Published 2002

Methods of
Soil Analysis
Part 4
Physical Methods
Soil Science Society of America Book Series
Books in the series are available from the Soil Science Society of America,
677 South Segoe Road, Madison, WI 53711 USA.

1. MINERALS IN SOIL ENVIRONMENTS. Second Edition. 1989.

J. B. Dixon and S. B. Weed, editors R. C. Dinauer, managing editor
2. PESTICIDES IN THE SOIL ENVIRONMENT: PROCESSES, IMPACTS,
AND MODELING. 1990.
H. H. Cheng, editor S. H. Mickelson, managing editor
3. SOIL TESTING AND PLANT ANALYSIS. Third Edition. 1990.
R. L. Westerman, editor S. H. Mickelson, managing editor
4. MICRONUTRIENTS IN AGRICULTURE. Second Edition. 1991.
J. J. Mortvedt et al., editors S. H. Mickelson, managing editor
5. METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS: PHYSICAL AND MINERALOGICAL
METHODS. Part 1. Second Edition. 1986.
Arnold Klute, editor R. C. Dinauer, managing editor
METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS: MICROBIOLOGICAL
AND BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES. Part 2. 1994.
R. W. Weaver et al., editor S. H. Mickelson, managing editor
METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS: CHEMICAL METHODS. Part 3. 1996.
D. L. Sparks, editor J. M. Bartels, managing editor
METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS: PHYSICAL METHODS.
Part 4. 2002.
J. H. Dane and G. C. Topp, Co-editors L. K. Al-Amoodi, managing editor
6. LAND APPLICATION OF AGRICULTURAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND
MUNICIPAL BY-PRODUCTS. 2000.
J. F. Power and W. A. Dick, editors J. M. Bartels, managing editor
7. SOIL MINERALOGY WITH ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS
J. B. Dixon and D. G. Schulze, editors L. K. Al-Amoodi, managing editor
 Methods of
Soil Analysis
Part 4
Physical Methods
Jacob H. Dane and G. Clarke Topp, Co-editors

Editorial Committee
Gaylon S. Campbell
Robert Horton
William A. Jury
Donald R. Nielsen
Harold M. van Es
Peter J. Wierenga
Jacob H. Dane (Co-editor)
G. Clarke Topp (Co-editor)

Managing Editor: Lisa Al-Amoodi

Editor-in-Chief SSSA: Warren A. Dick

Number 5 in the Soil Science Society of America Book Series

Published by: Soil Science Society of America, Inc.

Madison, Wisconsin, USA

2002
Copyright© 2002 by the Soil Science Society of America, Inc.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER THE U.S. COPYRIGHT ACT OF

1976 (PL. 94-533).

Any and all uses beyond the limitations of the “fair use” provision of the law
require written permission from the publisher(s) and/or the author(s); not ap-
plicable to contributions prepared by officers or employees of the U.S. Gov-
ernment as part of their official duties.

The views expressed in this publication represent those of the individual Ed-
itors and Authors. These views do not necessarily reflect endorsement by the
Publisher(s). In addition, trade names are sometimes mentioned in this pub-
lication. No endorsement of these products by the Publisher is intended, nor
is any criticism implied of similar products not mentioned.

Soil Science Society of America, Inc.

677 South Segoe Road, Madison, WI 53711-1086 USA

Library of Congress Control Number: 2002109389

Printed in the United States of America.

 CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON-SI UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvii

Chapter 1 Soil Sampling and Statistical Procedures

1.1 Introduction
A.W. WARRICK AND H.M. VAN ES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Soil Variability
H.M. VAN ES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Sources and Structure of Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
[Link] Properties and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
[Link] Sources of Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
[Link] Structure of Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Variability and Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
[Link] Scale of Research Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
[Link] Scale of Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Errors, Variability, and Precision
R.R. ALLMARAS AND OSCAR KEMPTHORNE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.2 Classification of Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.3 Scientific Validity of Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.4 Characterization of Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.5 Skewed Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
[Link] Impact of Mathematical Distribution
on Imprecision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.6 Transformations of a Random Variable or Functions
of a Random (Explanatory) Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.7 The Estimation of Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.8 Precision of Derived Observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
[Link] Case 1: A Single-Valued Function
of an Observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
[Link] Case 2: A Number Derived from Measurements
of More Than One Attribute on the Same Sample . . . 33
[Link] Case 3: A Single Function of Numerous
Measurements with Same Attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.3.9 Error Propagation in Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3.10 The Roles of Bias and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.3.11 How to Study Errors of Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.3.12 Role of Errors of Observation in the Study of Relationships . . 40
1.3.13 A Note on Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

v
vi CONTENTS

1.3.14 Statistical Problems and Techniques in General . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

1.3.15 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4 Sampling
J.J. DE GRUIJTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.1 Designing a Sampling Scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
[Link] Towards Better Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
[Link] A Guiding Principle in Designing
Sampling Schemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
[Link] Practical Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
[Link] Scientific Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
[Link] Statistical Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.4.2 Design-Based and Model-Based Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.4.3 Design-Based Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
[Link] Scope of Design-Based Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
[Link] Simple Random Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
[Link] Stratified Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
[Link] Two-Stage Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
[Link] Cluster Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
[Link] Systematic Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
[Link] Advanced Design-Based Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.4.4 Model-Based Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.4.5 Composite Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.4.6 Sampling in Dimensions Other Than Two-Dimensional Space 71
[Link] Sampling in Three-Dimensional Space and at Depth. 72
[Link] Sampling in Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
[Link] Sampling in Space–Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.4.7 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.5 Geostatistics
S.R. YATES AND A.W. WARRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
[Link] Geostatistical Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.5.2 Using Geostatistical Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
[Link] Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
[Link] Spatial Autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
[Link] Geostatistics and Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
[Link] Geostatistics and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.5.3 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
[Link] Selected Windows-Based Geostatistical Software . . . 114
[Link] Simulating Random Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.5.4 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
1.6 Time and Space Series
O. WENDROTH AND D.R. NIELSEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1.6.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1.6.2 Auto- and Cross-Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1.6.3 Spectral Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
1.6.4 State–Space Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
[Link] Autoregressive State–Space Model
for Spatial Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
CONTENTS vii

[Link] State–Space Analysis for Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

1.6.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.7 Parameter Optimization and Nonlinear Fitting
JIÌÍ ŠIMæNEK AND JAN W. HOPMANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
1.7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
1.7.2 Maximum-Likelihood and Weighted Least-Squares Estimator 140
1.7.3 Methods of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.7.4 Correlation and Confidence Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.7.5 Goodness of Fit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.7.6 Examples and Optimization Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.7.7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
1.7.8 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.8 Newer Application Techniques
ALEX. B. MCBRATNEY, ALISON N. ANDERSON,
R. MURRAY LARK, AND INAKWU O. ODEH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
1.8.1 Fractal Dimensions
A.N. ANDERSON AND A.B. MCBRATNEY ..................... 159
[Link]
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
[Link]
Quantifying Soil Structure Using Fractal Geometry . 163
[Link]
Applications of Fractal Geometry to Soil Physics . . . 168
[Link]
Characterizing Soil Spatial Variability Using
Fractal Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
[Link] Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
1.8.2 Fuzzy Sets
I.O. ODEH AND A.B. MCBRATNEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
[Link] The Concept of Fuzzy Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
[Link] Some Definitions and Examples Related
to Fuzzy Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
[Link] Fuzzy Models of Soil Physical Processes: Example . 178
[Link] Application to Soil Classification, Mapping,
and Land Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
1.8.3 Wavelet Analysis
R.M. LARK AND A.B. MCBRATNEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
[Link] The Continuous Wavelet Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
[Link] The Discrete Wavelet Transform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
[Link] Prospects for Wavelet Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
1.8.4 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Chapter 2 The Solid Phase

2.1 Bulk Density and Linear Extensibility

R.B. GROSSMAN AND T.G. REINSCH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
[Link] Variability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
[Link] Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
[Link] Dealing with Rock Fragments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
viii CONTENTS

2.1.2 Core Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
[Link] Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.1.3 Excavation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
[Link] Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
2.1.4 Clod Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
[Link] Equipment and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
[Link] Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
2.1.5 Radiation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
[Link] Equipment and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
2.1.6 Linear Extensibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
[Link] Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.1.7 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.2 Particle Density
ALAN L. FLINT AND LORRAINE E. FLINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
2.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
2.2.2 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
2.2.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
[Link] Calculation from Porosity and Bulk Density . . . . . . . 230
[Link] Liquid Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
[Link] Gas Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
[Link] Estimation from Constituent Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.2.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
2.2.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
2.3 Porosity
LORRAINE E. FLINT AND ALAN L. FLINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2.3.2 Total Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
[Link] Calculation from Particle and Bulk Densities . . . . . . 242
[Link] Gravimetric Method with Water Saturation . . . . . . . . 243
[Link] Volumetric Method with Gas Pycnometry . . . . . . . . . 245
2.3.3 Pore-Size Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
[Link] Water-Desorption Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
[Link] Visualization Method Using Impregnation. . . . . . . . . 249
[Link] Mercury-Porosimetry Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
2.3.4 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
2.4 Particle-Size Analysis
GLENDON W. GEE AND DANI OR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
2.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
CONTENTS ix

2.4.2 Pretreatment and Dispersion Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

[Link] General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
[Link] Organic Matter Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
[Link] Iron Oxide Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
[Link] Carbonate Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
[Link] Soluble Salts Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
[Link] Sample Dispersion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
2.4.3 Specific Methods of Particle-Size Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
[Link] Analysis by Sieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
[Link] Analysis by Gravitational Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . 269
[Link] Pipette Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
[Link] Hydrometer Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
[Link] Modern Methods for Particle-Size Measurement. . . . 283
2.4.4 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
2.5 Specific Surface Area
K.D. PENNELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
2.5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
2.5.2 Liquid-Phase Adsorption Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
[Link] Equipment and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
[Link] Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
2.5.3 Gas-Phase Adsorption Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
[Link] Equipment and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
[Link] Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
2.5.4 Retention of Polar Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
[Link] Equipment and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
[Link] Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
2.5.5 Comparison of Surface Area Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
2.5.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
2.6 Aggregate Stability and Size Distribution
JOHN R. NIMMO AND KIM S. PERKINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
2.6.1 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
2.6.2 Apparatus and Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
[Link] General Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
[Link] Modifications of Informally Standardized
Methods and Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
[Link] Representation of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
2.6.3 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
2.6.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
2.7 Shear Strength of Unsaturated Soils
D.G. FREDLUND AND S.K. VANAPALLI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
2.7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
x CONTENTS

2.7.2 Shear Strength Equation for Unsaturated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

2.7.3 Triaxial Shear Tests for Unsaturated Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
[Link] Test Procedures for Triaxial Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
2.7.4 Direct Shear Tests for Unsaturated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
2.7.5 Failure Criteria for Unsaturated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
[Link] Strain Rates for Triaxial and Direct Shear Tests. . . . . 347
2.7.6 Interpretation of Drained Test Results Using Multistage
Testing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
2.7.7 Nonlinearity of Failure Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
2.7.8 Interpretation of Undrained Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
[Link] Confined Compression Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
[Link] Unconfined Compression Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
2.7.9 Relationship Between the Soil Water Characteristic
Curve and the Shear Strength of Unsaturated Soils. . . . . . . . . . 354
2.7.10 Procedure for Predicting the Shear Strength
of Unsaturated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
2.7.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
2.7.12 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
2.8 Soil Penetrometers and Penetrability
BIRL LOWERY AND JOHN E. MORRISON, JR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
2.8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
2.8.2 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
[Link] Soil Mechanics Associated with Penetrometers. . . . . 367
2.8.3 Equipment, Software, and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
[Link] Penetrometer Rod or Shaft and Active Element. . . . . 375
[Link] Force-Sensing Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
[Link] Depth-Sensing Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
[Link] Structure of Penetrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
[Link] Data Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
2.8.4 Data Logging Operational Details for Specific Penetrometers. 378
[Link] Pocket Penetrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
[Link] Cone Penetrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
[Link] Friction-Sleeve Cone Penetrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
2.8.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
2.8.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
2.9 Atterberg Limits
R.A. MCBRIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
2.9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
2.9.2 Liquid Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
[Link] Casagrande Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
[Link] One-Point Casagrande Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
[Link] Drop-Cone Penetrometer Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
2.9.3 Plastic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
[Link] Casagrande Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
2.9.4 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
2.10 Soil Compressibility
S.C. GUPTA, J.M. BRADFORD, AND A. DRESCHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
2.10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
CONTENTS xi

2.10.2 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

2.10.3 Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
[Link] Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
[Link] Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
2.10.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
2.10.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

Chapter 3 The Soil Solution Phase

3.1 Water Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

3.1.1 General Information
G. CLARKE TOPP AND P.A. (TY) FERRÉ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
3.1.2 Scope of Methods and Brief Description
G. CLARKE TOPP AND P.A. (TY) FERRÉ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
[Link] Thermogravimetric Method Using
Convective Oven-Drying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
[Link] Gravimetric Method Using Microwave
Oven-Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
[Link] Time Domain Reflectometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
[Link] Ground Penetrating Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
[Link] Capacitance Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
[Link] Radar Scatterometry or Active Microwave. . . . . . . . . 420
[Link] Passive Microwave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
[Link] Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
[Link] Neutron Thermalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
[Link] Nuclear Magnetic Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
[Link] Gamma Ray Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
3.1.3 Methods for Measurement of Soil Water Content . . . . . . . . . . . 422
[Link] Thermogravimetric Method Using Convective
Oven-Drying
G. CLARKE TOPP AND P.A. (TY) FERRÉ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
[Link] Gravimetric Method Using Microwave Oven-Drying
G. CLARKE TOPP AND P.A. (TY) FERRÉ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
[Link] The Basis of Electromagnetic Methods:
A Wave Equation Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
[Link] Time Domain Reflectometry
P.A. (TY) FERRÉ AND G. CLARKE TOPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
[Link] Ground Penetrating Radar to Measure
Soil Water Content
J.L. DAVIS AND A.P. ANNAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
[Link] Capacitance Devices
JAMES L. STARR AND IOAN C. PALTINEANU . . . . . . . . . . . 463
[Link] Active Microwave Remote Sensing Methods
H. MCNAIRN, T.J. PULTZ, AND J.B. BOISVERT . . . . . . . . . . . 475
[Link] Passive Microwave Remote Sensing Methods
THOMAS J. JACKSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
xii CONTENTS

[Link] Electromagnetic Induction

R.G. KACHANOSKI, J.M.H. HENDRICKX,
AND E. DE JONG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
[Link] Neutron Thermalization
CLIFF HIGNETT AND STEVEN R. EVETT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
[Link] Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
CAROLINE M. PRESTON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
3.1.4 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
3.2 Water Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
3.2.1 Piezometry
MICHAEL H. YOUNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
[Link] Drilling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
[Link] Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
[Link] Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
[Link] Technical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
3.2.2 Tensiometry
MICHAEL H. YOUNG AND JAMES B. SISSON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
[Link] Soil Water Matric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
[Link] Essential Components of Tensiometers . . . . . . . . . . . 579
[Link] Alternative Types of Tensiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
[Link] Field and Laboratory Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
[Link] Field Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
[Link] Laboratory Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
[Link] Interpretation of Tensiometric Readings. . . . . . . . . . . 602
[Link] Gauge Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
3.2.3 Thermocouple Psychrometry
BRIAN J. ANDRASKI AND BRIDGET R. SCANLON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
[Link] Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
[Link] Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
[Link] Commercial Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
3.2.4 Miscellaneous Methods for Measuring Matric
or Water Potential
BRIDGET R. SCANLON, BRIAN J. ANDRASKI, AND JIM BILSKIE . . . . 643
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
[Link] Heat Dissipation Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
[Link] Electrical Resistance Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
[Link] Frequency Domain and Time Domain Matric
Potential Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
[Link] Electro-Optical Switches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
CONTENTS xiii

[Link] Dew Point Potentiameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662

[Link] Filter Paper Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
[Link] Vapor Equilibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
3.3 Water Retention and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
3.3.1 Introduction
J.H. DANE AND JAN W. HOPMANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
3.3.2 Laboratory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
[Link] Introduction
J.H. DANE AND JAN W. HOPMANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
[Link] Hanging Water Column
J.H. DANE AND JAN W. HOPMANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
[Link] Pressure Cell
J.H. DANE AND JAN W. HOPMANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
[Link] Pressure Plate Extractor
J.H. DANE AND JAN W. HOPMANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
[Link] Long Column
J.H. DANE AND JAN W. HOPMANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
[Link] Suction Table
N. ROMANO, JAN W. HOPMANS, AND J.H. DANE . . . . . . . . 692
[Link] Controlled Liquid Volume
K.A. WINFIELD AND J.R. NIMMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
[Link] Determination of Soil Water Characteristic
by Freezing Method
E.J.A. SPAANS AND J.M. BAKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
[Link] Miscellaneous Methods
J.R. NIMMO AND K.A. WINFIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
[Link] Computational Corrections
J.H. DANE AND J.W. HOPMANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
[Link] Guidelines for Method Selection
J.R. NIMMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
3.3.3 Field
NUNZIO ROMANO AND ALESSANDRO SANTINI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
[Link] Field Water Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
[Link] Permanent Wilting Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
[Link] Available Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
[Link] Specific Yield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
3.3.4 Parametric Models
KEN’ICHIROU KOSUGI, JAN W. HOPMANS, AND JACOB H. DANE . . . 739
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
[Link] General Characteristics of Water Retention Curves
and Important Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
[Link] Brooks and Corey Type Power Function . . . . . . . . . . 741
[Link] van Genuchten Type Power Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
[Link] Exponential Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
xiv CONTENTS

[Link] Lognormal Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

[Link] Water Capacity Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
[Link] Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity Functions . . . . . 747
[Link] Multimodal Retention Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
[Link] Soil Water Hysteresis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
[Link] Model Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
3.3.5 Property-Transfer Models
RANDEL HAVERKAMP, PAOLO REGGIANI, AND JOHN R. NIMMO . . . 759
[Link] Physically Based Water Retention Prediction Models
RANDEL HAVERKAMP AND PAOLO REGGIANI . . . . . . . . . 762
[Link] Property Transfer from Particle and Aggregate Size
to Water Retention
JOHN R. NIMMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
3.3.6 Air–Water Interfacial Area
P.S.C. RAO, HEONKI KIM, AND MICHAEL D. ANNABLE . . . . . . . . . . . 783
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
[Link] Aqueous-Static Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
[Link] Aqueous-Dynamic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
[Link] Gaseous-Dynamic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
3.4 Saturated and Field-Saturated Water Flow Parameters
W.D. REYNOLDS, D.E. ELRICK, E.G. YOUNGS, A. AMOOZEGAR,
H.W.G. BOOLTINK, AND J. BOUMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
3.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
[Link] Principles and Parameter Definitions
W.D. REYNOLDS AND D.E. ELRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
3.4.2 Laboratory Methods
W.D. REYNOLDS, D.E. ELRICK, E.G. YOUNGS,
H.W.G. BOOLTINK, AND J. BOUMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
[Link] Constant Head Soil Core (Tank) Method
W.D. REYNOLDS AND D.E. ELRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
[Link] Falling Head Soil Core (Tank) Method
W.D. REYNOLDS AND D.E. ELRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
[Link] Steady Flow Soil Column Method
H.W.G. BOOLTINK AND J. BOUMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
[Link] Other Laboratory Methods
W.D. REYNOLDS AND D.E. ELRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
3.4.3 Field Methods (Vadose and Saturated Zone Techniques)
W.D. REYNOLDS, D.E. ELRICK, E.G. YOUNGS,
AND A. AMOOZEGAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
[Link] Ring or Cylinder Infiltrometers (Vadose Zone)
W.D. REYNOLDS, D.E. ELRICK, AND E.G. YOUNGS . . . . . . 818
CONTENTS xv

[Link].a Single-Ring and Double- or

Concentric-Ring Infiltrometers
W.D. REYNOLDS, D.E. ELRICK,
AND E.G. YOUNGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
[Link].b Pressure Infiltrometer
W.D. REYNOLDS AND D.E. ELRICK .......... 826
[Link].c Twin- or Dual-Ring and
Multiple-Ring Infiltrometers
W.D. REYNOLDS, D.E. ELRICK,
AND E.G. YOUNGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
[Link].d References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
[Link] Constant Head Well Permeameter (Vadose Zone)
W.D. REYNOLDS AND D.E. ELRICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
[Link] Auger-Hole Method (Saturated Zone)
AZIZ AMOOZEGAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
[Link] Piezometer Method (Saturated Zone)
AZIZ AMOOZEGAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
[Link] Other Saturated Zone Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
3.5 Unsaturated Water Transmission Parameters
Obtained from Infiltration
BRENT CLOTHIER AND DAVID SCOTTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
3.5.1 Basic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
3.5.2 One-Dimensional Infiltration Equations and Their Use . . . . . . 881
3.5.3 Horizontal Absorption—The Bruce and Klute Experiment . . . 884
3.5.4 Three-Dimensional Infiltration Using Disk Permeameters. . . . 888
[Link] Early-Time Observations
J.-P. VANDERVAERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
[Link] Steady-State Observations
BRENT CLOTHIER AND DAVID SCOTTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
3.5.5 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
3.5.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
3.6 Simultaneous Determination of Water Transmission
and Retention Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
3.6.1 Direct Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
[Link] Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
[Link].a Long Column
ARTHUR T. COREY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
[Link].b Steady-State Centrifuge
JOHN R. NIMMO, KIM S. PERKINS,
AND ANGUS M. LEWIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
[Link].c Wind and Hot-Air Methods
LALIT M. ARYA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
[Link].d Suction Crust Infiltrometer
H.W.G. BOOLTINK AND J. BOUMA . . . . . . . . . . 926
[Link].e Bypass Flow
H.W.G. BOOLTINK AND J. BOUMA . . . . . . . . . . 930
[Link].f References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
[Link] Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
[Link].a Instantaneous Profile
GEORGES VACHAUD AND J.H. DANE . . . . . . . . 937
xvi CONTENTS

[Link].b Plane of Zero Flux

LALIT M. ARYA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
[Link].c Constant Flux Vertical Time Domain
Reflectometry
GARY W. PARKIN AND R. GARY KACHANOSKI . 954
[Link].d References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
3.6.2 Inverse Methods
JAN W. HOPMANS, JIÌÍ ŠIMæNEK, NUNZIO ROMANO,
AND WOLFGANG DURNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
[Link] Theory of Flow and Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
[Link] Multistep Outflow Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
[Link] Evaporation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
[Link] Tension Disc Infiltrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
[Link] Field Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
[Link] Additional Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
[Link] Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
[Link] Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
3.6.3 Indirect Methods
FEIKE J. LEIJ, MARCEL G. SCHAAP, AND LALIT M. ARYA . . . . . . . . . 1009
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009
[Link] Semiempirical Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
[Link] Empirical Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
[Link] References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
3.7 Evaporation from Natural Surfaces
JOHN M. BAKER AND JOHN M. NORMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
3.7.1 Soil-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
[Link] Lysimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
[Link] Soil Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
3.7.2 Plant-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
[Link] Sap Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
[Link] Cuvettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
3.7.3 Micrometeorological Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
[Link] Bowen Ratio Energy Balance Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
[Link] Eddy Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
[Link] Conditional Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
3.7.4 Remote Sensing Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
3.7.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071

Chapter 4 The Soil Gas Phase

4.1 Introduction
DENNIS E. ROLSTON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
4.1.1 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
4.2 Gas Sampling and Analysis
RICHARD E. FARRELL, EELTJE DE JONG, AND JANE A. ELLIOTT . . . . . . . . . . 1076
4.2.1 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
CONTENTS xvii

4.2.2 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077

[Link] Air-Filled Pores Above the Water Table . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
[Link] Soil Water Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
4.2.3 Gas Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
[Link] Principles of Gas Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
[Link] Laboratory Analysis by Gas Chromatography . . . . . . 1089
[Link] Field-Based Gas Chromatography Systems . . . . . . . . 1091
[Link] Alternative Gas Analysis Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
4.2.4 In Situ Analyses at the Gas–Liquid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
[Link] Platinum Microelectrode Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
[Link] Membrane-Covered Electrode Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
[Link] Miscellaneous Gas-Sensing Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106
4.2.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106
4.3 Gas Diffusivity
DENNIS E. ROLSTON AND PER MOLDRUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
4.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
4.3.2 Laboratory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114
[Link] The Currie Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114
[Link] The Two-Chamber Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1122
4.3.3 Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126
[Link] The MacIntyre and Philip Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126
4.3.4 Predicting Gas Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
[Link] Undisturbed Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
[Link] Sieved, Repacked Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1134
[Link] Values of D0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136
4.3.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
4.4 Air Permeability
BRUCE C. BALL AND PER SCHJØNNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141
4.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141
4.4.2 Laboratory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
4.4.3 Field Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
[Link] Acoustic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
[Link] Buried Probe and Well Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146
4.4.4 Recommended Laboratory Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146
[Link] Apparatus and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146
[Link] Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
4.4.5 Recommended Field Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
[Link] Apparatus and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
[Link] Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151
4.4.6 Choice of Method, Including Scaling and Variability Aspects . 1152
4.4.7 Predicting Air Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1153
4.4.8 Conclusions and Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
4.4.9 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
4.5 Soil–Atmosphere Gas Exchange
GORDON L. HUTCHINSON AND GERALD P. LIVINGSTON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159
4.5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159
xviii CONTENTS

4.5.2 Computation from Fick’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160

[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160
[Link] Apparatus, Materials, and Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162
[Link] Comments and Cautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162
4.5.3 Chamber Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163
[Link] Apparatus and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
[Link] Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170
[Link] Comments and Cautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
4.5.4 Sampling Design, Data Analyses, and Data Summaries. . . . . . 1176
4.5.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179
4.5.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1180

Chapter 5 Soil Heat

5.1 Temperature
KEVIN J. MCINNES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183
5.1.1 Thermocouple Thermometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183
5.1.2 Integrated Circuit Thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190
5.1.3 Resistance Thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
[Link] Platinum Resistance Thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
[Link] Resistance Temperature Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
[Link] Thermistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
5.1.4 Nonelectric Thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
5.1.5 Infrared Radiation Thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
5.1.6 Installation and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197
5.1.7 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
5.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
G.J. KLUITENBERG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
5.2.1 General Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
5.2.2 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
[Link] Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
[Link] Relationship Between Volumetric Heat Capacity
and Specific Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202
5.2.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
[Link] De Vries Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
[Link] Dual-Probe Heat-Pulse Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204
5.2.4 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208
5.3 Thermal Conductivity
KEITH L. BRISTOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
5.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
5.3.2 Predictive Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1210
[Link] Predicting Soil Thermal Conductivity,
Including Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211
[Link] Predicting Soil Thermal Conductivity from
Readily Available Soils Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215
CONTENTS xix

5.3.3 Steady-State Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216

[Link] Guarded Hot Plate Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216
5.3.4 Transient-State Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217
[Link] Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217
[Link] Probe Design and Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1218
[Link] Single Heat Probe Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
[Link] Dual-Probe Heat-Pulse Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
5.3.5 Comments Concerning Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
5.3.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1224
5.4 Soil Thermal Diffusivity
ROBERT HORTON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
5.4.1 Laboratory Method for Determining Soil
Thermal Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228
[Link] Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228
[Link] Analysis of Soil Column Temperature Observations . 1229
5.4.2 Field Method for Determining Soil Thermal Diffusivity . . . . . 1229
5.4.3 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
5.5 Heat Flux Density
THOMAS J. SAUER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233
5.5.1 Calorimetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
[Link] Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
[Link] Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
[Link] Commentary on Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . 1237
5.5.2 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1238
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1238
[Link] Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1238
[Link] Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
[Link] Commentary on Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . 1239
5.5.3 Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1240
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1240
[Link] Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1240
[Link] Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1240
[Link] Commentary on Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . 1241
5.5.4 Soil Heat Flux Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1242
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1242
[Link] Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243
[Link] Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1244
[Link] Commentary on Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . 1247
5.5.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
5.6 Coupled Heat and Water Transfer
IBRAHIM N. NASSAR AND ROBERT HORTON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
5.6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
5.6.2 Soil Thermal Water Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
5.6.3 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251
xx CONTENTS

Chapter 6 Miscible Solute Transport

6.1 Solute Content and Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253

6.1.1 Introduction
JAN M.H. HENDRICKX, JON M. WRAITH, DENNIS L. CORWIN,
AND R. GARY KACHANOSKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
6.1.2 Measurement of Solute Content Using Soil Extraction
JAN M.H. HENDRICKX AND LOUIS W. DEKKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255
[Link] General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255
[Link] Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256
[Link] Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1260
6.1.3 Measurement of Solute Concentration Using Soil
Water Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261
[Link] Suction Cups
DENNIS L. CORWIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261
[Link] Passive Capillary Samplers
JOHN S. SELKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266
[Link] Porous Matrix Sensors
DENNIS L. CORWIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
6.1.4 Indirect Measurement of Solute Concentration
JAN M.H. HENDRICKX, B. DAS, DENNIS L. CORWIN,
JON M. WRAITH, AND R. GARY KACHANOSKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274
[Link] Relationship between Soil Water Solute
Concentration and Apparent Soil Electrical
Conductivity
JAN M.H. HENDRICKX, B. DAS, DENNIS L. CORWIN,
JON M. WRAITH AND R. GARY KACHANOSKI . . . . . . . . . . 1275
[Link] Electrical Resistivity: Wenner Array
DENNIS L. CORWIN AND JAN M.H. HENDRICKX . . . . . . . . 1282
[Link] Electrical Resistivity: Four-Electrode Probe
DENNIS L. CORWIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
[Link] Time Domain Reflectometry
JON M. WRAITH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
[Link] Nonintrusive Electromagnetic Induction
JAN M.H. HENDRICKX AND R. GARY KACHANOSKI . . . . . 1297
6.1.5 Emerging Methods
JAN M.H. HENDRICKX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306
[Link] Fiber Optic Sensors
JAN M.H. HENDRICKX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1307
[Link] Capillary Absorbers
CARL KELLER AND JAN M.H. HENDRICKX . . . . . . . . . . . . 1308
6.1.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311
6.2 Solute Diffusion
MARKUS FLURY AND THOMAS F. GIMMI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323
6.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323
6.2.2 Theory of Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
[Link] Fick’s Laws of Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
[Link] Estimation of Diffusion Coefficients in Liquids. . . . . 1324
[Link] Temperature Dependence of Diffusion Coefficients . 1327
[Link] Type of Diffusion Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1328
CONTENTS xxi

[Link] Diffusion of Nonreactive Solutes in Porous Media . . 1328

[Link] Estimation of Diffusion Coefficients for
Nonreactive Solutes in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330
[Link] Diffusion and Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
[Link] Diffusion and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
6.2.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
[Link] Steady-State Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
[Link] Transient Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1334
[Link] Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347
6.2.4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1348
6.2.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1348
6.3 Solute Transport: Theoretical Background
TODD H. SKAGGS AND FEIKE J. LEIJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353
6.3.1 Elementary Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353
[Link] Solute Transport Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353
[Link] Breakthrough Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1354
[Link] Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356
[Link] Mass Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1358
[Link] Flux and Resident Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359
6.3.2 Convection–Dispersion Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360
[Link] Dimensionless Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1361
[Link] Flux Concentrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1361
[Link] Boundary Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362
[Link] Analytical Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1364
[Link] Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365
6.3.3 Nonequilibrium Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1368
[Link] Two-Region Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369
[Link] Two-Site Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1370
[Link] General Nonequilibrium Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371
[Link] Analytical Solutions and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1372
[Link] Additional Nonequilibrium Formulations . . . . . . . . . 1372
6.3.4 Stochastic–Convective Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1372
[Link] Transfer Function Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1372
[Link] Stochastic–Convective Transfer Function Model. . . . 1374
[Link] Convective Lognormal Transfer Function Model . . . 1375
[Link] Field Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1375
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377
6.3.5 Transport Equation Generalizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377
6.3.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378
6.4 Solute Transport: Experimental Methods
TODD H. SKAGGS, G.V. WILSON, PETER J. SHOUSE, AND FEIKE J. LEIJ . . . . . 1381
6.4.1 Laboratory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381
[Link] Sample Collection and Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381
[Link] Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1382
[Link] Displacing and Resident Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1385
[Link] Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386
xxii CONTENTS

[Link] Calculations and Data Presentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389

[Link] Additional Apparatuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389
[Link] Additional Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1390
[Link] Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1392
6.4.2 Field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1392
[Link] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1392
[Link] Water and Solute Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1392
[Link] Solute Monitoring and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393
6.4.3 Tracers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396
6.4.4 Equipment Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397
6.4.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1398
6.5 Solute Transport: Data Analysis and Parameter Estimation
TODD H. SKAGGS, D.B. JAYNES, R. GARY KACHANOSKI,
PETER J. SHOUSE, AND A.L. WARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1403
6.5.1 Least-Squares Fitting
TODD H. SKAGGS AND PETER J. SHOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1403
[Link]
Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1403
[Link]
Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1405
[Link]
Convection–Dispersion Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1406
[Link]
Nonequilibrium Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1412
[Link]
Transient Water Flow and Depth-Dependent
Water Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1414
6.5.2 Method of Moments
TODD H. SKAGGS AND PETER J. SHOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416
[Link] Principles and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416
[Link] Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418
[Link] Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418
6.5.3 Determination of θIM and α Using a Disk Permeameter
and Multiple Solutes
D.B. JAYNES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419
[Link] Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420
[Link] Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1421
6.5.4 Determination of Travel-Time Probability Density Function
from Concentration Data
TODD H. SKAGGS ................................... 1422
6.5.5 Determination of Field Solute Mass Flux (Travel Time
Probability Density Function) Using Time Domain
Reflectometry
R. GARY KACHANOSKI AND A.L. WARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423
[Link] Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
[Link] Vertically Installed Probes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
[Link] Equipment and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1428
6.5.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1431
6.6 Solute Transport During Variably Saturated Flow—Inverse Methods
JIÌÍ ŠIMæNEK, MARTINUS TH. VAN GENUCHTEN, DIEDERIK JACQUES,
JAN W. HOPMANS, MITSUHIRO INOUE, AND MARKUS FLURY . . . . . . . . . . 1435
6.6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1435
6.6.2 Theory of Flow, Transport, and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1436
CONTENTS xxiii

6.6.3 Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439

[Link] Steady-State Laboratory Flow Experiment
with Nonlinear Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
[Link] Laboratory Transport Subject to Flow Interruption . . 1440
[Link] Transient Laboratory Experiment with Equilibrium
Solute Transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1442
[Link] Field Experiment with Nonequilibrium
Solute Transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1444
6.6.4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1448
6.6.5 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1448
6.7 Processes Governing Transport of Organic Solutes
SHARON K. PAPIERNIK, J. GAN, AND S.R. YATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451
6.7.1 Phase Transfer and Distribution Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451
[Link] Air–Water Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451
[Link] Soil–Water Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1454
[Link] Soil–Air Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1461
[Link] Implications of Soil–Water–Air Distribution
on Solute Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1464
6.7.2 Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465
[Link] Chemical Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465
[Link] Biological Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
[Link] Photodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
[Link] Implications of Transformation on Solute Transport . 1476
6.7.3 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1476
6.8 Microbial Transport
YAN JIN, MARYLYNN V. YATES, AND SCOTT R. YATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
6.8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
[Link] Parasites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
[Link] Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483
[Link] Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1484
6.8.2 Laboratory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1485
[Link] Batch Equilibration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1485
[Link] Flowthrough Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1492
6.8.3 Field Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499
6.8.4 Indicators of Human Enteroviruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500
6.8.5 Microbial Transport Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500
6.8.6 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1505
6.9 Geochemical Transport
JIÌÍ ŠIMæNEK AND ALBERT J. VALOCCHI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1511
6.9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1511
6.9.2 Geochemical Reaction Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1513
[Link] Complexation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515
[Link] Cation Exchange Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515
[Link] Adsorption Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1517
[Link] Precipitation–Dissolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519
[Link] Reactions with Organic Matter and Effects
of Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519
xxiv CONTENTS

[Link] Activity Coefficients and Thermodynamic

Equilibrium Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1521
6.9.3 Mass-Balance Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1522
6.9.4 Numerical Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1524
6.9.5 Effects of Solution Composition on Hydraulic Properties
and Reclamation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1525
6.9.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1526
6.9.7 Use of Geochemical Transport Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1529
6.9.8 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531

Chapter 7 Multi-Fluid Flow

7.1 Introduction
R.J. LENHARD, M. OOSTROM, AND J.H. DANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537
7.2 Fluid Contents
M. OOSTROM, J.H. DANE, AND R.J. LENHARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1539
7.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1539
7.2.2 Nondestructive Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1540
[Link] Gamma Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1540
[Link] X-ray Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559
[Link] Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561
7.2.3 Destructive Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1563
7.3 Saturation–Pressure Relationships
R.J. LENHARD, J.H. DANE, AND M. OOSTROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
7.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
7.3.2 Air–Nonaqueous Phase Liquid Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1567
7.3.3 Two Immiscible Liquids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569
7.3.4 Air and Two Immiscible Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1573
7.4 Relative Permeability Measurements
J.H. DANE, R.J. LENHARD, AND M. OOSTROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581
7.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581
7.4.2 Nonaqueous Phase Liquid–Gas Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1582
7.4.3 Nonaqueous Phase Liquid–Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1584
[Link] Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1584
[Link] Equipment and Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1585
[Link] Summary and Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589
7.5 Prediction of Capillary Pressure–Relative Permeability Relations
R.J. LENHARD, M. OOSTROM, AND J.H. DANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1591
7.5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1591
7.5.2 Extending Two-Phase Saturation–Pressure Relations
to Air–Nonaqueous Phase Liquid–Water Systems:
Nonhysteretic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592
7.5.3 Extending Two-Phase Saturation–Pressure Relations to
Air–Nonaqueous Phase Liquid–Water Systems: Hysteretic . . . 1598
7.6 Measuring Interfacial Areas of Immiscible Fluids
K. PRASAD SARIPALLI, P.S.C. RAO, AND MICHAEL D. ANNABLE . . . . . . . . . . 1609
7.6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1609
CONTENTS xxv

7.6.2 Experimental Techniques for the Measurement

of Interfacial Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1609
[Link] Trapped Nonwetting Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1610
[Link] Continuous Nonwetting Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
7.6.3 Water Saturation–Interfacial Area Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . 1613
7.6.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1614
7.7 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1615

Chapter 8 Soil Erosion by Water and Tillage

M.J.M. RÖMKENS, SETH M. DABNEY, GERARD GOVERS,
AND J.M. BRADFORD

8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621

8.2 Soil Erosion by Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621
8.2.1 Soil Erosion Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622
[Link] Monitoring Erosion during Natural Storm Events . . . 1622
[Link] Erosion Measurements during Simulated
Rain Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1624
[Link] Experimental Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1625
8.2.2 Soil Erosion Prediction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
[Link] USLE–RUSLE Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
[Link] Water Erosion Protection Project Soil Erosion
Prediction Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1639
8.3 Tillage Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1643
8.3.1 Experimental Measurement of Tillage Erosion Using Tracers . 1646
[Link] Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1646
[Link] Equipment, Software, and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648
[Link] Procedural Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649
8.3.2 Measurement of Tillage Erosion by Volumetric
Assessment of Soil Translocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
[Link] Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
[Link] Equipment, Software, and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
[Link] Procedural Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
8.3.3 Estimation of Tillage Erosion from Cesium-137 Inventories . . 1655
[Link] Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
[Link] Equipment, Software, and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1656
[Link] Procedural Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1657
8.4 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1663

 FOREWORD
As the primary source of food and fiber and major interface with the envi-
ronment, soil is the reservoir on which most life on earth depends. Soil science has
provided us with a basic understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological
properties and processes essential to ecosystem integrity and function. This knowl-
edge has promoted our understanding of the importance of soils in enhancing
human and ecosystem health through production of sufficient food and controlling
the transport of soil and potentially toxic substances in the environment. Never be-
fore have we had such a technologically advanced set of tools for addressing the
needs of humanity and the earth.
The editors and 125 contributors to Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 4. Physi-
cal Methods have done an excellent job in expanding the scope and comprehensive
nature of the original Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogi-
cal Methods. Consultation with 19 resource experts in development of the book has
ensured a high level of quality and inclusion of state-of-the-art methods. Newer
methods have been added and the scope of the book expanded to keep pace with a
broader evolving group of hydrologists, geologists, environmental scientists, soil
chemists, and microbiologists interested in transport of pesticides, chemicals, and
microorganisms and use of remote sensing procedures to assess large-scale geo-
chemical processes. The first chapter in the book deals with soil sampling and in-
novative statistical procedures, highlighting the fact that this book includes more
emphasis on handling data once it has been collected and inclusion of the impli-
cations of different methods. This work will undoubtedly join the ranks of the pre-
viously internationally successful soil methods monographs and become a standard
item on the bookshelves of most soil and earth scientists.
This work moves us another step forward in our to journey to “Sustain Earth
and Its People” by providing a basic foundation upon which we can translate our
science into practice.

JOHN W. DORAN
President
Soil Science Society of America

xxvii
 PREFACE
Because of the rapid and numerous changes in measurement methods asso-
ciated with soil physical and mineralogical properties, the Soil Science Society of
America Editorial Board decided not to print a third edition of Methods of Soil
Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Properties, which had been so ably
completed under the editorial leadership of Professor Arnold Klute. Instead, the Ed-
itorial Board decided to divide the one volume into two parts. The part containing
soil physical measurements has consequently been renamed as Methods of Soil
Analysis. Part 4. Physical Properties.
The planning of this book and its development have been overseen by an ed-
itorial committee consisting of:
Jacob H. Dane (Co-editor), Auburn University, Auburn, AL
G. Clarke Topp (Co-editor), Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa,
Canada
Gaylon S. Campbell, Washington State University, Pullman, WA
Harold M. van Es, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
Robert Horton, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
William A. Jury, University of California, Riverside, CA
Donald R. Nielsen, University of California, Riverside, CA
Peter J. Wierenga, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
The approach in Part 4 differs substantially from that in Part 1 in that the new
book uses a more hierarchical approach. As such it is divided into eight chapters,
with each chapter covering a major aspect of soil physical properties. Following the
table of contents, the reader can then refine the search until the specific topic or
measurement of interest is indicated. Compared with Part 1, new methods have been
added and some of the older methods have been updated or deleted.
Although most of the methods have been presented in a cook-book type for-
mat, some of the sections provide less detail because the methods in question are
still under development. In those cases an adequate literature review has been pro-
vided to bring the reader up to speed on the particular subject. Examples of the lat-
ter are the sections discussing diffusion, dispersion, solute content, multifluid flow,
and remote sensing methods. Additionally, over the past ten years or so, a number
of topics have received interest by people other than soil physicists. Consequently,
we felt it was important to at least touch upon such areas as pesticide, geochemi-
cal, and virus transport; the increasing use of inverse methods involving transient
experiments; laboratory measurements in multifluid flow experiments; and both re-
mote and ground penetrating radar. Ignoring these less developed methods would
have made this book less useful to hydrologists, geologists, environmental scien-
tists, soil chemists, and microbiologists.
To assure that this book documents state-of-the art methods, 19 resource peo-
ple were consulted. They provided valuable advice and participated closely in the
development of each chapter and section. Listed by chapter, these resource people
were:

xxix
xxx PREFACE

Chapter 1: Harold M. van Es, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY

Art W. Warrick, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ

Chapter 2: Glendon W. Gee, Battelle, Pacific National Northwest Laboratory,

Richland, WA

Chapter 3: John Baker, USDA-ARS, St. Paul, MN

Brent Clothier, HortResearch, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Jacob H. Dane, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
David Elrick, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
P.A. (Ty) Ferré, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
John M. Norman, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.
W. Dan Reynolds, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Harrow,
Ontario, Canada
David R. Scotter, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
G. Clarke Topp, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada
Peter J. Wierenga, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ

Chapter 4: Dennis E. Rolston, University of California, Davis, CA

Chapter 5: Robert Horton, Iowa State University, Ames, IA

Chapter 6: [Link]. (Rien) van Genuchten, USDA-ARS, Riverside, CA

Jan M.H. Hendrickx, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM

Chapter 7: Robert J. Lenhard, Idaho National Engineering and

Environmental Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID

Chapter 8: Matt J. M. Römkens, USDA-ARS, Oxford, MS

We would like to extend our thanks to the members of the editorial commit-
tee, to the resource people, to the 125 authors and co-authors who have contributed
manuscripts, and to all the anonymous reviewers of this first edition of Methods of
Soil Analysis. Part 4. Physical Properties. Without their help the production of this
book would not have been possible. Thanks also to Lisa Al-Amoodi for serving as
Managing Editor at SSSA headquarters. We hope that this new book will meet your
expectations and will be as useful as the two editions of Part 1.

JACOB H. DANE G. CLARKE TOPP

Co-editor Co-editor
Auburn University, Auburn, AL Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
USA Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
 CONTRIBUTORS
R.R. Allmaras USDA-ARS, Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of
Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108
Aziz Amoozegar Soil Science Department, Box 7619, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC 27695-7619
Alison N. Anderson New South Wales Farmers’ Association, GPO Box 1068, Sydney
NSW 1041, Australia
Brian J. Andraski U.S. Geological Survey, 333 West Nye Lane, Rm. 203, Carson City,
NV 89706
Michael D. Annable Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, 217 Black Hall,
University of Florida, P.O. Box 116450, Gainesville, FL 32611-6450
A. Peter Annan Sensors & Software Inc., 1091 Brevik Place, Mississauga, ON L4W
3R7 Canada
L.M. Arya 770 El Caballo Drive, Oceanside, CA 92507
John Baker USDA-ARS, Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, 439 Borlaug
Hall, University of Minnesota, 1991 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul,
MN 55108
Bruce C. Ball Scottish Agricultural College, Environment Division, Bush Estate,
Penicuik, Midlothian, UK EH26 0PH
Jim Bilskie Campbell Scientific, Inc., 815 West 1800 North, Logan, UT 84321-
1784
J.B. Boisvert Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 930 Carling Avenue, Sir John Car-
ling Building, Rm. 761, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C5, Canada
H.W.G. Booltink Netherlands Organization for Energy and Environment, Elzenpas 13,
6666 HD Meteren, the Netherlands
J. Bouma Department of Environmental Sciences, Laboratory of Soil Science
and Geology, Wageningen Agricultural University, 6700 AA Wa-
geningen, The Netherlands
J.M. Bradford USDA-ARS, Subtropical Agricultural Research Laboratory, Wes-
laco, TX 78596-8344
Keith L. Bristow CSIRO Land and Water, PMB Aitkenvale, Townsville, QLD 4814,
Australia
Brent Clothier Environment and Risk Management Group, HortResearch, Private
Bag 11-030, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Arthur T. Corey 1309 Kirkwood, Apt. 601, Fort Collins, CO 80525
Dennis L. Corwin USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big
Springs Road, Riverside, CA 92507-4617
Seth M. Dabney USDA-ARS, National Sedimentation Laboratory, P.O. Box 1157,
Oxford, MS 38655
J.H. Dane Department of Agronomy and Soils, 202 Funchess Hall, Auburn
University, AL 36849-5412
Bhabani Sankar Das Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Aquaculture Build-
ing, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal
J. Les Davis TERAD, 3509 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, ON L5L 2R9, Canada
J.J. de Gruijter Alterra–Green World Research, P.O. Box 47, NL-6700 AA Wa-
geningen, The Netherlands
Eeltje de Jong Department of Soil Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus
Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada

xxxi
xxxii CONTRIBUTORS

Louis W. Dekker Alterra–Green World Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen,
The Netherlands
A. Drescher Department of Civil Engineering, 500 Pillsbury Drive SE, University
of Minnesota, MN 55455
Wolfgang Durner Institute of Geoecology, Technical University of Braunschweig,
Langerkamp 19c, D-36106 Braunschweig, Germany
Jane A. Elliott Environment Canada, National Water Research Institute, 11 Innova-
tion Boulevard, Saskatoon, SK S7N 3H5, Canada
David E. Elrick Department of Land Resource Science, University of Guelph, Guelph,
ON N1G 2W1, Canada
Steven R. Evett USDA-ARS-SPA-CPRL Water Management Research Unit, 2300 Ex-
periment Station Road, Bushland, TX 79012
Richard E. Farrell Department of Soil Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus
Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada
Ty Ferré Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Ari-
zona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0011
Alan L. Flint U.S. Geological Survey, Placer Hall, 6000 J Street, Sacramento, CA
95819-6129
Lorraine E. Flint U.S. Geological Survey, Placer Hall, 6000 J Street, Sacramento, CA
95819-6129
Markus Flury Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University,
Pullman, WA 99164
Delwyn G. Fredlund Department of Civil Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saska-
toon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada
J. Gan Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California,
Riverside, CA 92521
Glendon W. Gee Battelle, Richland, WA 99352
Thomas F. Gimmi Institute of Geology and Paul Scherrer Institute, University of Bern,
Baltzerstrasse 1, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
Gerard Govers K.U. Leuven, Laboratory for Experimental Geomorphology,
Redingenstraat 16, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
Robert B. Grossman USDA-NRCS, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE 68508-
3866
Satish Gupta Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota,
1991 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN 55108
Randel Haverkamp Laboratoire d’etude des Transferts en Hydrologie et Environnement
(LTHE), 1023 rue de la Piscine, BP 53, Domaine Universitaire, 38041
Grenoble, France
Jan M.H. Hendrickx Hydrology Program, Department of Earth and Environmental Science,
New Mexico Tech, 801 Leroy Place, Socorro, NM 87801
Cliff Hignett Soil Water Solutions, 45A Ormond Avenue, Daw Park, South Aus-
tralia 5041, Australia
Jan W. Hopmans Hydrology Program, Department of Land, Air and Water Resources,
123 Veihmeyer Hall, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
Robert Horton Agronomy Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011
Gordon L. Hutchinson USDA-ARS, 301 South Howes Street, Rm. 435, P.O. Box E, Fort
Collins, CO 80522
Mitsuhiro Inoue Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, 1390 Hamasaka, Tot-
tori, 680-0001, Japan
CONTRIBUTORS xxxiii

Thomas J. Jackson USDA-ARS, Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory, 104 Bldg.
007 BARC-West, Beltsville, MD 20705
Diederik Jacques Belgina Nuclear Research Centre (SCK-CEN), Boeretang 2000, B-
2400 MOL, Belgium
Dan Jaynes USDA-ARS, National Soil Tilth Laboratory, 2150 Pammel Drive,
Ames, IA 50010
Yan Jin Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, 152 Townsend Hall, Univer-
sity of Delaware, Newark, DE 19717-1303
R. Gary Kachanoski University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2J9, Canada
Carl Keller Flexible Liner Underground Technology, Limited, 6 Easy Street,
Santa Fe, New Mexico
O. Kempthorne Department of Statistics, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011
(Deceased)
Heonki Kim Department of Environmental Science, Hallyum University, 1 Ok-
chon-Dong, Chunchon Kangwon, South Korea 200-702
Gerard Kluitenberg Department of Agronomy, 2004 Throckmorton Hall, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5501
Ken’ichirou Kosugi Laboratory of Erosion Control, Department of Forest Science, Grad-
uate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
R. Murray Lark Mathematics and Decision Systems Group, Silsoe Research Institute,
Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedford MK45 4HS, UK
Feike J. Leij USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big
Springs Road, Riverside, CA 92507-4617
R.J. Lenhard Geosciences Research, INEEL, P.O. Box 1625, Idaho Falls, ID 83415-
2025
Angus M. Lewis Central Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board, 81 South
Higuera Street, Suite 200, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401
Gerald P. Livingston School of Natural Resources, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT
05405
Birl Lowery Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin, 1525 Obser-
vatory Drive, Madison, WI 53706-1299
Alex. B. McBratney School of Land, Water, and Crop Sciences, The University of Syd-
ney, NSW 2006, Australia
R.A. McBride Department of Land Resource Science, University of Guelph, Guelph,
ON N1G 2W1, Canada
Kevin McInnes Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Heep Center, 370 Olsen
Boulevard, Texas A&M University, TAMU 2474, College Station, TX
77843
Heather McNairn Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, 588 Booth Street, Ottawa, ON
K1A 0Y7, Canada
Per Moldrup Department of Environmental Engineering, Aalborg University, Sohn-
gaardsholmsvej 57, DK-9000 Aalborg, Denmark
John E. Morrison, Jr. USDA-ARS, 808 East Blackland Road, Temple, TX 76502
Ibrahim N. Nassar Faculty of Agriculture—Damnahour, Alexandria University, Behera,
Egypt
Donald R. Nielsen University of California, 1004 Pine Lane, Davis, CA 95616
John R. Nimmo Unsaturated-Zone Flow Project, U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Mid-
dlefield Road, MS-421, Menlo Park, CA 94025
xxxiv CONTRIBUTORS

John M. Norman Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin, 1525 Obser-

vatory Drive, Madison, WI 53706
Inakwu Ominyi Odeh School of Land, Water, and Crop Sciences, The University of Syd-
ney, NSW 2006, Australia
M. Oostrom Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Environmental Technology
Division, Richland, WA 99352
Dani Or Department of Plants, Soils, and Biometeorology, Utah State Uni-
versity, Logan, UT 84322-4820
Ioan C. Paltineanu Paltin International Inc., Laurel, MD 20707
Sharon K. Papiernik USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big
Springs Road, Riverside, CA 92507
Gary W. Parkin Department of Land Resource Science, University of Guelph, Guelph,
ON N1G 2W1, Canada
Kurt D. Pennell School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of
Technology, 200 Bobby Dodd Way, Atlanta, GA 30332-0512
Kim S. Perkins U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Road, MS-421, Menlo Park,
CA 94025
Caroline M. Preston Pacific Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burn-
side Road, Victoria, BC V8Z 1M5, Canada
Terry J. Pultz Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, 588 Booth Street, Ottawa, ON
K1A 0Y7, Canada
P.S.C. Rao School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
47907-1284
Paolo Reggiani Laboratoire d’etude des Transferts en Hydrologie et Environnement
(LTHE), 1023 Rue de la Piscine, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble, France
Thomas G. Reinsch USDA-NRCS, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE 68508-
3866
W. Daniel Reynolds Greenhouse and Processing Crops Research Centre, Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada, 2585 County Road 20, Harrow, ON N0R 1G0,
Canada
Dennis E. Rolston Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, One Shields
Avenue, Davis, CA 95616-8627
Nunzio Romano Department of Agricultural Engineering and Agronomy, University
of Naples “Federico II”, Via Universitá 100, 80055 Portici (Napoli),
Italy
M.J.M. Römkens USDA-ARS National Sedimentation Laboratory, P.O. Box 1157, Ox-
ford, MS 38655
Alessandro Santini Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Naples “Fed-
erico II”, Via Universitá 100, 80055 Portici (Napoli), Italy
Prasad Saripalli Battelle National Northwest Laboratories, 1318 Sigma V Complex
(K6-81), Richland, WA 99352
Thomas J. Sauer USDA-ARS, National Soil Tilth Laboratory, 2150 Pammel Drive,
Ames, IA 50011-4420
Bridget R. Scanlon Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin,
10100 Burnet Road, Austin, TX 78758
Marcel Schaap USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, Riverside, CA
92507-4617
Per Schjønning Department of Crop Physiology and Soil Science, Research Center
Foulum, P.O. Box 50, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
CONTRIBUTORS xxxv

David R. Scotter Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, Palmerston North,

New Zealand
John S. Selker Room 240 Gilmore Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
97331-3906
Peter J. Shouse USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big
Springs Road, Riverside, CA 92507
JiÍÍí Šimççnek USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big
Springs Road, Riverside, CA 92507
James B. Sisson Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, Idaho
Falls, ID 83415-2107
Todd H. Skaggs USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big
Springs Road, Riverside, CA 92507
Egbert J.A. Spaans EARTH University, Guácimo, Apt. Postal 4442-1000, San José, Costa
Rica
James L. Starr USDA-ARS, ANRI, EQL, BARC-West, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350
G. Clarke Topp Land and Agronomy Program, Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research
Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 960 Carling Avenue, Ot-
tawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada
Georges Vachaud Laboratoire d’etude des Transferts en Hydrologie et Environnement
(LTHE), BP 53, 38041 Grenoble, France
Albert J. Valocchi Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Illinois, 205 North Mathews, Urbana, IL 61801
Sai K. Vanapalli Civil Engineering Department, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay,
ON P7B 5E1, Canada
Jean-Pierre Vandervaere Laboratoire d’etude des Transferts en Hydrologie et Environnement
(LTHE), Université Joseph Fourier/UFR Mécanique, 38041 Greno-
ble Cedex 9, France
Harold M. van Es Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, 1005 Bradfield Hall, Cornell
University, Ithaca, NY 14853-1901
Martinus Th. van Genuchten USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big
Springs Road, Riverside, CA 92507
Andy L. Ward Pacific Northwest National Laboratories, Richland, WA 99352
Art W. Warrick Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, University
of Arizona, P.O. Box 210038, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038
Ole Wendroth ZALF, Institut für Bodenlandschaftsforschung, D-15374 Müncheberg,
Germany
Peter J. Wierenga Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, University
of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
G.V. Wilson USDA-ARS National Sedimentation Laboratory, 598 McElroy Drive,
Oxford, MS 38655
Kari A. Winfield U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Road, MS-421, Menlo Park,
CA 94025
Jon M. Wraith Land Resources and Environmental Sciences Department, Montana
State University, P.O. Box 173120, Bozeman, MT 59717-3120
Marylynn V. Yates Department of Environmental Sciences, 4108 Hinderaker Hall, Uni-
versity of California, Riverside, CA 92521
Scott R. Yates USDA-ARS, George E. Brown, Jr. Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big
Springs Road, Riverside, CA 92507
xxxvi CONTRIBUTORS

Michael H. Young Desert Research Institute, University and Community College Sys-
tem of Nevada, 755 East Flamingo Road, Las Vegas, NV 89119
Edward G. Youngs Institute of Water and Environment, Cranfield University, Silsoe,
Bedfordshire MK45 4DT, UK
Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units

xxxvii
 Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units
xxxviii

To convert Column 1 To convert Column 2

into Column 2, into Column 1,
multiply by Column 1 SI Unit Column 2 non-SI Units multiply by

Length
0.621 kilometer, km m)
(103 mile, mi 1.609
1.094 meter, m yard, yd 0.914
3.28 meter, m foot, ft 0.304
1.0 micrometer, µm (10−6 m) micron, µ 1.0
3.94 × 10−2 millimeter, mm (10−3 m) inch, in 25.4
10 nanometer, nm (10−9 m) Angstrom, Å 0.1

Area
2.47 hectare, ha acre 0.405
247 square kilometer, km2 (103 m)2 acre 4.05 × 10−3
0.386 square kilometer, km2 (103 m)2 square mile, mi2 2.590
2.47 × 10−4 square meter, m2 acre 4.05 × 103
10.76 square meter, m2 square foot, ft2 9.29 × 10−2
1.55 × 10−3 square millimeter, mm2 (10−3 m)2 square inch, in2 645

Volume
9.73 × 10−3 cubic meter, m3 acre-inch 102.8
35.3 cubic meter, m3 cubic foot, ft3 2.83 × 10−2
6.10 × 104 cubic meter, m3 cubic inch, in3 1.64 × 10−5
2.84 × 10−2 liter, L (10−3 m3) bushel, bu 35.24
1.057 liter, L (10−3 m3) quart (liquid), qt 0.946
3.53 × 10−2 liter, L (10−3 m3) cubic foot, ft3 28.3
0.265 liter, L (10−3 m3) gallon 3.78
33.78 liter, L (10−3 m3) ounce (fluid), oz 2.96 × 10−2
2.11 liter, L (10−3 m3) pint (fluid), pt 0.473
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON-SI UNITS
 Mass
2.20 × 10−3 gram, g(10−3 kg) pound, lb 454
3.52 × 10−2 gram, g (10−3 kg) ounce (avdp), oz 28.4
2.205 kilogram, kg pound, lb 0.454
0.01 kilogram, kg quintal (metric), q 100
1.10 × 10−3 kilogram, kg ton (2000 lb), ton 907
1.102 megagram, Mg (tonne) ton (U.S.), ton 0.907
1.102 tonne, t ton (U.S.), ton 0.907

Yield and Rate

0.893 kilogram per hectare, kg ha−1 pound per acre, lb acre−1 1.12
7.77 × 10−2 kilogram per cubic meter, kg m−3 pound per bushel, lb bu−1 12.87
1.49 × 10−2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha−1 bushel per acre, 60 lb 67.19
1.59 × 10−2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha−1 bushel per acre, 56 lb 62.71
1.86 × 10−2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha−1 bushel per acre, 48 lb 53.75
0.107 liter per hectare, L ha−1 gallon per acre 9.35
893 tonne per hectare, t ha−1 pound per acre, lb acre−1 1.12 × 10−3
893 megagram per hectare, Mg ha−1 pound per acre, lb acre−1 1.12 × 10−3
0.446 megagram per hectare, Mg ha−1 ton (2000 lb) per acre, ton acre−1 2.24
2.24 meter per second, m s−1 mile per hour 0.447
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON-SI UNITS

Specific Surface
10 square meter per kilogram, m2 kg−1 square centimeter per gram, cm2 g−1 0.1
1000 square meter per kilogram, m2 kg−1 square millimeter per gram, mm2 g−1 0.001

Density
1.00 megagram per cubic meter, Mg m−3 gram per cubic centimeter, g cm−3 1.00
Pressure
9.90 megapascal, MPa (106 Pa) atmosphere 0.101
10 megapascal, MPa (106 Pa) bar 0.1
2.09 × 10−2 pascal, Pa pound per square foot, lb ft−2 47.9
1.45 × 10−4 pascal, Pa pound per square inch, lb in−2 6.90 × 103
xxxix

(continued on next page)

 xl

Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units

To convert Column 1 To convert Column 2
into Column 2, into Column 1,
multiply by Column 1 SI Unit Column 2 non-SI Units multiply by

Temperature

1.00 (K − 273) kelvin, K Celsius, °C 1.00 (°C + 273)

(9/5 °C) + 32 Celsius, °C Fahrenheit, °F 5/9 (°F − 32)

Energy, Work, Quantity of Heat

9.52 × 10−4 joule, J British thermal unit, Btu 1.05 × 103
0.239 joule, J calorie, cal 4.19
107 joule, J erg 10−7
0.735 joule, J foot-pound 1.36
2.387 × 10−5 joule per square meter, J m−2 calorie per square centimeter (langley) 4.19 × 104
105 newton, N dyne 10−5
1.43 × 10−3 watt per square meter, W m−2 calorie per square centimeter 698
minute (irradiance), cal cm−2 min−1

Transpiration and Photosynthesis

3.60 × 10−2 milligram per square meter second, gram per square decimeter hour, 27.8
mg m−2 s−1 g dm−2 h−1
5.56 × 10−3 milligram (H2O) per square meter micromole (H2O) per square centi- 180
second, mg m−2 s−1 meter second, µmol cm−2 s−1
10−4 milligram per square meter second, milligram per square centimeter 104
mg m−2 s−1 second, mg cm−2 s−1
35.97 milligram per square meter second, milligram per square decimeter hour, 2.78 × 10−2
mg m−2 s−1 mg dm−2 h−1

Plane Angle
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON-SI UNITS

57.3 radian, rad degrees (angle), ° 1.75 × 10−2

 Electrical Conductivity, Electricity, and Magnetism
10 siemen per meter, S m−1 millimho per centimeter, mmho cm−1 0.1
104 tesla, T gauss, G 10−4

Water Measurement
9.73 × 10−3 cubic meter, m3 acre-inch, acre-in 102.8
9.81 × 10−3 cubic meter per hour, m3 h−1 cubic foot per second, ft3 s−1 101.9
4.40 cubic meter per hour, m3 h−1 U.S. gallon per minute, gal min−1 0.227
8.11 hectare meter, ha m acre-foot, acre-ft 0.123
97.28 hectare meter, ha m acre-inch, acre-in 1.03 × 10−2
8.1 × 10−2 hectare centimeter, ha cm acre-foot, acre-ft 12.33

Concentrations
1 centimole per kilogram, cmol kg−1 milliequivalent per 100 grams, meq 1
100 g−1
0.1 gram per kilogram, g kg−1 percent, % 10
1 milligram per kilogram, mg kg−1 parts per million, ppm 1
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON-SI UNITS

Radioactivity
2.7 × 10−11 becquerel, Bq curie, Ci 3.7 × 1010
2.7 × 10−2 becquerel per kilogram, Bq kg−1 picocurie per gram, pCi g−1 37
100 gray, Gy (absorbed dose) rad, rd 0.01
100 sievert, Sv (equivalent dose) rem (roentgen equivalent man) 0.01

Plant Nutrient Conversion

Elemental Oxide
2.29 P P2O5 0.437
1.20 K K2O 0.830
1.39 Ca CaO 0.715
1.66 Mg MgO 0.602
xli