CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION
All metals are affected to some extent by the atmosphere. This effect, by which is
called corrosion, is especially important in aircraft due to the loss of strength it causes.
There are two distinct types of corrosion to which metals used in aircraft construction
are subject.
The first type is the eating away or pitting of the surface, as in the rusting of steel and
iron. Practically all metals are subject to this type of corrosion when they oxidize in
the presence of air. This type of corrosion is visible and can be prevented or retarded
by protecting the surface with a plating or paint.
The second type of corrosion is one that is not visible on the surface and is, therefore,
very dangerous. It is called intergranular or intercrystalline corrosion, because it eats
its way. internally through the metal around the grain or crystal boundaries. This type
of corrosion is found in some aluminum alloys and some corrosion-resisting steels.
CORROSION PROTECTION:
Aircraft metal parts are almost always given special treatments to improve their resistance to
corrosion. These treatments usually consist of a cleaning treatment such as sandblasting or
pickling, which is _followed by a plating process such as cadmium plating, chromium
plating, or galvanizing, and finally by a paint job.
I.CLEANING OPERATIONS:
1.Sandblasting. Sandblasting is a general name applied to the process of cleaning parts by
blowing abrasive particles against the surface. Sand, steel grit, and other abrasives are
sometimes used. Steel parts that have been welded or heat-treated are normally sandblasted to
remove the scale. The same applies to corrosion-resisting steel exhaust collectors which are
subjected to both welding and heat-treatment operations. Aluminum-alloy parts are seldom
sandblasted because of their softness, thinness, and loss of ductility after blasting.
The actual blasting operation consists of blowing the grit through a nozzle by means of air
pressure. The distance the nozzle is held from the surface, its angle relative to the
surface;·and the air pressure used are all dependent upon the type of work. In the case of thin
aluminum alloy the nozzle must be held from 18 to 24 inches away from the work, and must
not make an angle greater than ·45° to the surface. Sand is used for blasting under an air
pressure'. Of 70 pounds per square inch or less. For heavier aluminum-alloy parts, such
as castings, the blasting operation may be made more severe.
After sandblasting, parts must be cleaned by means of an air bath or by brushing to remove
excess abrasive.
2.Pickling Steel. Steel parts are pickled to remove scale, rust, and so on, particularly before
plating them. The pickling solution may be either a sulphuric acid solution (5% to 10% of
concentrated sulphuric acid, by weight) or a hydrochloric (muriatic) acid solution (15% to
25% of concentrated muriatic acid, by weight). The pickling solution, which is kept in a
stoneware tank, is heated to 140-150°F. by means of a steam coil. Paint, oil, grease, and the
like are removed from the part before pickling by- immersing it in a hot solution of lye. After
a rinsing in running water, it is immersed in the pickling solution for the minimum length of
time necessary to remove the scale or rust. This period varies from 5 to 15 minutes. If the
scale is especially heavy, it is advisable to loosen it up by scrubbing with a wire brush to
reduce the pickling time. All acids must be drained from the part, after which it should be
thoroughly rinsed in cold running water.
Pickling Aluminum Alloy. Aluminum-alloy parts that have been welded, such as fuel and
oil tanks, are given a pickling treatment to remove all traces of the welding flux. The
complete and prompt removal of welding flux is necessary to prevent serious corrosive
attack. A 10% sulphuric acid bath at room temperature is used for the treatment. The solution
is held in a wooden tank lined with lead or painted with asphalt paint. After removing as
much flux from the part as possible by washing with water, it is immersed in. the acid bath
long enough to remove all traces of the flux.
II. PLATING OPERATIONS:
1. Cadmium Plating. Cadmium plating is used more generally on aircraft parts than any
other plating method. It is a general practice to cadmium-plate all steel parts small enough to
fit in the bath, prior to painting. Welded tubular fuselages, engine mounts, and landing gears
are not cadmium-plated because it is impractical. Steel parts are cadmium-plated to increase
their corrosion resistance. Cadmium plating does not improve the paint adherence to the
surface but resists corrosion itself. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to make paint stick to
cadmium-plated surfaces unless they are kept exceptionally clean.
Cadmium plating is an electrical process carried out at a low voltage not exceeding 12 volts.
The cadmium is deposited directly on the surface without the necessity of a preliminary
coating of another metal. The cadmium deposit must be adherent, and without blisters,
porosity, or other defects. A coating 0.0005 inch thick is usually specified except' on threads,
where a minimum coating 0.0002 inch thick is required.
2. Galvanizing (Zinc Plating). Steel sheets are frequently galvanized for commercial work
but seldom for aircraft. Before cadmium plating became common, it was the general practice
to galvanize all steel aircraft fittings before painting. Galvanizing is not as effective as
cadmium plating in resisting corrosion. Parts are galvanized by dipping them in molten zinc
maintained at a temperature between 800-925°F. The parts remain in the zinc bath only a
short time and are then removed and hung up until cool. Before dipping the parts in the bath,
it is necessary to have them perfectly clean-an important requirement for all plating
operations. A zinc film can also be deposited on metal parts by an electroplating process
similar to that described for cadmium plating. A solution of zinc sulphate and cyanide is used
as the electrolyte and metallic zinc as the anode. A somewhat thicker plating is used than for
cadmium plating to obtain equivalent corrosion resistance.
3. Sherardizing. Parts are sherardized by heating them in an atmosphere of zinc oxide. The
zinc combines with the surface of the metal part, increasing its hardness, durability, and
corrosion resistance. The process is carried out by heating the parts in a closed, rotating
chamber containing zinc oxide, al a temperature of about 700°F. Sherardizing is not
considered as effective as zinc or cadmium plating.
4.Parkerizing. Parkerizing consists in heating the parts to be treated in a bath of dilute iron
phosphate. The bath is kept at about I 90°F. by steam coils. When the work is immersed in
the bath, a rapid stream of bubbles passes off for a period of 30 to 45 minutes. When the
bubbles stop, the coating process is complete. The coating left on the treated part is a mixture
of ferrous and ferric phosphate and black iron oxide. The surface is dull gray in colour and of
smooth texture. It furnishes an excellent base for painting. This process has the added
advantage of coating the inside of tubular members, which cannot be done by any
electroplating process. This property is particularly important
5. Bonderizing. Bonderizing is the same as parkerizing, except for the addition of the
reagents to the bath which speed up the reaction. The process is completed in from 3 to 5
minutes by this method. After treatment the parts are removed from the bath and hot-rinsed
and dried. Bonderizing has the same characteristics as parkerizing with reference to paint
adherence and penetration in crevices. Neither of these coatings is very corrosion-resistant in
itself but either is quite satisfactory when painted. These and similar processes are frequently
referred to as compound phosphate rust-proofing.
6. Metal.Spraying. Metal spraying or metallizing, as it is sometimes called, is the surface
application of molten metal on any solid base material. It is possible by this process to spray
aluminum, cadmium, copper, nickel, steel, or any one of a dozen metals onto metal, wood, or
any solid base. In aircraft work the process is used chiefly to spray a coat of pure aluminum
on steel parts to improve their corrosion resistance and paint adherence. Another very useful
application is the spraying of seams and crevices in fittings which might trap moisture and
then corrode. Metallizing seals these crevices and prevents the entrance of moisture.
7. Chromium Plating. Chromium plating is used particularly for its appearance, but it also
makes a very hard surface which is exceptionally wear resistant-a property essential in the
manufacture of chromium-plated brake drums and landing-gear oleo pistons. Successful
experiments have also been made on chromium plating of worn shafts and wing hinge bolts,
thus restoring them to their original dimension with a harder, more wear-resistant surface.
Chromium plating is an electroplating process utilizing a bath consisting of 20% to 30% of
chromic acid (Cr03), a very small amount of sulphates in the form of sulphuric acid (I% of
the chromic acid content), and the remainder water. This bath must be kept between 122°F.
and 140°F. during the plating operation. A current density of I 50 to 200 amperes per square
foot of surface will produce a bright deposit over polished surfaces. Too high a current will
produce a burned or satin finish, while too low a current will give a bluish plate or
insufficient covering. Parts to be plated must be thoroughly cleaned by immersing in an alkali
bath, rinsing, immersing in a hydrochloric acid bath, rinsing, and finally placing in the
chromium bath while still wet. If a polished chromium surface is desired, the part must be
polished and buffed before cleaning and immersion in the plating bath.
8. Chromatizing. This is a ·dip process which uses the same chromic acid bath as anodizing
but without electric current. In chromatizing, the work should be immersed for 5 minutes in a
chromic acid bath at a temperature of 120°F., rinsed in hot water, and air-dried. The film
obtained .by this process is not as heavy or as abrasion resistant as an anodic film, but is
satisfactory for all but severe salt-air conditions. An adaptation of this process is the
Swabbing with chromic acid of areas in which the anodic film has been damaged in service
or repair work. This swabbing improves the corrosion and paint adherence of the affected
area. . This chromic acid dip process may be used, in lieu of anodizing, on land planes with
the following aluminum alloys: 1100, 3003, 5052, 6053, 6061, 2024, Alclad 2017, and Alclad
7075.
9. Alodizing Process. This is a relatively new process developed by the American Chemical
Paint Company of Ambler, Pennsylvania. It is approved by the military services for all
applications of aluminum and aluminum alloys except the outside surfaces of seaplanes or
amphibians. Because of its simplicity, it is rapidly replacing anodizing in aircraft work.
The alodizing process consists of the following operations:
Cleaning-An acidic or alkaline metal cleaner can be used to prepare the work. An alkaline
cleaner is mandatory for 75S alloys. These cleaners may be applied by dip or spray.
Rinsing-Rinsing is extremely important especially if an alkaline cleaner was used. Thorough
rinsing is assured by spraying the parts with fresh water under pressure for IO to 15 seconds.
Alodine Treatment-This treatment is a simple chemical process using Alodine which
increases the corrosion resistance and improves the paint bonding qualities. It can be applied
by dipping, spraying, or brushing. A thin, hard coating is obtained with ranges in colour from
light, bluish green with a slight iridescence on copper-free alloys to an olive green on
copper-bearing alloys.
The Alodine bath must be maintained between 100-120°F. The work is dipped for 1. to 2
minutes during which time there must be free circulation, and adjoining parts should not
touch each other. The work is drained over the Alodine bath for 1 to 2 minutes and then
transferred to the rinsing bath.
Rinsing-The first rinsing is done with clear, cold or warm (not over 120°F.) water for a
period of 15 to 30 seconds. A second 10 to 15 second rinse is then given in a Deoxylyte bath
maintained at 100-IZ0°F. This is an acidulated rinse to counteract alkaline material in the
rinse water and to make the alodyzed aluminum surface slightly aci1 on drying .
.Drying-Drying may be accomplished in an oven with infrared lamps or in air at temperature
below 150°F.
Painting-The alodyzed surface must be kept absolutely clean to insure good paint adherence.
It is reasonably corrosion resistant and is sometimes left unpainted.
10. Chrome-pickle Treatment. This treatment is used to protect the material during
shipment, storage, machining, and for installed material requiring a good electrical bonding
connection. It removes 0.001 to 0.002 inch of metal surface.
The chromic-pickle solution consists of 1.5 pounds of sodium dichromate, 1.5 pounds of
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42), and water to make 1 gallon. The work should be immersed.in this
solution at a temperature of 70 to 90°F, for 1/2 to 2 minutes until sufficiently etched, exposed
to the air for· at least 5 seconds while draining, thoroughly washed in cold running water,
then given a dip washing in hot water. The chrome-pickle solution can be held in an
earthenware, aluminum, or stainless-steel tank. .
For parts such as tanks, which take a long time to fill and empty, the chrome-pickle solution
should be diluted with an equal quantity of water. In treating cast alloys containing over 7%
aluminum and all die castings, the addition of 2 ounces per gallon of either sodium,
potassium, or ammonium bifluoride will prevent the formation of a dark-gray coating. An
alternative treatment for die castings is to heat the basic chrome-pickle solution to l.25- 1350F
brushing on fresh solution for 1 minute and following with a thorough water washing.
Parts properly treated have yellow-red iridescent coatings.
11. Sealed Chrome-Pickle Treatment. This treatment is used for long-time protection for all
magnesium alloys ·when close dimensional tolerances are required. The chrome-pickle
treatment described above is applied first, and immediately after the work dries a sealing
treatment is applied. The sealing treatment consists of immersing the work f9r 30 minutes in
a boiling solution of 10:-20% dichromate (potassium or sodium) and 0.25% magnesium or
calcium fluoride by weight. The work is then rinsed thoroughly in cold running water and
given a dip in hot water to facilitate drying. Paint should be applied immediately after the
treated parts are dry.
12. Dichromate Treatment. This treatment provides good corrosion resistance for all
magnesium alloys except Dowmetal M, AM3S material. It is applicable to work requiring
close dimensional tolerances. Just prior to the dichromate treatment the work must be cleaned
by hydrofluoric acid pickling as described above. The work is then boiled for at least 45
minutes in the dichromate solution described in the paragraph above under Sealed Chrome-
pickled Treatment. This solution can be prepared by dissolving technical sodium dichromate
in water in the ratio of 1.0 pound per gallon. After the dichromate boil, the work must be
rinsed thoroughly in cold running water and given a hot-water dip to facilitate drying.
Steel, brass, and bronze are unaffected by the dichromate treatment. Parts containing
bearings, studs, or inserts of these materials can be treated. Aluminum is rapidly attacked
during the hydrofluoric and pickling operation. The colour of properly applied dichromate
coatings varies from dark brown to black.
13.Galvanic Anodizing Treatment. This treatment is particularly applicable to magnesium
alloy Dowmetal M, AM3S when close dimensional tolerances are required. After being given
the hydrofluoric acid pickling dip the work is immersed and galvanically anodized in a bath
maintained at room temperature. This bath consists of 4 ounces of ammonium sulfate, 4
ounces of sodium dichromate, 1/3 fluid ounce of ammonia (sp. gr. 0.880), and water to make
1 gallon. The parts to be treated are connected electrically to the iron or steel tank or to
me,allic cathode plates if the tank is nonmetallic. A current density of 2 to 10 amperes per
square foot is applied long enough to produce a uniform black coating. A minimum of 70
ampere-minutes per square foot is required and the maximum seldom exceeds 150 ampere-
minutes. Increasing the temperature of the bath to 150°F. will shorten the time required. The
work must be rinsed in cold running water and must then be dipped in hot water to facilitate
drying, after removal from the bath. Neither this treatment nor the dichromate treatment
requires prior removal of the chrome-pickle coating found on practically all parts as received
from the manufacturer.
Propellant: A propellant is a chemical substance used in the production of energy that is
subsequently used to create propulsion of a vehicle.
Types of Propellants:
1.Solid Propellant
2.Liquid Propellant
3.Hybrid Propellant
SOLID PROPELLANT:
The term solid propellant has several connotations, including: (1) the rubbery or plastic-like
mixture of oxidizer, fuel, and other ingredients that have been processed and constitute the
finished grain; (2) the processed but uncured product; (3) a single ingredient, such as the fuel
or the oxidizer.
CLASSIFICATION:
Processed modern propellants can be classified in several ways, as described below. This
classification is not rigorous or complete. Sometimes the same propellant will fit into two or
more of the classifications.
1. Propellants are often tailored to and classified by specific applications, such as space
launch booster propellants or tactical missile propellants; each has somewhat specific
chemical ingredients, different burning rates, different physical properties, and different
performance.
Propellants for rocket motors have hot (over 2400 K) gases and are used to produce thrust,
but gas generator propellants have lower-temperature combustion gases (800 to 1200 K) and
they are used to produce power, not thrust. Historically, the early rocket motor propellants
used to be grouped into two classes: double-base (DB*) propellants were used as the first
production propellants, and then the development of polymers as binders made the composite
propellants feasible.
2. Double-base (DB) propellants form a homogeneous propellant grain, usually a
nitrocellulose (NC*), a solid ingredient which absorbs liquid nitroglycerine (NG) plus minor
percentages of additives. Both the major ingredients are explosives and function as a
combined fuel and oxidizer. Both extruded double-base (EDB) and cast double-base (CDB)
propellant have found extensive applications, mostly in small tactical missiles of older
design. By adding crystalline nitramines (HMX or RDX)* the performance and density can
be improved; this is sometimes called cast-modified double-base propellant. A further
improvement is to add an elastomeric binder (rubber-like, such as crosslinked polybutadiene),
which improves the physical properties and allows more nitramine and thus improves the
performance slightly. The resulting propellant is called elastomeric-modified cast double-
base (EMCDB). These four classes of double base have nearly smokeless exhausts.
3. Composite propellants form a heterogeneous propellant grain with the oxidizer crystals and
a powdered fuel (usually aluminum) held together in a matrix of synthetic rubber (or plastic)
binder, such as polybutadiene (HTPB)*. Composite propellants are cast from a mix of solid
(AP crystals, A1 powder)* and liquid (HTPB, PPG)* ingredients. The propellant is hardened
by crosslinking or curing the liquid binder polymer with a small amount of curing agent, and
curing it in an oven, where it becomes hard and solid. In the past three decades the composite
propellants have been the most commonly used class.
PROPELLANT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. High performance or high specific impulse; really this means high gas temperature and/or
low molecular mass.
2. Predictable, reproducible, and initially adjustable burning rate to fit the need of the grain
design and the thrust-time requirement.
3. For minimum variation in thrust or chamber pressure, the pressure or burning rate
exponent and the temperature coefficient should be small.
4. Adequate physical properties (including bond strength) over the
intended operating temperature range.
5. High density (allows a small-volume motor).
6. Predictable, reproducible ignition qualities (such as reasonable ignition
overpressure)
7. Good aging characteristics and long life.
8. Low absorption of moisture, which often causes chemical deterioration.
9. Simple, reproducible, safe, low-cost, controllable, and low-hazard manufacturing.
10.Guaranteed availability of all raw materials and purchased components over the
production and operating life of the propellant, and good control over undesirable impurities.
11.Low technical risk, such as a favorable history of prior applications.
12.Relative insensitivity to certain energy stimuli described in the next section.
13.Non-toxic exhaust gases.
14.Not prone to combustion instability
LIQUID PROPELLANTS:
The propellants, which are the working substance of rocket engines, constitute the fluid that
undergoes chemical and thermodynamic changes. The term liquid propellant embraces all the
various liquids used and may be one of the following:
1. Oxidizer (liquid oxygen, nitric acid, etc.)
2. Fuel (gasoline, alcohol, liquid hydrogen, etc.).
3. Chemical compound or mixture of oxidizer and fuel ingredients, capable
of self-decomposition.
4. Any of the above, but with a gelling agent.
A bipropellant rocket unit has two separate liquid propellants, an oxidizer and a fuel. They
are stored separately and are not mixed outside the combustion chamber. The majority of
liquid propellant rockets have been manufactured for bipropellant applications.
A monopropellant contains an oxidizing agent and combustible matter in a single substance.
It may be a mixture of several compounds or it may be a homogeneous material, such as
hydrogen peroxide or hydrazine. Monopropellants are stable at ordinary atmospheric
conditions but decompose and yield hot combustion gases when heated or catalyzed.
A cold gas propellant (e.g., nitrogen) is stored at very high pressure, gives a low
performance, allows a simple system and is usually very reliable. It has been used for roll
control and attitude control.
A cryogenic propellant is liquified gas at low temperature, such as liquid oxygen (-183°C)
or liquid hydrogen (-253°C). Provisions for venting the storage tank and minimizing
vaporization losses are necessary with this type.
Storable propellants (e.g., nitric acid or gasoline) are liquid at ambient temperature and can
be stored for long periods in sealed tanks. Space storable propellants are liquid in the
environment of space; this storability depends on the specific tank design, thermal conditions,
and tank pressure. An example is ammonia.
A gelled propellant is a thixotropic liquid with a gelling additive. It behaves like a jelly or
thick paint. It will not spill or leak readily, can flow under pressure, will burn, and is safer in
some respects.
HYBRID PROPELLANTS:
Rocket propulsion concepts in which one component of the propellant is stored in liquid
phase while the other is stored in solid phase are called hybrid propulsion systems. Such
systems most commonly employ a liquid oxidizer and solid fuel.
