhara came to Lahore in about 1005
A.D., Shah Sultan Rumi with his spiritual guide Syed Shah Surkh Khul Auliya
arrieved at Madanpur (Bangladesh) Hazarat Shaikh Abdullah came from
Yemen. Shaikh Hussain Zanjani of Azarbaijal settled at Lahore. Ali Hujwiri
came to Lahore (d.l072 A.D.). Another saint was Nuru'd-din Ismail. Nur
Q
Satagar came to Gujarat during the reign of Siddharaya (1094-1193 A.D.).
Khawaja Muinud-Din Chishti of Ajmer came to India and settled at Ajmer long
before the Muhammad Ghuri. There was also a warrior saint during the reign of
Ballala Sena (d.llI9 A.D'.), Baba Adam Sahib in east Bengal (Bengladesh).
From 1150 to 1400A.D. the advent of Sufiisin was continue in India.
^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. .4, part 2, London, 1964, p. 681.
'' E.R.E, Vol Xn,p. 10
^ it is said that Koch King of the region tried to poison him in 1053 A.D., but the effort failed then the
king was influenced by the miraculous power of the saint gave out a whole village to the revered
memory of the saint for the advent of Islam.
** Ishwari Prasad describes in A Short Hisloiy of Muslim Rule in India that Nuru'd-din known as Nur
Satagar came to Gujarat during the reign of Siddharaja (1094-1143 A.D.) and converted to Islam such
castes as the Koris, Kunbis, Karwas, p. 14; Influence of Islam, op. cit., p. 46.
145
Thus it is clear that Sufism came in India many years before the
extension of Turkish poHtical power. The Muslim trades, merchants, saints and
mystics peacefully entered into India and settled down; these Muslim
immigrants lived outside the foilified town amongst the lower section of the
Indian people because of caste taboos. The Muslim settled down in India
before the Ghurid conquest and they have settled their permanent stay in India.
Ibn Asir writesin Kamilu-i-Twarikh, "there were Musalmans in that country
since the days of Mohammad Bin Subuktigin."
Thus the advent of Sufism continued in India from 1150 to 1400 A.D.
and organized their silsila. Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari gives a list of
fourteen silsilas in Hindustan." Among them four gained to more fame i.e. The
Chishti Silsila, The Suharwardi Silsila, The Naqshbandi Silsila, The Qadiri
Silsila.
The Chishti Order
The Chishti Silsila or Order played an important role in India; the chief
centres of Chishti silsila were in Ajmer, Narnaul, Suwal, Nagaur, Hansi,
Ajodhan in Punjab and other towns of U.P., the whole Bengal including
Bengladesh and Assam. In India it was introduced by Khawaja Mu'inu'd-Din
Chishti. Shaikh was born in 1141 A.D. and died in 1236 A.D. He came in India
in the beginning of the year 1193 A.D. and settled at Ajmer. The Khawaja
' Habib, Mohd. & Nizami, K.A., eds, Comprehensive History of India, 5 Vols. Vol. V, People's
Publication, New Delhi, 1996, p. 138.
'°//./.£.£)., Vol. ll,p. 251.
^^Ain-i-Akbari, Vol. Ill, p. 393.
146
adopted the catholic attitude in his dealings with the Hindus. His doctrine of
devotion was that to consist of doing service of mankind.
Khawaja had number of disciples to propagated his philosophy two of
them Shaikh Hamidu'd-Din Nagori and Shaikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in
Delhi. He was the distinguish Khalifa of Shaikh Moinu'd-Din, was native of
Ayush. Both saint settled in different parts of India, Nagori Settled in Nagor
and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki settled at Delhi. He was succeeded by
Faridu'd-Din-Ganj-i-Shakar, popularly known as Baba Farid. Baba Farid was
settled at Ajodhan. He gave to Chishti Silsila an organized form for the
spiritual movement. He was much popular among the Sikh Community so that
many of his hymns are collected in Adi Granth. Sheikh Farid's most
outstanding Khalifa was Shaikh Nizamu'd-Din Auliya (1236-1325 A.D.).
Under his the Chishti order reached its highest watermark' for nearly half a
century he worked in Delhi, gained a great fame at his time and also known as
Mehbub-i-illahi (the beloved of God). His religious activities had a great deal
to do with the popularity of Chishti Order in India.
The last great Sufi of the silsila was Shaikh Nasiru'd-Din Mahmud
popularly known as Chirag-i-Delhi, ^ settled down at Lahore. At the age of 45
he became the disciple of Nizamu'd-Din Auliya and died in 1336 A.D.
'" Ayush is a town in Farglianah, south east of Andijen , Nizami, Some Aspect of Religion and Politics
in India during Thirteenth Century, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, Delhi, 2'"* edn.1974, p. I88.(hereafter as
A.R.P.I.)
'' Nizami in his work Life and Times of Shaikh Farid-u'd-din Ganj-i-Shakar, (Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-
Delli, Delhi, 1973. pp. 121-22.) derives it and said that Farid was other person whose hymn are in Adi
Granth not Baba Farid of Chishti Silsila.
'Uin-i-Akbari, Vol. U, p. 20^.
''£/?.£., Vol. XI. p. 63.
147
The Suharwardi Order
After Chishti order the next popular orderof India was Suharwardi, the
founder of this silsila was Shaikh Shihabu'd-Din Suhrawardi; who directed his
disciples to work in India, within very short time it gained marvelous
popularity."" No doubt there were many saints in Suhrawardi order but for the
organized form of this silsilsh in India the credit goes to Bahau'd-Din Zakariya
of Multani, he settled in Multan till his death in 1262 A.D.'^ he was the most
influential mystic of the 13"' century. His Sufi ideology differed from Chishti
Order. He did not believe in poverty and torturing of the body. He was against
the Hindu practice of bowing against the sheikh and too much fasting like
Chill-i-Ma'kus, he also took part in the political affairs of rulers and
administration of that time.'^ He was succeeded by his son Sadrau'd-Din Arif
in Multan and his disciple Jalalu'd-Din Surkh Bukhari established a strong
Suhrawardi centre at Uch, he came from Bukhra, and settled at Uchch and
Sindh, and within very short time he gained popularity and converted many
Hindus of Uchch in Islam.'^
The Suhrawardi Sufis took greater care of their families and devoted
more time to the upbringing and training of their sons than the Chishti saints.
There is a long list of Sufi?, of the Suhrawardi silsila after these saints among
"M;/7-/-/)A6r/n, Vol. II, p. 362-63.
" For detail see A.R.P.I, pp. 220-229.
"* Srivastava, M.P., Society and Culture in hdedieval India, op. cit., p. 29.
'^ Prasad, A Short History ofh4uslim Rule in India, op. cit., p. 14.
148
them Jalalu'd-Din Makhdum-i- Jahanian (1308-1383)^° Shaikh Husain Amir
Husain Suhrawardi, Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Maniazi.
Qadiri Silsila
Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (1077-1166 A.D.) a great Sufi saint of Islam
found a new order in Baghdad after whom the order was named. It was
introduced in India by Shah Ni'amatullah and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani
who lived towards the middle of the fifteenth century. Makhdum Jilani settled
in Uch in Sindh. He was succeeded by his son Abdul Qadir. Abdul Qadir used
to say his prayers in the Audience Hall of Fatehpur Sikri and when asked by
Akbar to perform them at home, he answered, "My King, this is not your
kingdom that you should pass orders." Akbar cancelled his grant of land, and
he went back to Uch."" Other famous mystics of this order were Shaikh Daud
Kirmanl, Shaikh Abdul Ma'ali Qadiri of Lahore, Shaikh Mir Muhammad also
known as Mian Mir. •"
Naqshbandiyya Order
Naqshbandiyya order was one of the oldest Sufi orders, and flourished in
Transoxiana also known as silsia-i-Khawajgan, under the leadership of
Khawaja Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (d.l389 A.D.).^'' In India it was introduced
'° He was the grandson of Shaikh Jalalu'd-Din and was appointed Shaikh-ul-lslam by sultan
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, M.P. Srivastava, Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 29.
" Yahya was the prominent leaders of the Firdausiya which is the another branch of Suhrawardi
Silsilsh he was a learned man and left behind a good number of letters known as ''Maktubai" in which
he tried to recognized the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-Wajud QJmiy of Being).
"" Husain Yusuf Glimpses ofh4edieval Idian Culture, op. cit., p, 54.
"•' Prince Dara Shikoh, son of Shahjahan became the disciple of Qadiri order and visited Mian Mir
(1550-1635 A.D.) at Lahore.
-" Basham, A.L., A Cultural History of India, Oxford Univ. Press, Delhi, 1983, rpt. 1984, p. 289.
149
by Khawaja Baqi Billah of Kabul (1563-1603 A.D.), seventh in the lines of
succession to the founder of the silsila. Khawaja did most to make this order
outstanding in India. In A.D. 1599 he moved to Delhi and settled there.^^ From
the beginning the Sufi of this order paid great attention on the observance of
law of Shariat and had emphatically denounced all innovation which had sold
the purity of the Islamic doctrine. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, most talented
disciple of Khawaja Baqi Billah, was another great mystic saint of this silsila.
He was popularly known as majaddid-Alif-Saani. Other important Sufis of
this order were Shah Abdur Rahim, Shah Walliullah of Delhi, and Khawaja
Mir Dard.
Interaction between Bhakti and Sufi Saints
The Sufiis of the several orders were impressed by the Indian thought and
practices that some adopted these ideas. When similar features are found in two
places it becomes difficult to say that are they borrowed from each other or
they both are original. It is quite possible for Hinduism and Islam to develop
similar features theories independently of each other. There is a great
possibility of give and take between the two when they come into the close
contact with each other. The Sufii saints who settled in India influenced Indian
"^ Rizvi, The Wonder that was India, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 268.
"''Husain, Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, op. cit., p. 57.
"^ He expounded the philosophy of apparentism {Wahadatu'l Shuhud) also known as the doctrine of
"Unity of Witness," instead of the doctrine of'Wahadatu'l Wujud." He says that the relation between
man and God is that of slave and master, or that of worshipper and worshipped and not that of lover
and beloved as the Sufis generally think. Due to his object was to harmonize the doctrine of mysticism
with the teachings of orthodox Islam; he was called "Mujaddid,'' the renovator and reformer of Islam.
See Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, op. cit., p. 57.; Chitnis, K.N., Socio-Econoivic Aspects of
Medieval India, Atlantic Publishers and Distributers, Delhi 1990, p. 289.
"^ Chitnis, K.N., Socio-Economic Aspects of Medieval India, op. cit., p. 192.
150
masses with their teaching and the way of life in the same manner they are
affected by the philosophy and teachings ofBhakti saints of India.
As the missionaries of Islam and as liberal leaders of its spirituality, the
Sufi?, were the first among the Muslims to come in the contact with the Hindu
masses, and thus also with Hindu mystics saints.
Their Contacts with each others
Bhakti and Sufi saints developed close contact with other. The abodes of
the Sufii saints were visited by peoples of that time without any discrimination
of caste and creeds. We find such evidence that Bhakti saints also used to go to
the abodes of Sufi saints. Dabistan-i-Mazahib mentions that when Kabir was in
the search of a spiritual guide he visited the best of the Musalmans and Hindus.
^'^ It is possible that among the best Musalmans, he might have visited some
Sufi saints too. The method of Kabir's teachings was shaped by that Sufi saints.
As he says in a Ramaini:
"Manikpur was the dwelling place of Kabir, where for long
he listened to Shaikh Taqi. The same teaching he heard at
Jaimpur, and Jhusi (near Allahabad)he learnt the names of
pirs. In that place they have a record of twenty-one pirs
who read the prayers (khutba) in the name of the
Prophet. •'•'°
The same teaching he heard at Jaunpur and Jhusi (near Allahabad) he learnt the
names of pirs (Muslim preceptors).'' He must also hear the poems of Jalal-ud-
Din Rumi and Sa'di besides other Sufis. He speaks about cup of love of the
"' Dahistan-i-Mazahib, p. 186.
'^^ Influence of Islam, p. 148.
"ibid., p. 119.
151
lover (ashiq, habib) and the beloved (ma 'shuq, mahbuba), of the path of its
station (muqam) which were proved that he was greatly indebted with Sufis,.
Sufis considered Kabir to be a ''Muwahhid' (follower of the Wahadatu'l
Wujud). The author of Ain-i-Akbari writes that Kabir ''Muwahhid" lived during
the reign of Sikandar Lodi. At other place he writes that due to his catholicity
of philosophy and charismatic personality he was the friend of both Hindus and
Musalmans/"'
Like Kabir, Guru Nanak also said to enjoy the company of Sufii saints;
among them were Shah Bu 'Ali Qalandar of Panipat, Shaikh Ibrahim and Mian
Mitha/'' It is said he had a long discussion with Shaikh Sharaf of Panipat, the
pirs of Multan and Shaikh Ibrahim. At Ajodhan and Multan Guru Nanak was
reported to have had discussion with Baba Farid and Shaikh Baha-ud-Din
Zakariya/" He also travelled to Baghdad to visit the famous Qadiri order of
Pir-I Dastgir Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani/'' Dadu another Bhakti saints manifest
great knowledge of Sufiism than his predecessors, probably he was the disciple
of Shaikh Kamal.
Like Bhakti saints' Sufii saints also seems to have an urgent desire to
meet the bhaktas. Shaikh Bahau'd-Din Saharanpuri claims to have visited
Jadrup Gosain. Shaikh relates that it was Jadrup Gosain who told him that the
f Ibid., p. 123.
"'" Rizvi, A History of Siifism in India, 2 Vols. Vol. I, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1978, reprint.
2003, p. 313.
'"' Husain, Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, op. cit., p. 28.
'^ Rizvi, A History ofSufism in India, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 389.
;''ibid,
'^ Rizivi, A History ofSufism in India, Vol. . 11. op. cit., p. 410.
152
TO
Mujaddid was superior to all other spiritual guides. Yet we do not find much
evidence about personal contacts between Bhakti and Sufi saints but interaction
between their thoughts shows that both movements affected each other very
much. Chishti order was the most popular order in India; its popularity was due
to its saints who understood the condition and the religious attitude of India.
They gave respect to the Indian practices and customs and many of them were
adopted by the Sufis. The practice of bowing before the Shaikh, presenting
water to the visitors, shaving the head of a new disciple'*' was common
practices of the saints of India.
Concept of God
As we know that both movements flourished in India at the same time
so it was natural that they reflected each other. And the output of this reflection
was the adoption of different practices. Indian Sufis like Shaikh Mohd. Ghaus,
Shaikh Abdul Quddus Ganghoi, Shaikh Salim Chishti etc. were believed that
God is Real {al Haqq) and he is the Creator, Bestower, and Provider of the
masses of sufficiency. The early mystics Sufi have followed the sayings of
Holy Quran and orthodox belief about the conception of Godhead.'*^ God is self
existent from eternity, Infinite, heaving no relation to space or time, His
attributes is unchangeable, He is all powerful, merciful, and omniscient. He
alone had the power of predestination, both of good and evil, and He is the only
•'' [bid.
^''Nizami, A.R.P.I.,p. 178.
'"ibid, p. 178.
""ibid, p, 178.
''"Smith, Margaret, Studies in Early Mysticism in the Near and Middle East, The Sheldon Press,
London, 1931, p. 198.
153
One who is worthy to inspire either hope or fear.'*'' Sufis believed that, the
conceive of any other Real existence beside Him would be polytheism. Such a
doctrine of God as the Only Reality led to the conception of pantheism which is
the characteristic of the later Sufis.'^'^ Duality, according to the Shaikh Abdul
Quddus is a false concept and the idea of anything beside God is misguided.
People should believe only in the Unity of Being (wahadat-al-wujud):
3fc=n5^RT 3mt ^ 5fttl ^ ^ 3Trr £ | ^ 3TTt ^ l
Further
In the same way the philosophy of Bhakti saints led emphasis on One Personal
God and loving God. The idea of god hidden in everything of the universe is
found in the theory of Abdul Quddus is very similar to the Nanak's conception
of God. For nanak He is the One "EK", Nirguna, devoid of all attributes and
Nirankar:
^erf^ ^ w ^ !;i iTcHt f; 3TTt ^ ^i'*''
He is absolute, unconditional. Kabir says that, "He is one and there is no match
for Him"''** he again said, and "1 know Him to be one who exist everywhere."'*'
Dadu says that the Supreme is Omnipresent. He is the only Real in the world of
'^Ibid, p. 198.
''ibid, p. 200.
'^Rizvi, A History ofSnfism in India, op. cit., p. 340.
'' Ibid.
"''A.G.. Rag Asa, A//. l,Vol. 11, p, 40.
^^K.G. (Trigunayat), RagGaudi, Pel. 55.
/I.e., Vol. l,Raga Gaudi, Pd. 3, Tr. from the Original Gitnimiikhi by Dr. Earnest Trumpp, Munsbiram
Manoharial, Delhi, 2'"* Edition, 1970, p. 963,
154
unreality. He is the treasure house of all Excellencies from which all beings
comes forth. ^ Chaitanya says He is eternal, without a beginning and an end.
Supreme Being by him is called Sri Krishana or Hari. He is infinite and Sat
(absolute Existence) Chit (absolute Intelligence) and Ananda (absolute Bliss).^'
Concept of Hukum or Riza
Guru Nanak's conception of Hukum (Divine Will) had also very close
resemblance with the Sufi interpretation of Riza. In Adi Granth some hymns
use Hukum and Riza as interchangeable terms. The teachings of Guru Nanak
on Hukum and Riza are comprehensive and broadly based. Mcleod observes,
"In Islam the Divine Will, if not actually capricious is at least "unpledged,"
where as the Hukum of Guru Nanak's usage is definitely pledge and
dependable.""'
Concept of Guru or Pir
Importance of a guru or pir is also a common practice among Bhakti and
Sufi saints. According to Hinduism if a person has a desire to lead a life of
religious man must seek a guru for him. As Svetasvatra Upanishad says:
cTf% ^#5rIT 5T2fr: O^QFc^ tH^lrcHH: y^QFrT 3TFIr3T^
'" Influence of Islam, op. cit., p. 186.
' Nath, Radha Govinda, ' A Survey of Chaitanya Movement', Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. IV, op.
cit., 190,
^" Rizvi, A Hislory ofSiiJism in India, op. cit., p. 393.
^"' McLeod, Guru Nanak and Sikh Religion, op. cit., p. 201.
155
^'The Supreme mystery ofVedanta ...should be given to one
who has the highest devotion for God, and for his guru as
for God. ""'
Mundaka Upanishad says:
"Let him, in order to understand this, take fuel in his hand
and approach a guru M'ho is learned and dwells entirely in
Brahman." ''
In Sufism a guide is always recommended between God and disciple, because
they believed that no one can become a Sufi without the help of a pir. But
according to orthodox, no one could be intercessor except the Prophet.^*' They
also believe that those who had no human pir were the disciple of a devil, in a
Hindi verse Shaikh Abdul Quddus saysthat if a blind man led another blind man
both bound to fall into a well:
M arm McWT 5te ^ ^rrarii^''
In India many Muslim pirs had Hindu disciples; and similarly, some Hindu
saints have had Muslims disciples [chelas).
Use of vernacular
The popularity of the Sufi saints was also due to the adoption of
Hindawi as their language of preaching and communication with the masses of
society. The term Hindawi was used by the Persian speaking people for the all
'^ Svelasvaira Upanishad, A. VI. SI. 23, above translation has been taken from MuUer, F. Max, Tlie
Upanishads, 2 Vols. Vol. II, Dover Publications, New York, 1884, p. 267.
" h4a)uMa Upanisliad A.\,Klt 2, SI. 12, Ibid, p. 33.
^^ Tasadduq, Husain, 'Sii/ism and its Path .-Reflection of S/iaikli Nizamuddin of Delhi, 14* Century,'
Indian History Congress, 62"" Session, 2001, p. 216.
''' Rizvi, A History of &//;sm in India, op. cit., p. 341
156
Indian regional dialects. In the Chishti khanqahs, from the time of Shaikh Farid
Hindwai came to be used. Shaikh Farid's verses are also known as Hindwai
poetry. A large number of Hindwai verses of Baba Farid are included in the
CO
Guru Granth of Sikhs. The Hindwai couplets are very common in musical
assemblies of Sufis during thirteenth and fourteenth century. For some Sufis the
Persian poetry no longer created the same level of ecstasy as in Hindwai.^^
Shaikh Abdul Quddus Ganghoi composed his verses under the pen-name
Alakhdasa (Invisible servant) in his Rushadnama he used Hindi doha.^^ For
example in a particular couplet, he used Persian for the first line and Hindi for
the second line:
1 ^ ^ T^:^ ?raT rfrQU c ^ ? t 1 ^ fcfpT J^^
Wf ^Wfr y ^ 7RT sfl^T JTPt fMcTT
(Sincerity is the guide; patience the provision for the
journey; the friend our destination; the heart our
companion; Truth is the city; righteousness its king; yoga
the pure road.)
Besides, a number of love stories {Premakhyan) were written by the Sufi poets
in Awadhi dialects. As Qutub AH Alias Qutuban wrote his Mrigawati in
Awadhi dialect and he compare his hero with the Hindu mythology not with
Rustam, Naushirawan or Hatim. Mir Manjhan, the author of Madhumahi and
Mugdhawati also wrote stories in pure Awadhi language.''^ Padmavat of Malik
Muhammad Jaisi, The greatest Sufi poet of Hindi, will ever remain a jewel in
'' Iraqi, Bhaliti Movement in Medieval India: Social and Political Perspectives, op .c\i.,p. I'M.
''' Aquil, Raziuddin, Stifism, Culture and Politics: Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India, Oxford
Univ. Press, Delhi, 2007, p. 225.
''" Halim, A., 'Growth and Development of Hindi Literature', Journal of Asiatic Society of Pakistan,
Vol. II, Dacca, 1957, p. 88.
''' Aquil, Raziuddin, Siifism, Culture and Politics: Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India, op. cit.,
pp. 225-26.
''' Halim, A., 'Growth and Development of Hindi Literature', Journal of Asiatic Society of Pakistan,
Vol. II, Dacca, 1957, p. 86.
157
Hindi literature. Like Sufi saints bhakti saints also gave emphasis on the local
dialects of the time. Ramananda was the great scholar of Sanskrit wrote in
Hindi as well. His Ram-Raksha-Strota is partially in Sanskrit and partially in
Hindi, and one of his padas quoted in Adi Granth is in Hindi. Kabir the chief
priest of Nirguna Bhakti wrote in Purbi dialect of Hindi, yet Braja, Punjabi,
Rajasthani, Arabic and Persian are all manifest in his speech. ^ Nanak on the
whole wrote in the Hindi idioms with Punjabi dialects. Vallabhacharya was
also a great scholar of Sanskrit but his Vanayatra and Vishnupada were written
in chaste Braja Bhasha. Persian dialects were also adopted by the Hindus. It is
said during the time of Sikandar Lodi, a Brahmin is reported to have been so
well-versed in Islamic learning that he taught Islamic precepts to Muslims.^''
Sama and Kirtan
The mystic music becomes a tool for ecstasy. The audition party samas
aimed to attain hal (ecstasyj it is similar to the kirtan or devotional songs of
Chaitanya. Chaitanya was the exponent of kirtan, he believed that through
sankirtan and dances a state of and ecstasy could be produced in which one can
realize the personal presence of Lord Krishna.^^ In the same manner Chishti
mystics believed in spiritual value of music and they patronized the talent of
professional singers. Shaikh Nizam-ud-Din was found of music and talks of
ecstasy and rapture (surur). Khawaja Qutb-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki was very
" Ibid,/?/7. 72-73
^"^ Iraqi, Bhakli Movement in Medieval India, op, cit., p. 241.
"Latif, Abdul, The Muslim Mystic Movement in Bengal (1301-1500), K.P. Bagchi & Company,
Calcutta, 1993, p. 99.
'''"Tasadduq, Husain, 'Sufism and its Path:Reflection of Shaikh Nizamuddin of Delhi, 14"' Century,'
Indian History Congress, 62"" Session, 2001, p. 212,
158
fond of music. It is said in musical parties he was over taken by ecstasy.'
Hindi mystical songs were recited in these samas and many of them musicians
were newly converted Muslims. For this purpose padas were equally popular
among Bhakti and Sufi saints. However, the popularity of Vaishnava themes in
Sufi samas of Hindi-speaking regions was the most significant development of
the time.
Adoption of Yogic practice: Chillalt-i-ma'kus
The ascetic practices which involved starving and torturing the body,
such as chillah-i-ma'kus has close resemblance to Hindu and Buddhist
practices and consequently the appeal of Chishti silsila in the non-Muslim
environment. One who wants to practice of chillah-i-ma 'kus ties a rope to his
feet and gets his body lowered into a well and offers prayers in this posture for
forty nights. Some of the Chishti saints are reported to have practiced this
inverted chillah. Shah Wall Uliah, however remarks,"We could not find any
authority for it in the tradition of the Prophet or in the sayings of the Jurists....
Its legality or otherwise is known to God alone."^' This practice was probably
borrowed from the sadhus who are known as urdhamukhi, about them it is said
that they hang their heads downwards suspended from the branch of a tree, for
perhaps half an hour at a time.^' Shaikh Farid Chishti and later Shaikh Abdur
Rahman Qadiri practiced the ardous chilla-i-makus.'
" Rizvi, y4 History ofSiifism in India, Vol. 1, op. cit., p. 326.
''\4./?.F./„p. 179. '
''''Oman, John, Campbell, The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, Oriental Publishers, Delhi, 1973, p.
46.
™ Iraqi, Bl^akti Movement in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 86.
159
In the contrast of Chishti order Sufi?> of Suhrawardiyya order didn't
believe in such hard practices. They believed in a life which both their body
and soul received equal pleasure. Neither they fasted perpetually nor did they
recommend a life of starvation. The Chishtis believed in the control of
71
emotional life as a prerequisite to the control of external behavior. Both
Bhakti and Sufi saints had common approach towards the way of life. Almost
all these saints believed in living a balanced life. For example, Nanak and Dadu
opposed to torture of body to get salvation. Like Suhrawardiyya saints many
Bhakti saints did not believe in fasting.
Wandering of the Holy Places
Both Bhakti and Sufi saints laid emphasis on the wandering of the holy
places. In fifteenth and sixteenth century a number of Sufis are known to have
77
visited Ceylon to pay homage to the legendry foot-prints of Adam. Guru
Nanak also visited to Ceylon, Macca and Baghdad. Bhakti saints largely
performed pilgrimage to holy cities like Kashi, Prayag, Vrindaban, Mathura,
Dwarika, etc. likewise the Sufii saints used to pilgrimage to Macca.
Both Bhakti and Sufii saints of India influenced the mass of India by their
thoughts and teachings. No doubt that the principle of universal brotherhood
and human equality are the basis of Islamic society. Social equality and love
for the one Nirguna Brahman is the characteristic feature of Sufiism. This was
^^A.R.P.I.,p. 179.
'"According to Ibn Battuta,Adam was known in Ceylon as Baba (father) and Eve as Mama (motlier),
cited by Rizvi, A History ofSii/lsm in India, Vol. 1, op. cit., p. 387.
' Shah, Sirdar Iqbal Ali, Islamic Siifism, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, Delhi, 1973, p. 63.
74
Husain, Glimpses of Medieval Indian Cvlliirc, op. cit., p. 1.
160
adopted by the Bhakti saints. Both Bhakti and Sufi saints opposed the caste
system. According to them ail men were equal in the eyes of God. They toolc
their disciples from all strata of society without any distinction of castes and
creeds. By their act they tried to bring reconciliation and unity among Hindu
and Muslims. Many untouchables became the follower of Bhakti cult. Famous
saint Raidas was a Chamar by caste and Kabir was a weaver. It is due to their
preaching the condition of Sudras improved. Sufis also abolished all invidious
class distinctions. Sufis lay down the concept of brotherhood in which everyone
are equal and treat each other as the member of the same family. Ramananda,
Kabir, Nanak, and Dadu did not believe in caste system. Chaitanya was against
the class distinctions. Most of the saints preached the gospel of unity and
friendliness, Nanak and Chaitanya for instance emphasized the fact that
Hinduism and Islam were two different paths leading to the same destination
and Ram and Rahim, Krishana and Karim, Allah and Ishwar were different
names of the same Almighty. However, the main object of the saints to bring
compromise between Hinduism and Islam.
l^he concept of ahinsa (non-violence) which has been one of the
essential features of Indian philosophy was adopted by the Sufis. They lived as
If
vegetarians. Kabir gave more emphasis on the non-violence.
^' Shah, Sirdar Iqbal Ali, Islamic Siijism, op. cit., p. 65.
'"' Iraqi, Bhakti Movement in medieval India, op. cit., p. 252.
161
