JSC-09423

APOLLO PROGRAM
SUMMARY REPORT

Nalinnal Aeronautics and Space Adminislralinn

LYNDON B. JOHNSON SPACE CENTER
Houston, Texm
April 1975
 JSC-09423

APOLLO PROGRAM SUMMARY REPORT

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

LYNDON B. JOHNSON SPACE CENTER
HOUSTON, TEXAS
April 1975
it

The Earth above the lunar horizon, photographed during the Apollo 8 mission
with a 70-mm electric camera equipped with a medium telephoto (250-mm) lens.
 111

FOREWORD

This report is intended to summarize the major

activities of Apollo and to provide sources of ref-
erence for those who desire to pursue any portion to
a greater depth. Personal recognition is not given
1n any case except for the crewmen who were assigned
to the missions. Indeed. any step beyond this would
literally lead to the naming of thousands of men and
women who made significant contributions. and. un-
avoidably, the omission of the names of many others
who played an equally significant part; however, all
of these people must undoubtedly have a feeling of
satisfaction in having been a part of one of man's
most complex and, at the same time. noble undertak-
ings.
iv
 v

COUTEJrrS

Section Page

1.0 UITROOUcrION. 1-1

2.0 FLIGHT PROGRAM 2-1

2.1 SATURN LAweN VEIIICLE AND APOLLO SPACECRAFT DEVELOPMENT FLICHTS 2-1

2.1.1 Mission SA-1 2-1

2.1.2 Mi8sion SA-2 2-3
2.1.3 Mi88ion SA-3 2-3
2.1.4 Mi88ion SA-4 2-4
2.1.5 Mis8ion SA-5 2-4
2.1.6 Mis8ion A-I0l 2-5
2.1. 7 Kinion A-I02 2-5
2.1.8 Mis8ion A-103 2-7
2.1. 9 Ki811ion A-104 2-'
2.1.10 Kiuion A-IDS 2-'
2.2 APOLLO SPACECRAIT ABORT TESTS 2-11

2.2.1 Pad Abort Tu' 1 2-11

2.2.2 Minion A-oOI 2-13
2.2.3 Hiuion A-002 • • 2-13
2.2.4 Mbaion A-003 2-15
2.2.5 Pad Abort Test 2 2-15
2.2.6 Hinion A-004 2-16

2.3 UNMANNED APOLLO/SATURN FLIGHTS 2-17

2.3.1 Misaion AS-201 2-17

2.3.2 Mission AS-203 2-19
2.3.3 Mission AS-202 2-21
2.3.4 Apollo
• Mission • 2-22
2.3.5
2.3.6 Apollo ,
Apollo 5 Mission
MiSSiOD
2-24
2-26

2.' MANNED APOLLO/SATURN FLIGHTS 2-27

2.4.1 Apollo 1 Mission 2-27

2.4.2 Apollo 7 Mission 2-27
2-29
2.4.3
2.4.4 Apollo ,
Apollo 8 Mission
Mission
• •
•
•
2-32
2.4.5 Apollo 10 Mission 2-34
2.4.6 Apollo 11 Mission • 2-36
2.4.7 Apollo 12 Mission 2-38
2.4.8 Apollo 13 l-lission 2-39
vi

Section Page

2.4.9 Apollo 14 Mission 2-41

2.4.10
2.4.11
2.4.12
Apollo I.
Apollo 15 Mission
Mission
Apollo 17 Mission
2-45
2-48
2-51

2.5 REFERENCES 2-54

].0 SCIENCE SUMMARY ]-1

).1 INTRODUCTION ]-1

3.2 LUNAR SURFACE SCIENCE ]-1

3.2.1 Geology of ,h. Apollo 11 Landing Site ]-4

3.2.2 Geology of <h. Apollo 12 Landing Site ]-8
3.2.3 Geology of <h. Apollo 14 Landing Site 3-11
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.2.6
Geology of <h. Apollo
Geology of ,h. Apollo
I.
Geology of the Apollo 15 Landing Site
Landing Site
17 Landing Site
3-15
3-19
3-23
3.2.7 Geology and Soil Kechanics EQuipment • )-26
3.2.1.1 Apollo lunar surface hand tools 3-26
3.2.7.2 Tool carriers )-29
3.2.7.3 Apollo lunar sample return container 3-29
3.2.7.4 Bags and special containers )-29
3.2.7.5 Lunar surface sampler 3-3)
3.2.7.6 Lunar roving vehicle soil sampler 3-33
3.2.7.7 Penetrometers )-33
3.2.7.8 Apollo lunar surface drill )-3)

3.2.8 Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packagel

Central Station . . . • )-)6

3.2.9 Passive Seismic Experiment 3-41

3.2.10 Active Seismic Experiment )-44
3.2.11 Lunar Seismic Profiling Experiment 3-45
3.2.12 Lunar Surface Magnetometer Experiment ]-45
3.2.13 Lunar Portable Magnetometer Experiment • 3-46
3.2.H Heat Flow Experilllent • . . . . . . . 3-48
3.2.15 Lunar Surface Gravimeter Experiment 3-48
3.2.16 Traverse Gravimeter Experiment . . • 3-50
3.2.11 Surface Electrical Properties Experiment 3-50
3.2.18 Neutron Probe Experiment • . )-51
3.2.19 14ser Ranging Retroreflector 3-51
3.2.20 Charged-Particle Lunar Envtrolllllent ~eriment )-52
3.2.21 Solar WiDd Spectrometer £speriment 3-53
3.2.22 Solar Wind Co~sition Experiment 3-54
 vii

Section Page

3.2.23 Suprathcrmal Ion Detector and Cold-Cathode Cage ExperimentG 3-54

3.2.24 Cosmic Ray Detector Experiment . . . . 3-56
3.2.25 Lunar Ejecta and Meteorites Experiment 3-57
3.2.26 Lunar Atmospheric Composition Experiment 3-60
3.2.27 Lunar Dust Detector 3-62
3.2.28 Surveyor III Analysis • 3-62
3.2.29 Particle Implantation Studies 3-62
3.2.30 Long-Term Lunar Surface Exposure 3-63
3.2.31 Far-Ul t raviolet Camera/Spectrogr.1ph 3-63

3.3 LUNAR ORBITAL SCIENCE. 3-65

3.3.1 Bistatic Radar 3-65

3.3.2 S-Band Transponder 3-71
3.3.3 Infrared Scanning Radiometer 3-71
3.3.4 Lunar Sounder . • . . . . . 3-72
3.3.5 Particle Shadows/Boundary Layer )-73
3.3.6 Magnetometer 3-75
3.3.7 Subsatellite Performance 3-75
3.3.7.1 Apollo 15 3-75
3.3.7.2 Apollo 16 3-76
3.3.8 Cosmic Ray Detector (Helmets) 3-76
3.3.9 Apollo Window Meteoroid 3-76
3.3.10 Gamma-Ray Spectrometer 3-77
3.3.11 X-Ray Fluorescence . . 3-78
3.3.12 Alpha-Particle Spectrometer 3-79
3.3.13 Mass Spectrometer 3-79
3.3.14 Far-Ultraviolet Spectrometer 3-80
3.3.15 Lunar Mission Photography From the Command and
Service Module • . . . . . . 3-81
3.3.16 Lunar Multispectral Photography 3-82
3.3.17 Candidate Exploration Sites Photography 3-82
3.3.18 Selenodetic Reference Point Update 3-82
3.3.19 Transearth Lunar Photography • . . 3-82
3.3.20 Service Module Orbital Photographic Tasks 3-83
3.3.21 Command Module Orbital Science Photography 3-85
3.3.22 Visual Observations From Lunar Orbit 3-86
3.3.23 Gegenschein From Lunar Orbit • 3-87
3.3.24 Ultraviolet Photography - Earth and Hoon 3-87
3.3.25 Dim-Light Photography . . . . . . 3-88
3.3.26 Command Module Photographic Tasks 3-88
viii

Section Page

3.4 EARTH RESOURCES PHOTOGRAPHY

3.4.1 Synoptic Terrain Photography 3-90
3.4.2 Synoptic Weather Photography • 3-90
3.4.3 Multispectral Terrain Photography 3-90

3.5 BIOtlEDICAL EXPERIMENTS . 3-91

3.5.1 Microbial Reaponse to Space Environment 3-91

3.5.2 Biostack Experiment .. • 3-95
3.5.3 Biological Cosmic Radiation Experiment 3-95

3.6 INFLIGlfi DEMONSTRATIONS 3-98

3.6.1 Fluid Electrophoresis 3-98

3.6.1.1 Apollo 14 3-100
3.6.1.2 Apollo 16 • 3-100
3.6.2 Liquid Transfer 3-100
3.6.2.1 Unbaffled tanks 3-101
3.6.2.2 Baffled tanks 3-102
3.6.3 Heat Flow and Convection 3-102
3.6.3.1 Apollo 14 demonstration 3-102
3.6.3.2 Apollo 17 demonstrations 3-103
3.6.3.3 Summary of interpretations 3-1G4
3.6.4 Composite Casting 3-104

3.7 REFERENCES . . 3-105

4.0 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE 4-1

4.1 SATURN LAUNCH VEHICLES 4-1

4.1.1 Introduction 4-1

4.1.2 Saturn I • 4-1
4.1.3 Saturn IB 4-4
4.1.4 Saturn V 4-4
4.1.5 Design and Development 4-4
4.1.6 Mission Perfo~nce 4-6

4.2 LITTLE JOE II PROGRAM 4-6

4.2.1 Introduction 4-6

4.2.2 Launch Vehicle Development 4-7
4.2.3 Spacecraft • 4-7
4.2.4 Concluding Remarks 4-11
 ix

Section Page

4.3 COMMAND AND SERVICE ~DULE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM 4-11

4.3.1 Introduction . . . 4-11

4.3.2 Block I and Block II Hardware 4-12
4.3.2.1 Boilerplate apacecraft 4-12
4.3.2.2 Block I apacecraft 4-12
4.3.3.3 Block I ground test vehicles and fixtures 4-12
4.3.3.4 Block II spacecraft 4-13
4.3.2.5 Block II ground test program 4-13

4.4 COMMAND AND SERVICE n)DULE SYSTEMS DEVELOPME1IT AND PERFORmNCE 4-13

4.4.1 Introduction 4-13

4.4.2" Structures. 4-13
4.4.3 Thermal Management Systems 4-19
4.4.3.1 Thermal protection 4-19
4.4.3.2 Thermal control 4-20
4.4.4 Mechanical Systems . • . . 4-23
4.4.4.1 Earth landing system 4-23
4.4.4.2 Docking mechanism 4-25
4.4.4.3 Crew support/restraint and impact attenuation
systems • . . . 4-25
4.4.4.4 Uprighting system 4-27
4.4.4.5 Side access hatch 4-29
4.4.4.6 Experiment deployment mechanisms 4-29
4.4.5 Cryogenic Storage System 4-29
4.4.6 Electrical Power System 4-35
4.4.6.1 Fuel cells 4-35
4.4.6.2 Batteries 4-41
4.4.6.3 Power conversion and distribution 4-41
4.4.7 Propulsion Systems • . • . 4-42
4.4.7.1 Service propulsion system 4-43
4.4.7.2 Reaction control systems . 4-44
4.4.8 Guidance, Navigation and Control System 4-46
4.4.9 Environmental Control System 4-50
4.4.10 Displays and Controls 4-53
4.4.11 Communications System 4-54
4.4.12 Instrumentation System 4-55

4.5 LUNAR I·(JDULE DEVELOPHENT PROGRAM 4-57

4.5.1 Introduction • . 4-57

4.5.2 Test Articles and Ground Test Program 4-57
4.5.2.1 Mockups 4-57
4.5.2.2 Test models • 4-59
4.5.2.3 Lunar module test articles 4-59
 x

Section Page

4.5.3 Urur.anood Flight Test Program 4-59

4.5.4 Manned Vehicles 4-59
4.5.4.1 ApoLlo' through Apollo 14 lunar modules 4-59
4.5.4.2 Exteaded-stay lunar modules 4-66

4.6 LUNAR MODULE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMEIlT AIlD PERF'ORlWICE 4-66

4.6.1 Introduction 4-66

4.6.2 Structures . 4-66
4.6.2.1 Shear panel fatigue and thickness control 4-66
4.6.2.2 Stress corrosion . . . . . 4-66
4.6.2.3 Internally machined struts 4-68
4.6.2.4 Part a interchangeability 4-68
4.6.2.5 Flight performance 4-68
4.6.3 Thermal Control System 4-68
4.6.4 Landing Cea r • • 4-69
4.6.5 Electrical Power System 4-71
4.6.5.1 Batteries 4-71
4.6.5.2 Power conversion snd distribution 4-72
4.6.6 Propulsion Systems . . . . 4-73
4.6.6.1 Descent propulsion system 4-73
4.6.6.2 Ascent propulsion system 4-75
4.6.6.3 Reaction control system 4-76
4.6.7 Guidance, NavigatiQn and Control Syatem 4-78
4.6.8 Environmental Control 4-82
4.6.9 Displays and Controls 4-85
4.6.10 Communications System 4-85
4.6.11 Radar Systems • . . . 4-87
4.6.12 Instrumentation System 4-89

4.7 ADDITIONAL SPACECRAF"f DEVELOP/lENT CONSIDERATIONS 4-90

4.7.1 Introduction • . . • . . 4-90

4.7.2 Electrical Wiring System • 4-90
4.7.3 Pyrotechnic Devices 4-92
4.7.4 Sequencing System 4-93
4.7.5 Optical and Visual Aids 4-95
4.7.6 Emergency Detection System • 4-96
4.7.7 Development Flight Instrumentation 4-96
4.7.8 Fracture Control . • . . . . • . . 4-97
 xi

Section Page

4.8 WNAR SURFACE MOBILITY .•. • 4-98

4.8.1 Modular Equipment Transporter 4-98

4.8.2 Lunar Roving Vehicle 4-98
4.8.2.1 Apollo 15 • 4-101
4.8.2.2 Apollo 16 4-103
4.8.2.3 Apollo 17 4-103

4.9 LUNAR SURFACE COMMUNICATIONS 4-103

4.9.1 Introducti(ln . 4-103

4.9.2 Extravehicular Communications Unit 4-104
4.9.3 Lunar Communications Relay Unit 4-101'
4.9.4 Television Camera Systems 4-107

4.10' FLIGHT CREW SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4-108

4.10.1 Extravehicular Mobility Unit 4-108

4.10.1.1 Pressure garment assembly 4-1G8
4.10.1.2 Portable life s~pport system 4-112
4.10.1.3 OXYi,en purge system .... 4-114
4.10.1.4 Buddy secondary life support system 4-115
4.10.1.5 Transearth extravehicular system 4-115
4.10.2 Crew Statl(1n Configuration and Equipment. 4-115
4.10.2.1 Command ~dule ~rew station and equip~nt 4-117
4.10.2.2 Lunar module crew station and equipment 4-119

4.11 REFERENCES . . . 4-121

5.0 SPACECRAFT DEVELOPMENT TESTING 5-1

5.1 INTRODUCTION...... 5-1
5.2 WHITE SANDS tEST FACILITY 5-1
5.3 MANNED SPACECRAFT CENTER 5-1
5.4 REFERENCES . • 5-2
6.0 FLIGHT CREW SUMMARY 6-1

6.1 CREW REPORT 6-1

6.1.1 Training 6-1

6.1. 2 Mission Experience 6-4
6.1.2.1 Launch through docking 6-4
6.1.2.2 Translunar and transearth coast 6-5
6.1.2.3 Command and service module thrusting maneuvers 6-5
6.1.2.4 Lunar module checkout 6-6
6.1.2.5 Lunar module thrusting maneuvers 6-6
6.1.2.6 Lunar module landings 6-1
6.1.2.7 Lunar surface operations 6-8
xii

Section Page

6.1.2.8 Rendezvous snd docking 6-12

6.1.2.9 Lunar orbit operations 6-13
6.1.2.10 Command module extravehicular activity 6-14
6.1.2.11 Crcw accommodation to zero gravity 6-14
6.1.2.12 Guidance and naviga~ion systems 6-14
6.1.2.13 Entry and landing 6-16

6.2 FLIGHT CREW TRAINING PROGRAM 6-16

6.3 FLIGHT PLANNING 6-19

6.3.1 Flight Plsn Development 6-23

6.3.1.1 Flight planning techniques 6-23
6.3.1.2 Alternate and contingency flight plans 6-23
6.3.1.3 Flight plan verification using simulators 6-24
6.3.2 Flight Plan Execution 6-24
6.3.3 Change Control 6-24

6.4 OPERATIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY 6-25

6.4.1 Equipment Summary 6-25

6.4.2 Photographic Results 6-25
6.4.3 Conclusions • 6-33

6.5 REFERENCES. • • • 6-37

7.0 MISSION OPERATIONS 7-1

7.1 MISSION CONTROL 7-1

7.1.1 Mission Control Center 7-1

7.1. 2 Emergency Power Building and Backup Facility 7-4
7.1.2.1 Emergency power system . 7-4
7.1.2.2 Emergency lighting system 7-6
7.1.2.3 Emergency cooling system 7-6
7.1.2.4 Secondary Mission Control Center 7-6
7.1. 3 Hission Control Functions 7-6
7.1.3.1 Unmanned flights 7-6
7.1.3.2 Manned flights . 7-6
7.1.3.3 Dual-vehicle operation 7-7
7.1.3.4 Lunar operation 7-7
7.1.4 Concluding Remarks 7-8

7.2 MISSION PLANNING .. 7-8

7.2.1 Trajectory Design 7-8

7.2.2 Consumables 7-9
7.2.3 Lunar Landing Site Selection 7-9
7.2.4 Documentation ... 7-9
 x iii

Section Page

7.3 MANNED SPACE FLIGHT NETWORK 7-9

7.3.1 Colllll8nd Systems 7-10

7.3.2 Telemetry Systems 7-10
7.3.3 Tracking Systems • 7-11
7.3.4 Connunications Systems 7-11

7.4 RECOVERY OPERATIONS 7-11

7.4.1 Department of Defense Support 7-12

7.4.2 Recovery Posture . • . . . . • 7-12
7.4.2.1 Earth orbital missions 7-12
7.4.2.2 Lunar missions 7-12
7.4.3 Equipment and Procedures 7-17
7.4.4 Command Module Post retrieval and Deactivation Procedures 7-21
7.4.5 Concluding Remarks . • . . . 7-21

7.5 EFFECTS OF WEATHER ON MISSION OPERATIONS 7-22

7.5.1 Prelaunch Operations 7-22

7.5.2 Launch Phase 7-22
7.5.3 Recovery Operations 7-23

7.' APOLLO FLIGHT DATA . 7-23

7.6.1 Operational Data 7-23

7.6.2 Engineering Analysis 08" 7-23
7.6.3 Experiment Data 7-25

7.7 MISSION EVALUATION 7-25

7.7.1 Prelaunch Support 7-25

7.7.2 Real-Time Evaluation 7-25
7.7.3 Postflight Evaluation 7-26

7.8 REFERENCES 7-28

8.0 BIOMEDICAL SUMMARY 8-1

8.1 PREFLIGHT MEDICAL PROGRAM 8-1

8.1.1 Flight Crew Health Stabilization 8-1

8.1.1.1 Clinical medicine 8-1
8.1.1.2 Immunology . . . • 8-2
8.1.1.3 Exposure prevention 8-2
8.1. 2 Preflight Physical Examinations 8-4
xiv

Section Page
8.2 Hf.DTCAJ.ORSERVATTONS . 8-'
8.2.1 Cabin Environment and Toxicology 8-'
8.2.2 Radiation . . . . . . . 8-5
8.2.2.1 Radiation dose 8-5
8.2.2.2 Visual light flash phenomenon 8-5
8.2.3 Adaptation to Weightlessness 8-5
8.2.4 Work/Rest Cycles . . . . . . 8-6
8.2.5 Crew Illnesses and Medications 8-8
8.2.6 Cardiac Arrhythmias . . . . . 8-10
8.2.7 Postflight Medical Evaluation 8-10

8.3 BIOMEDICAL EQUIPMEm' PERFORMANCE 8-11

8.3.1 Instrumentation 8-11

8.3.2 Medication Packaging • 8-12

8.' FOOD • 8-12

8.5 APOLLO LUNAR QUARANTINE PROGRAM 8-13

8.5.1 Quarantine Program Guidelines 8-13

8.5.2 Program Elements . . . . . . . 8-14
8.5.2.1 Lunar surface contamination 8-14
8.5.2.2 Lunar sample collection 8-14
8.5.2.3 Inf1ight cont~nation control 8-15
8.5.2.4 Return to terrestrial biosphere 8-15

8.6 SPECIAL MEDICAL STUDIES 8-16

8.6.1 Microbiology . . 8-16

8.6.1.1 Apollo 7 through 12 8-17
8.6.1.2 ApollO 13 through 17 8-17
8.6.2 Virology 8-17

8.7 BIOCHARACTERlZATIQN OF LUNAR MATERIAL 8-17

8.7.1 Microbiology . . . . . . . . . 8-18

8.7.1.1 Virological investigations 8-18
8.7.1.2 Bacteriological and mycological investigations 8-18
8.7.2 Zoology 8-18
8.7.3 Botany 8-20

8.8 REFERENCES.. 8-21

 xv

Section Page

'.0 SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING AND TESTING . . '-1

'.1 COM}WID AND SERVICE MODULE, LAUNCH ESCAPE SYSTEM AND SPACECRAFr/LUNAR
MODULE ADAPTER • . . • . • • . • '-1
9.1.1 Collllland Module Assembly and Checkout '-1
9.1.1.1 Heat shield structure '-1
9.1.1.2 Crew compartmeDt structure '-1
9.1.1.3 Final operations .... '-4
9.1.2 Service Module Assembly and Checkout '-4
9.1. 3 Launch Escape System Assembly and Checkout '-6
9.1. 3.1 Canard assembly . '-6
9.1.3.2 Skirt structural assembly '-6
9.1.3.3 Tower structural assembly 9-<>
9.1.3.4 Boo" protective cover 9-6
9.1.3.5 Final assembly. 9-6
9.1.4 Spacecraft/Lunar Module Adapter Assembly 9-6
9.1.5 Systems and Vehicle Checkout . . • • • 9-8
9.1.5.1 Integrated systems checkout 9-8
9.1.5.2 Integrated test 9-8
9.1.6 Facilities . . . . . 9-8
9.1.6.1 Bonding and test facility 9-8
9.1.6.2 Structure fabrication area 9-12
9.1.6.3 Electronic and electromechanical equipment
fabrication and checkout area 9-12
9.1.6.4 Tube fabrication and cleaning facility 9-12
9.1.6.5 Pressure testing facilities 9-12
9.1.6.6 Systems integration and checkout facility 9-12
9.1. 7 Equipment 9-13
9.1.7.1 Automatic circuit analyzer 9-13
9.1.7.2 Acceptance checkout equipment for spacecraft 9-13

'.2 LUNAR MODULE . 9-15

9.2.1 Ascent Stage Assembly and Checkout 9-15

9.2.2 Descent Stage Assembly and Checkout 9-15
9.2.3 Formal Engineering Acceptance Test 9-19
9.2.4 Facilities . . . . 9-19
9.2.4.1 Ascent stage structural/mechanical
manufacturing area . . . . . . . 9-20
9.2.4.2 Descent stage structural/mechanical
manufacturing area . • • . . . • 9-20
9.2.4.3 Centralized lunar module assembly, installation,
and final acceptance test area . . •• 9-20
9.2.4.4 High-pressure teat facility (cold-flow) 9-20
xvi

Section Page

9.2.5 Equipment .. . . . . . . . . . 9-20

9.2.6 Specialized Support Laboratories 9-20
9.2.6.1 Full-mission engineering simulator 9-20
9.2.6.2 Flight control integration laboratory 9-20
9.2.6.3 Data reduction facility 9-22
9.2.6.4 Primary gui4ance laboratOry 9-22

10.0 LAUNCH SITE FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND PRELAUNCH OPERATIONS 10-1

10.1 WIlITE SANDS MISSILE RANGE 10-1

10.1.1 Launch Complex. 10-1

10.1.2 Vehicle Assembly Building 10-1
10.1.3 Little Joe 11 Control System Test Facility 10-1
10.1.4 Little Joe 11 Launcher. 10-4
10.1.5 Croun4 Support Equipment 10-4
10.1.5.1 Little Joe II 10-'
10.1.5.2 Command and service module 10-4

10.2 EASTERN TEST RANGE/KENNEDY SPACE CENTER 10-5

10.2.1 Saturn 15 Launch an4 Checkout Facilities 10-5

10.2.2 Saturn V Launch and Checkout Facilities 10-5
10.2.2.1 Vehicle assembly building 10-5
10.2.2.2 Mobile launchers 10-10
10.2.2.3 Launch sitGG 10-10
10.2.2.4 Mobile service structure 10-10
10.2.2.5 Transporter .. 10-10
10.2.2.6 Launch control center 10-14
10.2.3 Vehicle Checkout Operations 10-14
10.2.3.1 Launch vehicle 10-14
10.2.3.2 Lunar module. 10-14
10.2.3.3 Command and service module 10-16
10.2.3.4 Launch pad operations 10-17

11.0 LUNAR RECEIVING LABORATORY 11-1

11.1 INTRODUCTION 11-1

11.2 ORIGINAL CONCEPT 11-1

11.3 FACILITIES. 11-1

11.3.1 Crew Reception Area 11-1

11.3.2 Sample Operations Area 11-)
11.3.3 Radiation Counting Laboratory 11-)
11.3.4 Thin Section Laboratory 11-)
 xvii

Section Page

11.4 OPERATIONS . 11-3

11.4.1 Preliminary Processing and Examination 11-3

11.4.2 Sample Processing 11-6
11.4.3 Gas Analysis . . . 11-6
11.4.4 Radiation Counting 11-11
11.4.5 Biological Testing 11-11
11.5 AFTER APOLLO. 11-11

APPENDIX A - APOLLO FLIGHT DATA • • A-1

APPENDIX B - APOLLO MISSION TYPE DESIGNATIONS • B-1

APPENDIX C - APOLLO SPACECRAFT WEIGHTS • C-1

APPENDIX D - MANNED SPACE FLIGHT RECORDS ESTABLISHED DURING APOLLO PROGRAM D-1

APPENDIX E - FLIGHT SPACECRAFT CHECKOUT HISTORY £-1

APPENDIX F FLIGHT ANOHALIES '-1

xviii
 1-1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

TI~ Apollo Program Summary Report 1s a synopsis ot the overall program activities and the
technology developed to accomplish lunar exploration. The report is intended, primarily, for
the reader who desires a general knowledge of the technical aspects of the Apollo program, but
was also edited for coroprehension by the lay reader. l-luch of the infon:lation contained herein
has been extracted or summarized from Apollo Mission Reports, Apollo Preliminary Science Reports,
Apollo Experience Reports, and other applicable documents. However, some of the information has
not been published elsewhere. A summary of the flights conducted over an II-year period 1s fol-
lowed by specific aspects of the overall program, including lunar science, vehicle development,
flight operations, and biomedical results. Appendixes provide data on each of the Apollo mis-
sions (appendix A), mission type designations (appendix B), spacecraft weights (appendix C),
records achieved by Apollo crewmen (appendix D), vehicle histories (appendix E), and a listing
of ano~alous hardware conditions noted during each flight beginning with Apollo 4 (appendix F).
No attempt was made to include information pertaining to the lIlilnagement of the Apollo program
since this area deserves special treatment. Several other areas were also considered to be be-
yond the scope of this document, although they were of great importance in accomplishing the
established program objectives.

The names of installations and geographical locations used in the report are those that ex-
isted during the Apollo program. For example, the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center is referred
to by its former name, the Manned Spacecraft Center, and Cape Canaveral is referred to as Cape
Kennedy. Customary units of measurement are used throughout the report except in lunar science
discussions. Metric units were used in the lunar science discussions in the Apollo Mission Re-
ports and are also used in this report. All references to miles mean nautical miles rather than
statute miles.
1-2
 2-1

2.0 FLIGHT PROGRAM

the Apollo program consisted of 33 flights, 11 of which were .anned. The 22 unmanned flights
were conducted to qualify the launch vehicle and spacecraft for manned apace flight. Four of the
manned flights were also conducted to oan-rate tbe overall vehicle for lunar exploration. The
final seven flights were conducted to explore the lunar envlronaent and surface, providing man
with detailed data concerning the moon and lt8 characteristics.

Especially significant during tbe Apollo program was that no major launch vehicle failure
occurred to prevent a missIon from being ac~pl18hed and only one tnflight faIlure of a space-
craft (Apollo 13) prevented the intended mission from being accomplished. This section of the
report provides a sucmary of each of these flights and discusses soee of the more significant
findings.

2.1 SAIUJUI LAUNCH VElIlCLE AND APOLLO SPACECRAFT

DEVELOPMENT FLIGHTS

The early development of the Saturn launch vehicle ~aa conducted prior to the final decision
that man ~ould attempt to land on the lunar surf~=e. The initial 10 flights provided man with
the firat insight of the capabilities of large boosters and how such a booster would operate.
The primary purposes of these missions were to flight qualify the launch vehicle stsges and sys-
tems and to determine the compatibility of the launch vehicle/spacecraft combination. A by-
product of these flighta ~as data obtained from experiments conducted to extend the kno~ledge of
the ionosphere. Also, three Pegasus satellites were placed in orbit during this part of the
flight test progra~ to gather data on meteoroids.

2.1.1 Hission SA-l

Apollo mission SA-l was the first flight of the Saturn I launch vehicle. The mission was
unmanned and conducted for research and development purposes. The launch vehicle carried a
dummy second stsge and a nose cone from a Jupiter missile. The vehicle had no active path guid-
ance, and the flight trajectory was suborbital.

The objectives of the mission included:

a. Flight test of the eight clustered 11-1 engines

b. Flight test of the S-l stage clustered propellant tankage structure

c. Flight test of the S-1 stage control system

d. Performance measurement of bending and flutter, propellant sloshing, base heating, aero-
dynamic-engine torque, snd airframe aerodynamic he~ting

The SA-I vehicle was launched on October 27, 1961, from Launch Complex )4 of the Eastern Test
Range, Cape Kennedy, Florida, at 01:00:06 p.m. e.s.t. (15:00:06 C.m.t.). Two launch delays total-
ing 54 minutes were necessitated becsuse of cloud cover over the launch pad. The lift-off is
shown in figure 2-1.

The flight path of SA-I, from lift-off through the cutoff of the inboard engines. was very
close to that predicted. The trajectory was slightly hi~ler than predicted because of higher-
than-expected accelerations. The trajectory parameter. after inboard engine cutoff were propor-
tionally lower than predicted because the cutoff signal occurred 1.61 seconds early. The vehicle
reached a maxi.um altitude of 84.6 miles and a _xi_·range of 206 IDiles.

The mission wa. considered s coeplete success. The vehicle was instrumented for 505 inflight
messurementa, of which 485 performed reliably. All pri1l18ry flight objectives were lIiet.
2-2

Figure 2-1.- First Saturn vehicle lift-off.

 2-3

2.1.2 Hission SA-2

Apollo mission SA-2. an unn,anned, research and developmental mission, was the second flight
of the Saturn I launch vehicle. The vehicle carried a dummy second stage and a Jupiter missile
nose cone. The vehicle had no active path guidance, and the flight trajectory was suborbital.

The ohj ectives of the mission were:

a. Prove the first stage propulsion system, structural design, and control system

b. Prove the launch facilities and ground support equipment of Launch Complex 34

c. Confirm the vehicle aerodynamic characteristics in flight

d. Prove the inflight performance of first stage engines and their adequacy to reach de-
sign velocity

e. Verify the structural design of the booster airfrane

f. Demonstrate the capability of the guidance and cont!:"ol system to perfo!:"m as !:"equi!:"ed

g. Release 22 900 gallons of wate!:" in space as' Project High Wate!:" 1

Mission SA-2 was launched on "pdl 25, 1962, frOf.l Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 34 at 09:00:34
a.m. e.s.t. (14:00:34 G.m.t.L Thc!:"e was a 30-ninute launch delay because a ship was in the down-
range a!:"ea.

The flight path of SA-2 ag!:"eed closely with the p!:"edicted t!:"ajectory. However, the trajec-
tory during powered flight was somewhat lower because of lower-than-anticipated accelerations.
The destruct signal for detonating the water container of Project High Water 1 was transmitted
162.56 seconds after lift-off when the vehicle was at an altitude of 65.2 miles. Five seconds
thereafter, the water formed into a 4.6-mile-dianeter ice cloud, which continued to climb to an
altitude of 90 miles. The purpose of the Project High Water experiment was to upset the concen-
tration of water vapor in the ionosphere and to study the conditions as equilibrium was regained.
Several measurements were made during the experiMent. For exaf.1ple, the electron production proc-
ess rates in and near the E-region were measured. Measurements were also made of the rates of
reactions involving water, the hydroxyl ion, diatot:1ic and triatOMic oxygen, and hydrogen in the
region between 62 and 83.7 miles altitude. The experiMent was performed for NASA's Office of
Space Sciences and was the first such large-scale test ever f.lade in space.

2.1.3 Mission SA-3

Apollo mission SA-3 was the third flight of the Saturn I launch vehicle. Like SA-I and SA-2,
the mission was unmanned and conducted for !:"esearch and developf.1ent purposes. This launch ve-
hicle also carried a dummy second stage and a Jupiter missile nose cone. The vehicle had no ac-
tive path guidance, and the trajectory was suborbital. The payload was Project High Water 2-
The objectives were the sane as those of l"Iission SI\-2.

The SA-3 vehicle was launched on liovember 16, 1962, fron Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 34 at
12:45:02 p.m. e.s.t. (17:45:02 G.m.t.). There was a 45-minute launch delay due to a power fail-
ure in the ground support equipment.

The actual flisht path of SA-3 was close to the predicted one. to. slightly lower accelera-
tion than planned caused the altitude and range to be less than predicted throughout powered
flight. However, a longer firing period than planned caused both to be greater after first-stage
cutoff. The destruct signal for the container of Project High Water 2 was transmitted at 292
seconds afte!:" lift-off when the vehicle was at an altitude of 103.7 miles. The 22 900 gallons
of water fonned an ice cloud that continued along the flight path of the vehicle, as had the
cloud fonned by Project High Water 1 on the SI\-2 mission. All objectives of the mission were
met.
2-4

2.1.4 Mission SA-4

Apollo mission SA-4 was the fourth launch of the Saturn I launch vehicle. Like the three
previous missions, an unmanned, research and developmental vehicle was used. The SA-4 vehicle
was equipped with a dummy second stage and a Jupiter missile nose cone. The vehicle had no path
guidance, and the trajectory was suborbital.

The objectives of the mission were the same as those of SA-2 and SA-3, with the following
two exceptions.

3. Programmed premature cutoff of one of the eight engines of the firGt stage wac uced to
demonstrate that the vehicle could perform the mission with an engine out.

b. Project High Water payload was not carried on SA-4.

Mission SA-4 was launched on March 28, 1963, frota Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 34 at 03:11:55
p.m. e.s.t. (20:11:55 G.r.l.t.). Three technical delays, totaling 102 r:dnutes, were experienced in
the countdown.

The flight path was close to the predicted one. A slightly higher acceleration and an early
cutoff signal caused the maximul':'l altitude to be 0.96 mile higher and the range to be 0.13 mile
shorter than planned. First-stage engine 5 was cut off at 100.6 seconds after lift-off, 0.22
second earlier than planned. The vehicle responded to the early shutdown as predicted and the
flight continutld, 5ucctlssfully <icCQmpl1shlng LlJtl Qbjt!ctivt!.

2.1.5 Mission SA-5

Apollo mission SA-5 was the fifth launch of the Saturn I launch vehicle and the first of a
more advanced research and development configuration which had a live second stage and a func-
tional instrument unit for onboard guidance. The launch vehicle had a Jupiter missile nose cone
ballasted with sand to simulate the Apollo spacecraft mass characteristics.

SA-S was an unmanned, research and developl':'lental ~ission with the following objectives.

•• Flight test of ,h. launch vehicle propulsion. structure. and flight control systems

b. Flight test of ,h. live second stage

<- Flight test of <h. vehicle instrument unit

d. Separation test of the first and second launch vehicle stages

•• Checkout of Launch Complex 37B

f. Recovery of movie cameras and fill':'l showing oxidizer sloshing, stage separation and other
performance characteristics

g. Flight test of the S-I stage fins

h. De~onstration test of liquid hydrogen venting in the second srage

1. Functional test of the function of the eight holddown arms on the launcher

j. Functional test of the stage separation timer

k. Operational test of a passenger ST-124 stabilized platform In the guidance unit

1. Orbiting of a payload weighing 37 700 pounds

Mission SA-5 was launched on January 29, 1964, from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B at
11:25:01 a.m. e.s.t. (16:25:01 G.m.t.). Seventy-three minutes of launch delays during the count-
down were necessitated because of interference on the C-band radar and the co~and destruct fre-
quencies.
 2-5

The flight path of SA-5 was close to the predicted one. However, at outboard engine cutoff
of the 5-1 stage, the cross-range deviation was 1 mile to the left of the planned point. By the
end of the S-IV stage firing. the deviation had increased to 13.2 miles. The 37 700-pound pay-
load of nose cone, including 11 500 pounds of sand, was placed into an orbit with a perigee of
162.6 miles and an apogee of 478.3 miles. The flight produced several firsts for the Saturn I
vehicle. It marked the first flight of the ir'lproved. H-l engines in the 5-1 stage. The new model
produced 188 000 pounds of thrust. Also, several cameras that recorded data during flight were
ejected and recovered. Of the eight cameras used, seven were recovered. An onboard television
camera also transmitted data during the flight. The second or S-IV stage operated as planned,
as did the instrument unit.

2.1.6 Mission A-lOl

Apollo mission A-IOI was the first of two flights of Apollo boilerplate spacecraft to demon-
strate the compatibility of the Apollo spacecraft with the Saturn 1 launch vehicle in a launch
environment similar to that expected for Apollo Saturn V orbital flights. Another important ob-
jective of this mission was to demonstrate the pril:\3ry roode of launch escape tower jettison us-
ing the escape tower jettison motor.

In addition to the boilerplate command and service module, the spacecraft included a produc-
tion-type launch escape system and a service module/launch vehicle adapter. Also, the spacecraft
was equipped with instrumentation to obtain flight data for engineering analysis and evaluation.
The assembly was designated BP-13. The launch vehicle (SA-6) consisted of an S-1 first stage,
an S-lV second stage, and an instrument unit. Figure 2-2 shows the vehicle undergoing tests on
the launch pad approximately I month before launch.

The space vehicle was launched into earth orbit on ~lay 28, 1964, at 12:07:00 p.m. e.s.t.
(17:07:00 C.m.t.) from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B. The spacecraft, S-IV stage, and instru-
ment unit were inserted into orbit as a single unit.

The trajectory provided the launch environment required for the spacecraft mission, and all
spacecraft systems fulfilled their specified functions throughout the countdown and flight test.
Telemetry reception was continuous during launch and exit except for about 3 seconds during
launch vehicle staging. Data were obtained by telemetry until the batteries were expended in the
fourth orbital pass.

Aerodynanic heating produced a maxiMum truss member bond-line tenperature on the launch es-
cape tower that was less than 20 percent of the design limit (550 Q F). Postflight examination
of strain gage, pressure, and acceleration data indicated that the spacecraft structure was ade-
quate for the flight environment encountered.

The launch vehicle flight perforr.l311Ce was acceptable in meeting the required spacecraft test
objectives and all spacecraft objectives were satisfactorily fulfilled before insertion. The
network maintained radar skin tracking until spacecraft entry over the Pacific Ocean near Canton
Island during the 54th orbital pass. The spacecraft was not designed to survive entry and was
not recovered.

2.1.7 Mission A-I02

Mission A-I02 was the second of the two boilerplate spacecraft flights conducted to demon-
strate the compatibility of the Apollo spacecraft with the Saturn 1 launch vehicle. The alter-
nate mode of launch escape tower jettison was also to be demonstrated using the launch escape
lIlOtor and pitch control lIlOtor. The launch trajectory for this mission was similar to that of
mission A-lOl.

The spacecraft consisted of a boilerplate cornnand and service module, a launch escape sys-
tem, and a service module/launch vehicle adapter (BP-lS). The instrumentation was similar to
that of the spacecraft for the A-lOl mission. A significant difference, however, was that one
of the four simulated reaction control system assemblies on the service module was instrumented
to provide data on the aerodynamic heating and vibration levels experienced by the assemblies
during launch. The launch vehicle (SA-7) consisted of an $-1 first stage, an S-lV second stage,
and an instrument unit.
2-6

/' ...
•

,
''1' •"
,,
..",,• '."
-
•
"
"
"

- -• .-
- .- - .

Figure 2-2.- Saturn vehicle SA-6 undergoing tests on Launch Complex 378.
 2-7

The spacecraft was launched into earth orbit on Septcl:lber 18, 1964, at 11:22:43 a.m. e.s.t.
(16:22:43 G.m.t.) from Cape Kennedy Launch COr.lplex 378. The velocity, altitude, and flight-path
angle at the tme of 5-1 stage cutoff were slightly higher than planned. At S-IV stage cutoff,
the altitude was slightly lower and the velocity was sliGhtly higher than planned, resulting in
a more elliptical orbit than planned. The S-IV, instrument unit, and the attached spacecraft
(without the launch escape system which was jettisoned) were inserted into orbit as a single unit.

The instrumentation system was successful in deternining the launch and exit environment,
and telemetry reception of the data was continuous through launch and exit except for a short
period during vehicle staging. The measurements indicnted that the spacecraft performed satis-
factorily in the launch environment.

The launch-heating environment of the spacecraft \;a5 sinilar to that encountered on the
A-lOl mission. Peak values at most points for the two flights ....' ere approxinately equal: however,
the influence of surface irregularities and circunferential varilltions on the amount of heating
experienced was somewhat different for the two flit;hts because of differences in trajectory and
angle of attack. The command and service IOOdule heating rates were within the predicted range.
The heat protection equipment on the launch escape systeM was subjected to temperatures much
lower than the design limits, which were established on the basis of an aborted mission.

Jettisoning of the launch escape tOiler by the alternate mode was successful. Positive ig-
nition of the pitch control motor could not be. deterreined; however, the general trajectory indi-
cated that the IOOtor operated properly. The launch escape motor, together with the pitch control
motor, carried the tower structure safely out of the path of the spacecraft.

The command IOOdule instrur.lentation conpartment differential pressure reached a maximun of

13.3 psi, but vented rapidly after launch escape systelJ separation. A l.8g, peak-to-peak, l()-
hertz vibration was noted during holddown. Other vibration modes were similar to those experi-
i!nced during the A-lOl mission. The measured vibration levels of the instrumented reaction con-
trol system assembly were above the design limit.

Radar skin tracking of the spacecraft was continued by the network until it entered over
the Indian Ocean during the 59th revolution. Uo provisions had been lII3de for recovery of the
spacecraft and it disintegrated during entry. All spacccraft test objectives for the mission
were satisfactorily fulfilled; launch vehicle performance was also satisfactory.

2.1.8 Mission A-IO)

Mission A-lO) was the eighth unmanned Saturn flight. It was the initial vehicle in the
operational series of Saturn 1 launch vehicles and the third to carry an Apollo boilerplate pay-
load. The vehicle also orbited the first of three meteoroid technology satellites, Pegasus A
(fig. 2-3).

Of 12 flight objectives assigned, two were concerned with the operation of the Pegasus sat-
ellite, eight with launch vehicle systens pc;rfotr.l3.nce, one with jettisoning the launch escape
system, and one with separation of the boilerplate spacecraft. The satellite objectivcs were
(1) demonstration of the functional operations of the mechanical, structural, and eiectronic sys-
tems and (2) evaluation of meteoroid data sal'lpling in near-earth orbit. Since the launch trajec-
tory was designed to insert the Pegasus satellitc into the proper orbit, it differed substanti-
ally from the Apollo/Saturn V trajectory used in missions A-lOI and A-l02.

The launch vehicle (SA-9) consisted of an S-l first stace, an S-IV second stage, and an in-
strument unit. The spacecraft consisted of a boilerplate conmand and service module, a launch
escape system, and a service module/launch vehicle adapter (BP-16). The service module enclosed
the Pegasus satellite. The orbital configuration consisted of the satellite mounted on the
adapter, which remained attached to the instrul:lent unit and the expended S-IV stage. The launch
escape system was jettisoned during launch and the comnand module was jettisoned after orbital
insertion. The satellite weighed approximately 3080 pounds and was 208 inches high, 84 inches
wide, and 95 inches deep. The width of the deployed wings was 96 feet.
 ,,-po 1\0 boi I",plale c()\\\o,""d
InodLl\e aod {\looIHed
2-8 ser'Jice module

\nsuumeot
unit
F OTV'l3rd
50\3{
panel \
\

I
I
Later a\
solar p311e \
Meteoroid detector panel
 2-9

The vehicle was launched from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B at 09:37:03 a.m. e.s.t.
(14:37:03 Com.t.) on February 16, 1965. A hold of 1 hour and 7 minutes was caused by a power
failure in the Eastern Teat Range flight safety computer. A huilt-in hold of 30 minutes was
also used to discharge and recharge a battery 1n the Pegasus satellite as a check that i t was
functioning properly.

The launch was normal and the payload wss inserted into orbit approximately 10.5 minutes
after launch. The total mass placed 1n orbit was 33 895 pounds. The perigee was 307.8 miles,
the apogee wss 461.9 miles, and the orbital inclination was 31.76°. The Pegasus satellite had
a period of 97.1 minutes.

The trajectory sod space-fixed velocity were very nearly 8S planned. The Apollo shroud
separated from the Pegasus satellite about 804 seconds after lift-off and deployment of two me-
teoroid detection panel wings of the Pegasus satellite co~nced about 1 minute later. The pre-
dicted useful lifetime of Pegasus A in orbit was 1188 days. The satellite was COtr.landed off on
August 29, 1969. Although minor malfunctions occurred in both the launch vehicle and the Pegasus
A satellite, mission A-l03 was a succesa in that all objectives were met.

2.1.9 lUssion A-104

Mission A-l04 was the ninth test flight of the Saturn 1, This mission was the second flight
in the Saturn I operational series and the fourth vehicle to carry an Apollo boilerplate space-
craft. The vehicle also launched the Pegasus B meteoroid technology satellite. The two primary
mission objectives were (1) evaluation of meteoroid data sampling in near-earth orbit and (2)
demonsttation of the launch vehicle iterative guidance mode and evaluation of system accuracy.
The launch trajectory was similar to that of mission A-I03.

The Saturn launch vehicle (SA-8) and payload were similar to those of mission A-I03 except
that a aingle reaction control engine assembly was mounted on the boilerplate service module
(BP-26) and the assembly was instrumented to acquire additional data on launch environment tem-
peratures. This assembly also differed from the one on the A-IOI mission in that two of the four
engines were of a prototype configuration instead of all engines being simulated. Pegasus B
weighed approximately 3080 pounds and had the same dimensions as Pegasus A.

Mission A-I04 was launched from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B at 02:35:01 a.m. e.s.t.
(07:35:01 G.m.t.) on Hay 25, 1965, the first nighttime launch in the Saturn 1 series (fig. 2-4).
A built-in 3S-minute hold was used to ensure that launch time coincided with the opening of the
launch window.

The lavnch was normal and the payload was inserted into orbit approximately 10.6 minutes
after lift-off. The total mass placed in orbit, including the spacecraft, Pegasus B, adapter,
instrument unit, and S-IV stage, was 34 113 pounds. The perigee and apogee were 314.0 and 464.1
miles, respectively; the orbital inclination was 31. 78 0 •

The actual trajectory was close to the one predicted, and tl~ spacecraft was separated 806
seconds after lift-off. The deployment of the Pegasus B wings began about 1 minute later. The
predicted orbital lifeti~e of Pegasus B was 1220 days. The satellite instrumentation and beacons
were commanded off on August 29, 1968. Several minor malfunctions occurred in the S-1 stage pro-
pulsion system; however, all mission objectives were successfully achieved.

2.1.10 Mission A-IDS

Mission A-IDS, the third flight of an operational Saturn I, was the last in the series of
Saturn I flights. The payload consisted of an Apollo boilerplate spacecraft (BP-9A) which served
as a shroud for the third Pegasus meteoroid technology satellite, Pegasus C. The two primary
flight objectives were (1) the collection and evaluation of meteoroid data in near-earth orbit
and (2) the continued demonstration of the launch vehicle iterative guidance mode and evaluation
of system accuracy.
2-10

Figure 2-4.- Space vehicle lift-off for mission A-I04.

 2-ll

The Saturn launch vehicle (SA-IO) was similar to those of missions A-tOJ and A-I04. As on
the previous mission, the boilerplate service module was equipped with a test installation of a
reaction control engine package. Pegasus C weighed 31]8.6 pounds and had the saClC dimensions as
its predecessors.

Mission A-IDS was launched from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B at 08:00:00 a.m. e.s.t.
(13:00:00 C.m.t.) on July 3D, 1965. A planned 3D-minute hold ensured that launch time coincided
with the opening of the Pegasus launch window. The launch was normal and the payload was in-
serted into orbit approximately 10.1 minutes after lift-off. The total mass placed in orbit,
including the spacecraft, Pegasus C, adapter, instrunent unit, and S-IV stage, was 34 438 pounds.

The spacecraft was separated 812 seconds after 11ft-off. The separation and ejection system
operated as planned. The two meteoroid detection panel wings of the satellite were deployed from
their folded position 40 seconds after command initiation at 872 seconds.

The predicted useful lifetime of 'he satellite (720 days) was exceeded, and 'he beacons and
telemetry transmitters were comoanded off on August 29, 1968. Pegasus Centered the earth atmos-
phere on August 4, 1969. All primary and secondary objectives were attained.

Details of the three Pegasus flights are contained in references 2-1, 2-2 and 2-3.

2.2 APOLLO SPACECRAFT ABORT TESTS

The Apollo spacecraft abort tests consisted of s1x flights to demonstrate the adequacy of
the Apollo launch escape system and to verify the performance of the command module earth landing
system. These flights were launched fron Complex 36 at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico,
which is approximately 4000 feet above mean sea level. Two of the tests were conducted with the
launch escape system motors bein8 ignited at ground level, while tl~ remaining tests were con-
ducted using the Little Joe II launch vehicle to boost the spacecraft to various points in the
Saturn launch trajectory for abort initiation. A significant event in this series of flights
was an unplanced failure of a launch vehicle resulting in an actual abort situation in which all
spacecraft systems operated satisfactorily.

2.2.1 Pad Abort Test 1

Apollo Pad Abort Test 1 was an unmanned flight using the launch escape system to demonstrate
the capability of the Apollo spacecraft to abort fron the launch pad and thus provide crew safety.
Of the six Urst-order test objectives assigned, those of primary importance were to (1) deter-
mine the aerodynamic stability characteristics of the Apollo escape configuration during a pad
abort, (2) demonstrate the capability of the escape systeT:l to propel a command module a safe dis-
tance from a launch vehicle during a pad abort, and (3) demonstrate the earth landing timing se-
quence and proper operation of the parachute system.

The test vehicle consisted of a production launch escape system in combination with a boiler-
plate command module (BP-6), the first Apollo boilerplate spacecraft to be flown (fig. 2-5).
Since the command module was not representative of the actual spacecraft, no instrumentation was
provided to determine structural loads. Measurements of such characteristics 3S vehicle acceler-
ations, angle of attack, Mach number, and dynar.1ic pressure allowed determination of inflight
loads resulting from the external environment or vehicle dynamics. The co~nd module was mounted
in a vertical position on three bearin8 points of a supporting structure attached to a concrete
pad.

The test was initiated on November 7, 1963, at 09:00:01 a.m. m.s.t. (16:00:01 C.m.t.) by
transmitting a ground commanded abort signal to the COnJ:\and module. The signal activated the
abort relay in the launch escape system sequencer, which in turn sent a signal to ignite the
launch escape and pitch control motors. These motors ignited almost simultaneously and lifted
the command module along a planned trajectory. The launch escape tower was separated about 15
seconds after engine ignition and followed a ballistic trajectory. The conmand module made a
normal parachute descent at a velocity of 24 feet per second. Landing of the command IItOdule oc-
curred at 165.1 seconds.
2_12

------
 2-13

The vehicle exceeded the Apollo minimum altitude and range requirements for a pad abort by
970 feet and 1525 feet, respectively. Although the vehicle stability was less than predicted
during the pm.oered phase of flight, all objectives of the flight were satisfied.

2.2.2 Mission A-OOI

Mission A-OOl was the second in the series of tests conducted to denonstrate that the launch
escape system could safely remove the command module under critical abort conditions. Unlike Pad
Abort Test 1. In which the launch escape systel'l was ignited at ground level, this mission was
flown to demonstrate the capability of the escape systeM to propel the comoand module safely away
fron a launch vehicle while in the high-dynamic-pressure (transonic) region of the Saturn trajec-
tory.

The launch vehicle was the second in the series of Little Joe II vehicles, which had been de-
veloped to accomplish early and economical testing of the launch escape system. The Little Joe 11
was propelled by seven solid-propellant rocket motors - one Algol sustainer motor, which provided
thrust for about 42 seconds, and six Recruit motors, which burned out approximately 1.5 seconds
after ignition. The spacecraft consisted of a launch escape system and a boilerplate command and
service module (BP-12).

Unacceptable wind conditions had forced a 24-hour postponement of the launch, but the ve-
hicle was successfully launched (fig. 2-6) on May 13,1964, at 05:59:59.7 a.m. m.s.t. (12:59:59.7
C.m. t). A ground commanded abort signal teminated thrust of the launch vehicle (by rupturing
the Algol motor casing), ignited the launch escape and pitcl, control motors, and separated the
command module from the service module. Some structural dSl'lage was incurred by the command mod-
ule aft heat shield because of recontact with the boostel' ':It thrust termination. At approxi-
mately 44 seconds, the tower jettison motor W3S ignited ,Ind satisfactorily separated the launch
escape tower from tile command module.

The earth landing sequence was normal until a riser for one of the three main parachutes
broke as a result of its rubbing against the structure on the contlll3nd module upper deck. The
parachute separated; however, the command module, supporled by the two remaining parachutes, de-
scended at rates of 30 to 26 feet per second instead of the predicted 24 feet per second with
three parachutes. The command module landed 22 400 feet down range at 350.3 seconds after at-
taining an altitude of 29 772 feet above Illean sea level. Except for the parachute failure, all
test objectives were satisfied.

2.2.3 Mission A-002

Mission A-002 was the third in the series of abort tests to demonstrate that the launch es-
cape system would perform satisfsctorily under selected critical abort conditions. The main ob-
jective of this mission was to demonstrate the abort capability of the launch escape vehicle in
the I':laximum dynamic pressure region of the Saturn trajectory with conditions approximating the
altitude limit at which the Saturn emergency detection system would signal an abort.

The launch vehicle was the third in the Little Jo~ 11 series. This vehicle differed from
the previous two in that flight controls and instrum",,:~ation were incorporated, and the vehicle
was powered by two Algol and four Recruit rocket motors. The launch escape system was also
changed from previous configurations in that canards (forward control surfaces used to orient
and stabilize the escape vehicle in the entry attitude) and a command module boost protective
cover were incorporated. The Apollo spacecraft was simulated by a boilerplate contlll3nd and ser-
vice module (BP-23). The earth landing system was modified from the previous configuration by
the installation of modified dual-drogue parachutes instead of a single-drogue parachute.

The A-002 vehicle was launched on December 8, 1964, at 08:00:00 a.m. m.S.t. (15:00:00 C.m.t.)
by igniting all launch vehicle motors simultaneously. Conditions at abort initiation were selected
from Saturn boost trajectories, and a nominal test point was used for the maximum dynamic pressure
region. A pitchup maneuver and the abort \Jere initiated by using a real-time plot of the dynamic
pressure versus ~'ach number. However, an improper constant was used in the meteorological data
input to the real-time data system, resulting in the pitch up maneuver being initiated 2.4 seconds
early. Although the planned test point was not achieved, the early pitchup caused a higher maxi-
mum dynamic pressure than the design value.
2-14

Figure 2-6.- Vehicle lift-off for mission A-OOl.

 2-15

Canard deployment took place as expected 11.1 seconds after abort initiation. The launch
escape vehicle tumbled four times before stabilizing with the aft heat shield forvard. During
the first turnaround, the soft portion of the boost protective cover was torn away from the com-
mand lIIOdule. Maxl1~um altitude attail\ed by the launch escape vehicle was 50 360 feet above mean
sea level.

Baroswltches initiated the earth landing sequence at an altitude of approxlm..'ltely 23 500

feet above mean sea level. All parachutes deployed properly and the comnand module, supported
by the three main parachutes, descended at the planned rate of about 24 feet per second to an
earth landing 31 800 feet down range.

The abort conditions obtained were fOCIre than adequate in verifying the abort capability in
the maximum dynamic pressure region. Only one test objective ...,as not achieved; the boost protec-
tive cover ...,as structurally inadequate for the environment "xpcrienced during this mission.

2.2.4 Mission A-003

Apollo mission A-003 was the fourth mission to demonstrate the abort capability of the
Apollo launch escape system. The purpose of this flight was to demonstrate launch escape vehicle
performance at an altitude approximating the upper limit for the canard sul.>system.

The launch vehicle was similar to the one used for missIon A-G02 except that the propulsion
system consisted of six Algol motors. The unnanned Bieht tcst vehicle consisted of an Apollo
boilerplate command and service module. (HP-22) and a launch escape system similar to the one used
on the previous mission. The command module earth landing system configuration was refined to
be more nearly like that of the planned production systel'l. ;Ind a fOlVard heat shield jettisoning
system was provided.

The test vehicle was launched on Hay 19. 1965, at 06:01:04 a.m. m.s.t. (13:01:04 C.m.t.).
Within 2.5 seconds after lift-off, a launch vehicle malfunction caused the vehicle to go out of
control. The resulting roll rate caused tIle i.·unch vehicle to break up before second-stage ig-
nition. and a low-altitude spacecraft abort wa" initiated instead of the planned high-altitude
abort. The launch escape system canard surface", deployed and survived the severe environment.
The high roll rates (approximately 260 0 per second at the time of caMrd deployment) induced by
the launch vehicle malfunction stabilized the lal'nch esc<l!)c vehicle in a tower-forw;lrd attitude.
which overcame the destabilizing effect of the C~lIlilrds. Postflight simulations verified the in-
effectiveness of the canards at the high roll rate, but showed that the cannrds would be effec-
tive at the 20 0 per second roll rate limit of the Saturn chlergency detection system.

All spacecraft systems operated satisfactorily. The cOl:lllland module forward heat shield was
protected by the hard portion of the boost protective cover and Ims jettisoned satisfactorily in
an apex-forward attitude at low altitude. The soft portion of the boost protective cover remained
intact until tower jettison. At tower jettison. part of the cover stayed with the conmand module
for a short time although the rest of the cover moved aW>lY with the tower. The hard portion of
the boost protective cover remained intact until groulld impact. Both drogue parachutes inflated.
even under the severe conditions that existed; that is, coml'land module apex fOlVard and rolling.
The command IllOdule was eHectively stabilized and or~'~nted for deployment of the main parachutes.

Because of the early launch vehicle breakup. the desired altitude of 120 000 feet was not
achieved. Ilowever, the spacecraft did demonstrate a f"1.:(·cessful low-altitude (12 400 ft) abort
from a rapidly rolling (approxiT.lately 335 0 per second) launch vehicle. The ~lach number, dynamic
pressure. and altitude at the time of l\bort were similar to Saturn In or Saturn V launch trajec-
tory conditions.

2.2.5 Pad Abol"L Test 2

Apollo Pad Abort Test 2 was the fifth of six unr<\anned Apollo missions that flight tested the
capability of the launch escape system to provide for safe recovery of Apollo crews under critical
abort conditions. This flight was the second test of the launch escape system with the abort ini-
tiated from the launch pad.
2-16

The launch escape 8yatea included qual1fied launch escape and pitch control ClOcors and 'las
equipped with canards co orient the vehicle aIt heat shield forward prior to tower jettison and
parachute deployment. A boost protective cover vas also provided. The spacecraft was BP-2)A. a
boilerplate co~nd module that had been used on mission A-Q02 and refurbished to core nearly
silllUlate a Block-I-type cOJ:Dand lIIOdule in I:I3SS and other characteri.stics. The earth landing sys-
telll was sl1:l11sr to the one used in cisslon A-Q03.

The test flight was conducted on June 29, 1965. The vehicle was lifted rro~ Launch Complex
36 by the launch escape IllOcor at 06:00:01 a.n. III.S.t. (13:00:01 G.I:I.t.). The launch escape and
pitch control I!IOtors ignited simultaneously, placing the test vehicle into the planned initial
trajectory. A noderate roll rat~ developed at lift-off, which was due to tl~ aerodynamic asym-
metry of the vehicle configuration; however, the roll rate did not affect the success of the
test.

The canard surfaces deployed and turned the vehicle to the desired orientation for drogue
parachute deployment. During the turnaround IMncuver, the launch escllpe tower and forward heat
shield were jettisoned as planned. The boost protective cover, which was attached to the launch
escape system, protected the conical surface of the COT:V:lllnd CIOdule and remained intact through
a canard-induced pitch maneuver. At tower jett1son, tl~ soft 1»oost protective cover, as expected,
collapsed because of differential pressure during renoval fran the command module. No recontact
or interference between the major components was evident during tower jettison and parachute de-
ployment.

Although one of the pilot parachute steel cable risers \las kinked, the earth landing systelll
functioned properly. Tl~ drogue parachutes inflated and stabilized the comnand ~ule for pilot
and lIlain parachute deployment. and the rate of descent lo'hile on the lIl3in parachutes \las satis-
Cactory. The caximum altitude achieved was 9258 feet above cean sea level, appro~imately 650
feet higher than predicted. TI~ co~nd module landed about 7600 feet frolll the launch site, SOllIe
2000 feet farther than planned.

Four glass sacples had been QOunted on the cOl:ll!l3nd l:lOdule in the general srea planned for
the rendezvous and cre\l vindO\lS. No soot appeared on the sanples, but an oily film \las found on
the exposed surfaces of three of the four sanples. This fila, however, \las not expected to cause
excessive degradation to the horizon scan or ground orientation ability during an abort. The
tcst \las highly succeseful snd all planned objectives were fulfilled.

2.2.6 tlission A-004

Mission A-004 was the final test of the Apollo launch escape vehicle and the first flight
of a Block 1 production-type spacecraft. The mission WliS unmanned and \las conducted to demon-
strate that (1) the launch escape vehicle would satisfactorily orient and stabilize itself in
the proper attitude after being subjected to a high rate of tul:lbling during the powered phase
of an abort and (2) the escape vehicle would maintain its structural integrity under test condi-
tions in which the command module structure was loaded to the design limit.

The launch vehicle \las the fifth and final Little Joe 11 flolffl. The propulsion system con-
sisted of four Algol and five Recruit rocket motors. The attitude control system \las similar to
the one used on mission A-OO) except that the reaction control system \las deleted and the vehicle
\las provided \lith the capability of responding to a radio-translllitted pitchup cOmlll8nd. The pitch-
up maneuver \las required to help initiate tuabling of the launch escape vehicle. The spacecraft
for this mission consisted of a modified Block 1 comcand and service module and a modified Block
I launch escape system (airframe 002). The center of gravity and thrust vector were changed to
assure that power-on tumbling would be attained after abort initiation. The earth landing syste.
\las essentially the same as that used during Pad Abort Test 2.

The vehicle \las launched on January 20, 1966, at 08:17:01 a.m. III.S.t. (15:17:01 C.Q'I.t.) af-
ter several postponements due to technical difficulties and adverse weather conditions. The
pitchup maneuver \las coananded from the ground ~len telemetry showed that the desired altitude
and velocity conditions had been reached. The planned abort was automatically initiated 2.9 sec-
onds later. The launch escape vehicle tu~led Lomediately after abort initiation. Pitch and
ya\l rates reached peak values of 160 G per second, and roll rates reached a peak of minus 70 G per
second. The launch escape syste~ canard surfaces deployed at the proper time and stabilized the
 2-17

command module with the aft heat shield forward after the escape vehicle had tumbled about four
times. Tower jettison snd operation of the earth landing systems were normal, and the command
module landed about 113 620 feet form the launch pad after having reached a maximum altitude of
78 180 feet above mean sea level.

All systems performed satisfactorily, and the dynamic loads and structural response values
were within the design limits and predicted values. Although a structural loading value of pri-
mary interest was not achieved (local differential pressure between the interior and exterior of
the command module wall), all test objectives were satisfied.

2.3 UNMANNED APOLLO/SATURN FLIGHTS

The six flights of the unmanned Apollo/Saturn series were conducted to qualify all launch
vehicle systems (Saturn IB and Saturn V) and all spacecraft systems (command snd service module
and lunar module) for manned flight. Each flight built on the knowledge and experience gained
frol:l the previous flights, with the last two flights serving as final flight verification of all
systems. In addition, these flights provided the final verification of the ground support hard-
ware, launch checkout and countdown procedures, the COflmunications network (Manned Space Flight
Network), and the ground support personnel.

The first planned manned flight was originally scheduled for launch after the third unmanned
flight of this series; however, the first manned flight was not accomplished until six unmanned
flights had been completed.

2.3.1 Mission AS-20l

Mission AS-201 was the second flight test of a production-type Apollo Block I spacecraft
(airframe 009) and was the first flight test of the Saturn IB launch vehicle. Objectivea of
this unmanned suborbital flight were to demonstrate the compatibility and structural integrity
of the spacecraft/Saturn IB combination and to evaluate the spacecraft heat shield performance
during a high-he at-rate entry.

The Saturn IB consisted of two stages, an S-IB first stage and an S-IVB second stage with
an instrument unit. The spacecraft consisted of a coomand module, a service module, an adapter,
and a launch escape system. The vehicle is shown in figure 2-7 as i~ was undergoing the count-
down demonstration test approxi~tely 3 weeks before launch. The spacecraft differed from the
atandard Block I configuration in several respects. Fuel cells, crew equipment, suit loop, cabin
postlanding ventilation system, cryogenic storage tanks, and the guidance and navigation system
were not installed. In addition, a partial emergency detection system was flown. and the radi-
ators for the environmental control system and the electrical power system were inoperative.

Mission AS-20l was launched from Cape Kennedy Launch COl:lplex 34 at 11:12:01 a.m. e.s.t.
(16:12:01 G.m.t.), February 26, 1966. The co~nd module landed safely in rhe primary landing
area near Aacension Island approximately 37 minutes later and was recovered as planned. The se-
quence of mission events is given in reference 2-4.

The launch was normal except that S-IVB cutoff and S-IVB/command and service module separa-
tion occurred 10 seconds later than predicted. Also, because of the delay in S-IVB cutoff, the
mission control programmer was activated 10 seconds later than planned, and subsequent event
times reflected this 10-second delay. In general, sll spacecraft systems performed as expected
except for the service module reaction control system. An oxidizer isolation valve failed to
open, preventing operation of one of the service module reaction control system engine assem-
blies. Also, a negative yaw engine in another assembly was inoperative. However, the system
successfully prOVided spacecraft attitude and rate control, adequate translstion for the S-IVBI
command and service module separation, and ullage for the two service propulsion system maneuvers.

The AS-20I mission was the first flight test of the service propulsion system. Although the
reaction control system failure resulted in only 25 to 45 percent of the ullage velocity increment
expected, the first ignition of the service propulsion system was successful and performance was
near normal for the first SO'seconds of the l84-second firing. However, at engine cutoff. the
2-18

,l
I

Figure 2-7.- Apollo/Saturn vehicle underyoing countdown

demonstration test for mission AS-201.
 2-l9

chamber pressure had decayed to approximately 70 percent of no~l. The second firing, planned
for a lo-second duration, was erratic with chamber pressure oscillations that ranged from 12 to
70 percent of normal. The subnormal perfonnance of the service propulsion system was attributed
to helium ingestion.

Spacecraft communications blackout began at 1580 seconds snd lasted until 1695 seconds. En-
try was initiated with a space-fixed velocity of 26 481 feet per second. The co~and module was
subjected to a Daximum entry heating rate of 164 Btu/sq ft/sec at 1631.7 seconds and a maximum
deceleration of 14.38 at 1639.7 seconds. The co~and module structure and heat shields performed
adequately 1n the entry environment.

Loss of power to both command module reaction control systems at 1649 seconds resulted in an
uncontrolled rolling entry (in excess of 26° per second) instead of the planned lifting entry.
Power was returned to reaction control system A at 2121 seconds, and the required depletion burn-
ing of the corncand module reaction control system propellants was accomplished.

Forward heat shield jettison, dtogue parachute deployment. and main parachute deployment oc-
curred as planned. The command module landed in the Atlantic Ocean near Ascension Island at
2239.7 seconds and remained in an upright attitude. The landing time was 30.8 seconds earlier
than the preflight-predicted time. Touchdown was 45 miles up range (northwest) of the recovery
ship U.S.S. 8oxep. One of the main parachutes failed to disengage after landing and was cut
loose by a recovery force swimmer. The spacecraft was taken aboard the recovery ship at 02:20
p.m. e.s.t., 3 hours 8 minutes after lift-off. While all primary objectives were accomplished.
the subnormal performance of some systems necessitated further investigation and improvements
for future flights.

2.3.2 Mission AS-203

Mission AS-203 was an unmanned. rescarch and developmcntal tcst of the Saturn IB vehicle.
Major objectives of the flight were to (1) evaluate the S-IVB stage liquid hydrogen venting. (2)
evaluate the S-IVB engine chilldown and recirculation systems. and (3) determine fluid dynamics
of the S-IVB tanks. The data obtained were directly applicable to the Saturn V program. The
S-IVD was to be used as the third stage of the Saturn V on lunar missions. A second firing of
the S-IVB engine was necessary to insert an Apollo spacecraft into a translunar trajectory.
Therefore, the test was conducted to simulate Saturn V third-stage engine restart in earth orbit.

The vehicle was the second Saturn IB launched. The general configuration was similar to
that of mission AS-201 except that an aerodynamic fairing (nose cone) was installed in place of
the spacecraft (fig. 2-8). Telemetry and recoverable 16-mm cameras (ejected during launch) were
provided to furnish data on vehicle performance. In addition. two television cameras were
mounted on the forward bulkhead of the S-IVB liquid hydrogen tank to aid in determining the
amount of propellant sloshing.

Mission AS-203 was launched from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B at 09:53:17 a.m. e.s.t.
(14:53:17 G.m.t.) on July 5, 1966. The launch was delayed 1 hour and 53 minutes because of a
109S of signal from one of the television cameras. The S-IVB stage. instrument unit. and nose
cone were inserted into an orbit that was close to the planned 100-mile circular orbit.

Satisfactory system operation was demOnstrated on the first of four orbits in which the sys-
tems were planned to be active. and all mission objectives were achieved. The simulated S-IVB
engine firing duration was very close to the predicted time even though the chilldown valve failed
to close after engine ignition. Data were gathered on S-IVB stage behavior in other Saturn V
modes during the next three orbits. At the beginning of the fifth orbit. while a test was being
performed, pressure in the liquid hydrogen tank built up to a level in excess of the design value.
bursting the rank and resulting in premature destruction of the stage. IIDwever. all mission ob-
jectives had been accomplished.
2-20

Figure 2-8.- Space vehicle for mission AS-203 during prelaunch countdown.
 2-21

2.3.3 Hission AS-202

Mission AS-202 was an unmanned suborbital flight to further eV31uate the Saturn IB launch
vehit::le and the Apollo command and service IIIldule before committing them to manned flight. The
launch vehicle was the third Saturn IB and the spacecraft was tho third production-type Block I
cOll1lland and service module (airframe 011). The mission objectives were (1) to obtain further
launch vehicle and spacecraft infonaation on structural incebrity and compatibility, flight loads,
stage separation, subsystem operation, and emergency detection system operation and (2) to evalu-
ate the cOrml3.nd module heat shield at high heat loads during entry at approximately 28 000 feet
per second.

The Saturn IB was similar to the previous two launch vehicles. The spacecraft consisted of
an adapter, the cOlllflland and service module, and a launch escape system. The spacecraft systems
and equipment were generally like those of the AS-lOl mission spacecraft except that the fuel
cells and cryogenic reactants, the guidance and navigation system, the S-band communications
equipment, and the service propulsion system propellant gating eqUipment were being flown for
the first time. Also, the environmental control systehl ami electrical power system radiators
were operative on this mission and a closed-loop emergency detection system was provided.

The spacecraft was launched from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 34 at 12:55:32 p.m. e.s.t.
(17:55:32 C.m.t.), August 25, 1966. The spacecraft tining sequence was initiated by the S-IVB
stage separation corrrnand, which was 13.8 seconds early due to higher-than-expected performance
of the launch vehicle. Consequently, the flight events occurre<l earlier than planned (ref. 2-5).
The spacecraft landed in the Pacific Ocean near Wake Island.

All mission objectives were accomplished, including the performance assessment of the sys-
tems being flown for the first time. PerfOIT:lance of these systens is discussed in the following
paragraphs.

Fuel cell power plant electrical performance was normal, and current distribution between
the cells and auxiliary batteries followed the expected ratios. The condenser exit temperatures
on the two active fuel cells approached the m.:l.ximum limit <luring the flight. The problem was
attributed to entrapped air in the secondary coolant loop. Servicing procedures were changed for
later spacecraft to eliminate this probl",m.

The cryogenic system performance was satisfactory. Pressurization, temperature, and flow-
rate response to fuel cell reactant gas <lemands wcre as expected.

The guidance and navigation system performed normally. Attitude control, navigation thrust
vector and differential velocity control, and entry targeting were satisfactory. The command
module, however, landed approximately 200 miles short of the planned point because the preflight
prediction of the trim lift-to-drag ratio was not sufficiently accurate. The guidance and nav-
igation system responded properly in attempting to correct for the undershoot condition.

The S-band communications equip~lent performed satisfactorily. Simulated downvoice and up-
voice (via tone signals), down-link telemetry, and ranging modes were proper. Hinor signal re-
ception and station handover problems, not associated with the a.irborne equipment, were encoun-
tered.

The propellant gaging equipment for the service propulsion system functioned normally. Ap-
preciable biases were noted but were explainable on the basis of preflight loading conditions and
dynamic flow effects.

The environmental control system radiators provided proper heat rejection and compensated
for a malfunction of the water evaporator. Erratic evaporator cooling was attributed to excess
water which froze and plugged the overboard vent. Prelaunch servicing procedures were changed
for later spacecraft.

The emergency detection system operated properly in the closed-loop mode. The automatic
abort circuit was properly enabled at lift-off an<l deactivated by the launch vehicle sequencer
prior to staging.
2-22

2.3.4 Apollo 4 Hission

The Apollo 4 mission was the fourth unmanned flight test of a production type Block I Apollo
spacecraft and the initial flight of tile three-stage Saturn V. the launch vehicle that was to be
used for lunar missions. The first and second stages of the Saturn V (the S-IC and S-II stages)
had not been flown previously. The third stage (the S-IVB) had been used as the second stage of
the Saturn lB. The instrument unit configuration was basically the satTle. conflguration flight
tested during the Saturn IE development series. Figure 2-9 shows the vehicle and mobile launcher
as they were being positioned on the launch pad.

The mission had a number of inportsnt objectives applicable to both the launch vehicle and
spacecraft. The principal objectives were (1) to de~nsttate the structural and thermal integ-
rityand compatibility of the Saturn V and the Apollo spacecraft, (2) to verify operation of the
launch vehicle propulsion, guidance and control, and electrical systems, (3) to demonstrate sepa-
ration of the launch vehicle stages, (4) to verify the adequacy of the thermal protection system
developed for the Block II cOl'lr.land module under lunar return conditions, and (5) to demonstrate
a service propulsion system engine no-ullage start.

The Apollo 4 spacecraft (airframe 017) included a launch escape system, a cOllBlland and ser-
vice module, and a spacecraft/lunar module adapter. A lunar module test article was installed
in the adapter. The command module was equipped with the lunar-miss ion-type thermal protection
system that was to be tested and had other modifications applicable to the Block II spacecraft.
As on previous unmanned flights, the cOmr.land IOOdule contained a mission control programmer to
actuate functions that would normally be performed by the crew.

The space vehicle was launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A (the first use
of this facility) at 07:00:01 a.m. e.s.t. (12:00:01 G.rn.t.) on November 9, 1967. Detailed flight
events are given in reference 2-6.

Tlw launch phase was normal. All planned events occurred within allowable limits, and struc-
tural loading was well within the capability of the vehicle. r.leasurements telemetered from the
cOllffland module indicated that qualification vibration levels were not exceeded and verified the
adequacy of the~l prediction techniques.

The spacecraft was inserted into a circular orbit by the S-IVB stage after approximately
11 minutes of powered flight. Near the end of the second revolution, the S-IVB engine was suc-
cessfully reignited to place the spacecraft into a simulated translunar trajectory. At the com-
pletion of the maneuver, the cOO1Tland and service module was separated fror:J the S-IVB stage, and
the service propulsion system engine was fired for approximately 15 seconds to der:JOnstrate the
capability of starting the engine in zero gravity without perforning a reaction control system
ullage maneuver. There were no adverse effects, and the maneuver raised the apogee of the space-
craft trajectory from 9292 miles to 9769 miles. A few seconds after service propulsion system
engine cutoff, the spacecraft was oriented to an attitude in which the side hatch was pointed
directly toward the sun. This attitude was maintained for approximately 4-1/2 hours to obtain
thermal data.

After approximately 8 hours and 10 minutes of flight, a second service propulsion system
maneuver was performed to accelerate the spacecraft to a velocity representative of severe lunar
return entry conditions. Shortly afterward, the comnand module was separated from the service
module and oriented to the entry attitude.

The inertial velocity at atmospheric entry, which occurs at an altitude of 400 000 feet, was
approximately 36 000 feet per second, about 210 feet per second greater than predicted. This
overspeed was caused by a longer-than-planned firing of the service propulsion system. Because
of the change in entry conditions, the peak deceleration force was 7.3g rather than the predicted
8.3g.

The guidance and control system perforJ:led satisfactorily in guiding the spacecraft to the
desired landing point. Although the landing was about 5 miles short of the target point, it was
within the accuracy predicted before the mission. The forward heat shield and one of the main
parachutes were recovered along with the command module by the pri~ry recovery ship, the U.S.S.
Bennington. Postflight inspection of the command module indicated that the thermal protection
system withstood the lunar return entry environment satisfactorily.
2-23
 2-24

2.3.') Apollo 5 H{ssinn

The Apollo 5 mission was the first flight of a lunar IOOdule and the fourth flight test of
the Saturn 18 launch vehicle. The space vehicle consisted of an 5-18 stage, an S-IVB stage, an
instrument unit, an adapter, the lunar module, and a nose cone. Primary objectives of the mis-
sion were to verify the lunar module ascent and descent propulsion systems and the abort staging
function for manned {light. These objectives were satisfied.

Lift-off from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B (fig. 2-10) was initiated at 05:48:08 p.m.
e.s.t. (22:48:08 C.m.t.) on January 22, 1968. (The detailed sequence of mission events is given
in reference 2-7.) The lunar module and S-lVB stage werc inserted into earth orbit after 10 min-
utes and 3 seconds of powered flight. Lunar module loads and measured vibrations were within
the design capability of the structure during powered flight. Spacecraft cooling began after
S-IVB stage cutoff, and the equipment ter:Jperatures were properly regulated by the coolant system
for the remainder of the mission. The lunar module was separated from the S-lVB stage by using
the reaction control system engines. Separation disturbances were small. The lunar module was
maneuvered to a cold-soak attitude which was maintained by the guidance system until early in
the third revolution. A minimal reaction control system engine duty cycle was required to main-
tain the desired attitude.

Hidway through the third revolution, the first descent engine firing was initiated. The
planned duration of this firing was 38 seconds; however, after only 4 seconds, the guidance sys-
tem shut down the engine. Both the guidance systeo' and the propulsion system operated properly,
and the premature shutdown resulted from an incorrect definition of the engine thrust buildup
characteristics as used in the guidance system software.

After the premature shutdown, a planned alternate mission that provided minimum mission re-
quirements was selected. At approxir.1ately 6 hours and 10 minutes into the flight, the automatic
sequencer within the onboard mission progt<\!'lmer initiated the sequencing for the second and third
descent engine firings, the abort staging, and the first ascent engine firing. Attitude rate con-
trol was maintained with the backup control system. The descent engine gimbaled properly and re-
sponded smoothly to the commands to full throttle. The thennal aspects of the supercritical he-
liu'" pressurization system could not be adequately evaluated because of the short duration of the
three descent engine firings. During abort staging, all system operations and vehicle dynamics
were satisfactory for manned flight.

After the first ascent stage engine firing. the primary guidance and control system was re-
selected to control the spacecraft attitudes and rates. Because the primary system had been pas-
sive during the abort staging sequence, the computer program did not reflect the change of mass
resulting from staging. Therefore, computations of reaction control system engine firing times
were based on the mass of a two-stage vehicle and resulted in an extremely high propellant usage
by the reaction control system engines, eventually causing propellant depletion. Because of ex-
cessive reaction control system engine activity, the engine cluster red-line upper limit was ex-
ceeded; however, no detrimental effects were evident.

The reaction control system was later subjected to abnormal operating conditions because of
low manifold pressures after propellant depletion. Continued operation under these abnolll1al
conditions resulted in three malfunctions within the system, but none had an appreciable effect
on the mission,

The second firing of the ascent engine, initiated by the autom.'ltic sequencer, began at 7
hours 44 minutes 13 seconds into the mission and continued until thrust decay 5 minutes and 47
seconds later. During the initlal portion of the firing, attituue rate control was maintained
by using propellants from the ascent propulsion system tanks through interconnect valves to the
reaction control system engines. However, the sequencer automatically closed the interconnect
valves and switched the system over to the already depleted tanks. With the resultant loss of
rate control, the vehicle began tumbling while the ascent engine was firing. All tracking was
lost within 2 minutes after ascent stage engine thrust decay. The lunar module had been in a
retrograde orientation during the controlled portion of the firing, and trajectory simulations
indicated that the lunar module entered over the Pacific Ocean soon after the ascent stage en-
gine firing. The predicted point of impact was approximately 400 miles west of the coast of
Central America. The duration of the flight was approxinately 8 hours.
 2-25

Figure 2-10.- Lift-off of space vehicle for Apollo 5 mission.

2-26

The overall performance of the lunar module was good and met all requirements for manned
orbital flight. All operational systems were successfully verified, and the abort staging se-
quence was demonstrated.

2.3.6 Apollo 6 Mission

The Apollo 6 mission was accomplished on April 4, 1968. This was the second mission in which
a Saturn V launch vehicle was used with an UIll'\l1nned Bloc!;. 1 cOlJIMnd and service module and a lunar
module test article.

The space vehicle was launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch COl'lplex 39A at 07:00:01 a.m.
e.s.t. (12:00:01 G.I:I.t.), Lift-off was nonnal but a major structural anomaly in the spacecraft!
launch vehicle adapter occurred during first-stage boost. Approxirnstely 2 minutes 13 seconds af-
ter lift-off, abrupt changes were indicated by strain, vibration, and acceleration measurements
in the S-IVB, instrument unit, adapter, lunar module test article, and command and service mod-
ule. The anol:laly was apparently caused by 5-hertz oscillations induced by the launch vehicle;
these oscillations exceeded the spacecraft design criteria. Photographic coverage from ground
and aircraft cameras revealed material coning from the area of the adapter. (Sec. 4.4.2 of this
report and ref. 2-8 contain additional infOrMation concerning this anomaly.)

After second-stage ignition, the boost phase was nor~al until two engines in the S-11 stage
shut down early. The firing time of the re~aining three 5-11 stage engines was extended approxi-
mately I minute in an attempt to attain the desired velocity. The 5-1VB stage firing was also
longer than planned. At termination of the 5-1VB thrust, the orbit had a 198-nile apogee and a
96-mile perigee, instead of the planned IOO-mile near-circular orbit.

An attempt to reignite the 5-IVB engine for a simulated trans lunar injection firing was un-
successful. A ground command to the comnand and service module implemented a prcplanned alter-
nate mission that consisted of a long-duration firing (442 seconds) of the service propulsion
system engine. This firing was executed under onboard guidance computer control and the onboard
programmed apogee of 12 000 miles was attained. After the service propulsion system engine fir-
ing, the command and service module was aligned to a preset cold-soak attitude. The preflight-
planned second firing of the service propulsion systCT:l engine was inhibited by ground command.

Atmospheric entry at 400 000 feet occurred at an inertial velocity of 32 830 feet per sec-
ond and a flight-path angle of minus 5.85 degrees. The entry paraT:leters were lower than pre-
dicted because of the 5-IVB failure to reignite. The landing was about 36 miles up range of the
targeted landing point as a result of the abnormal launch and insertion trajectory. This was the
first mission in which the command module assuT:led the stable II (inverted) flotation attitude af-
ter landing. The command module was returned to the stable I (upright) attitude by the upright-
ing system. The mission duration was 9 hours 57 minutes 20 seconds.

The overall performance of the command and service module was satisfactory and none of the
system anomalies precluded satisfactory conpletion of the mission. The most significant space-
craft anomaly was the aforementioned structural anol'laly.

The abnormal occurrences during the boost phase subjected the command and service mdule to
adverse environment.s that would normally not. be seen during a flight test. program. The alternat.e
mission flown vas the more difficult to acco~plish of the two alternatives, which were (1) to at-
tempt to complet.e the planned trajectory and obtain new evaluation data points or (2) to abort
the mission and recover the spacecraft. The manner in which the command and service mdule per-
formed during the alternate mission, after the adverse initial conditions, demonstrated the ver-
satility of the systems.

The single primary spacecraft objective, demonstration of the performance of the emergency
detection system operating in a closed-loop mode, was achieved. The secondary spacecraft objec-
tives that were satisfied included demonstration of (1) effective operation of mission support
facilities during the launch, orbital, and recovery phases of the mission, (2) successful opera-
tion of the service propulsion system (including a no-ullage start), and (3) proper operation of
selected spacecraft systems (including electrical power, cOmDunications, guidance and control,
and environmental control). The secondary spacecraft objectives that were partially satisfied
included (1) demonstration of the adequacy of the Block II COr.u:land module heat shield for entry
 2-27

at lunar return conditions (not fully satisfied because of failure [0 achieve the high velocity
planned for entry), (2) demonstration of the structural and thennal integrity and compatibility
of launch vehicle and .<lpAc{!cr.:l.ft, and (3) confiYT'l.'ltinn of launch load!': :lnd dynamic chAr.<tC[l:!r-
lariea. Reference 2-9 provides details on spacecraft performance.

2.4 MANNED APOLLO/SATURN FLIGHTS

The manned flights of the Apollo program were to be initiated with the AS-204 mission; how-
ever, a fire in the command module during preflight checkout on the launch pad resulted in tl~
death of the three crewmen and an 18-month delay of the first manned mission. The manned phase
included two earth orbital missions, two lunar orbital missions, and seven lunar landing missions,
one of which was aborted. The six successful lunar landing rUssions allowed approximately 838
pounds (380 kilograms) of lunar material to be returned to earth. In addition, these missions
and the lunar orbital missions provided a wealth of scientific data about the moon and its en-
vironment for analysis by scientists throughout the world.

2.4.1 Apollo [ Mission

On January 27, 1967, tragedy struck the Apollo program when a flash fire occurred in com-
mand module 012 during a launch pad test of the Apollo/Saturn space vehicle being prepared for
the first manned flight, the AS-204 mission. Three astronauts, Lt. Col. Virgll 1. Grissom, a
veteran of Mercury and Gemini missions; Lt. Col. Edward H. White, the astronaut who had performed
the first United States extravehicular activity during the Gemini program; and Roger B. Chaffee,
an astronaut preparing for his first space flight, died in this tragic accident.

A seven-man board, under the direction of the NASA Langley Research Center Director, Dr.
Floyd L. Thompson, conducted a comprehensive investigation to pinpoint the cause of the fire.
The final report (ref. 2-10), cot'lpleted in April 1967, was subsequently submitted to the NASA
Administrator. The report presented the results of the investigation and made specific recom-
mendations that led to major design and engineering modifications, and revisions to test plan-
ning, test descipline, manufacturing processes and procedures, and quality control. With these
changes, the overall safety of the co~and and service module and the lunar module was increased
substantially. The AS-204 mission was redesignated Apollo I in honor of the crew.

2.4.2 Apollo 7 tlission

Apollo 7, the first manned mission in the Apollo program was an earth orbital mission. The
command and service module was the first Block II configuration spacecraft flown, and the launch
vehicle was a Saturn lB. Flight crewmen for the Apollo 7 mission were Walter M. Schirta, Jr.,
Commander; Donn S. Eisele, Command Module Pilot; and R. Walter Cunningham, Lunar Module Pilot.
The primary objectives of this flight were to demonstrate command and service module/crew per-
formance, crew/space vehicle/mission support facilities performance, and the command and ser-
vice module rende~vous capability.

The spacecraft was launched at 11:02:45 a.m. e.d.c. (15:02:45 G.m.t.) on October 11, 1968,
from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 34 (fig. 2-11). The launch phase was normal, and the spacecraft
was inserted into a 123- by l53-mile earth orbit. The crew performed a manual takeover of atti-
tude control from the launch vehicle S-IVB stage during the second orbital revolution, and the
control system responded properly. The command and service module was separated from the S-IVB
stage approximately 3 hours after launch; the separation was followed by spacecraft transposi-
tion, simulated docking, and stationkeeping with the S-IVB.

A phasing maneuver was performed using the service module reaction control system to estab-
lish the conditions required for rendezvous with the S-IVB stage on the following day. The ma-
neuver was intended to place the spacecraft approximately 75 miles ahead of the S-IVB. However,
the S-lVB orbit decayed more rapidly than anticipated during the six revolutions after the phas-
ing maneuver, and a second phasing maneuver was performed to obtain the desired conditions.
2_28

Figure 2-11. - Lift-off of space vehic Ie for Apollo 7 mission.

 2-29

Two service propulsion system firings were required for rendezvous. The first firing, a
corrective combination maneuver, was necessary to achieve the proper phase and altitude offset
so that the second firing would result 1n an orbit coelliptic with that of the S-IVB. The two
firings achieved the desired conditions for rendezvous te~lnal phase init1atlon. The terminal
phase initiatlon maneuver was performed with an onboard computer solution based on optical track-
ing of the S-IVB stage with the sextant. A small midcourse correction was then made, followed
by braking and final closure to within 70 feet of the S-IVB. Statlonkeeping was performed for
approximately 20 minutes, after which a 2-foot-per-second service module reaction control system
posigrade maneuver removed the spacecraft from the vicinity of the S-IVa atage. The next 24-hour
period was devoted to a sextant calibration test. a rendezvous navigation test, an attitude con-
trol test. and a primary evaporator test. The crew used the sextant to track the S-IVB visually
to distances of as much as 320 miles.

The service propulsion system was fired six additional times during the mission. The third
firing was a 9.l-second maneuver controlled by the stabilization and control system. The maneu-
ver was performed to increase the backup deorbit capability of the service module reaction con-
trol system. The fourth firing was performed to evaluate the minimum-impulse capability of the
service propulsion engine. The fifth firing was performed to position the spacecraft for an op-
timum deorbit maneuver at the end of the planned orbital phase. To assure verification of the
propellant gaging system, the firing duration was increased from that planned originally. The
67.6-second maneuver produced the largest velocity change during the mission, 1693 feet per sec-
ond, and incorporated a manual thrust-vector-control takeover approximately halfway through the
maneuver. The sixth maneuver, performed during the eighth mission day, was a second minimum-
impulse maneuver. The seventh firing, performed on the 10th mission day, placed the spacecraft
perigee at the proper longitude for entry and recovery. The eighth firing was performed to de-
orbit the spacecraft.

Tests performed during the mission included a rendezvous radar trsnsponder test and a test
to determine whether the environmental control system radiator had degraded. The radar test was
pedormed during revolution 48, and lockon was accomplished by a radar site at the White Sands
Missile Range at a range of 415 miles. The radiator test was also successfully conducted, and
operation of the systelll was validated for lunar flight.

The final day of the nUssion was devoted primarily to preparations for the deorbit maneuver,
which was performed at 259:39:16. The service module was jettisoned, and the entry wss performed
using both the automatic and manusl guidance modes.

The parachute system effected a soft landing in the Atlantic Ocean nesr the recovery ship,
U.S. S. Essex. On landing, the spacecraft assumed a stable II flotation attitude, but was suc-
cessfully returned to the normal flotation position by the inflatable bag uprighting system. The
crew was retrieved by helicopter, and the spacecraft was later taken aboard the recovery ship.
Mission duration was 260 hours 9 minutes 3 seconds.

All spacecraft systems operated satisfactorily, and all but one of the detail~d test objec-
tives were met. Additional information is given in reference 2-11.

2.4.3 Apollo 8 Nission

Apollo 8, the first flight to take men to the viCinity of the moon, was a bold step forward
in the development of a lunar landing capability. Also, Apollo 8 was the first manned mission
to be launched with the three-srage Saturn V vehicle. Figure 2-12 shows the vehicle being trans-
ported to the launch pad. The crewmen were Frank Borman, Commander; James A. Lovell, Jr., Com-
mand Module Pilot; and William A. Anders, Lunsr Module Pilot. The mission, originally planned
as an earrh orbital flight, was changed to a lunar orbital flight after an evaluation of all as-
pects of the progress of rhe program. To accor.llllodate this change, crew training and ground sup-
port preparations were accelerated.
2-30

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The primary ohjecttves for the Apollo 8 mission ~re ~n demonstrat~ the combined performance
of the crew, space vehicle, and mission support teal:l during a manned Saturn V mission using the
command and service module and to demonstrate the perfor~nce of noninal and selected backup
lunar-orbit-rendezvous procedures. The spacecraft was a Block II command and service module. A
lunar IlIOdule test article was installed for mass loading purposes in the spacecraft/launch vehicle
adapter In place of an actual lunar module.

The space vehicle was launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A at 07:51:00 a.m.
e.s.t. (12:51:00 C.m.t.) on December 21, 1968, and the spacecraft ....as inserted luto a 103- by
98-ml1e earth parking orbit. After the spacecraft had been in earth orbit almost 3 hours for in-
flight systems cl~cks, the translunar injection maneuver was performed. The spacecraft was sep-
arated from the S-JVB approxiT:lately 25 minutes later using the serviclit lIIXIule reaction control
system and was turned around to pemit observation and photography of the S-IVB stage. The crew
then performed two reaction control system maneuvers to increase the separation distance. A
ground-commanded liquid oxygen dump provided impulse for targeting the S-IVB stage to fly past
the moon and into solar orbit.

The translunar injection maneuver was so accurate that only one small midcourse correction
""ould have been sufficient to achieve the desired lunar orbit ins.ertion altitude of approximately
65 miles. However, the second of the two maneuverS that separated the spacecraft from the S-IVB
altered the trajectory so that a large midcourse correction at 11 hours was required to achieve
the desired traje<:tory. For this tnidcourse correction, the service propulsion system was used
to reduce the altitude of closest approach to the moon from 459 eiles to 66.3 miles. An addi-
tional small midcourse correction was performed approximately 50 hours later to refine further
the lunar insertion conditions. During the 66-hour translunar coast. t.he crew lIla.de systems checks
and navigation sightings, tested the spacecraft high-gain antenna (installed for the first time
on this mission), and televised pictures to earth.

Lunar orbit insertion was perfomed with the service propulsion system a.nd the resultant or-
bit was 60 by 168.5 wiles. After approxi~tely 4 hours of navigation checks and ground-based
determination of the·orbital parameters, a lunar orbit circularization maneuver was performed.
which resulted in an orbit of 60.7 by .59.7 miles.

The next 12 hours of crew activity in lunar orbit involved. photography of both the near and
far sides of the llIOon. landing-area sightings, and television transf:lissions. Host remaining non-
critical flight plan activities were deleted during the final 4 hours in orbit because of crew
fatigue. and this period was devoted to crew rest and preparation for transearth injection. The
injection maneuver ",as performed approximately 89 hours into the flight and resulted in a veloc-
ity change of 3517 feet per second.

The transearth coast activities included star/horizon navigation sightings using both ~on
and earth horizons. Passive thernlal control. using a roll rate of approximately 1 revolution per
hour, was used during lWst of the tranalunar and transearth coast phases to ma.1ntain nearly stable
onboard temperatures. Only one small·transearth midcourse correction, made "'ith the service mod-
ule reaction control system. was required.

Command module/service module separation was performed at approximately 146-1/2 hours, and
command module entry occurred approximately 17 minutes later. The cocmand module followed an
automatically guided entry profile arad landed in ·the Mid-Pacific after a flight duratwn of 147
hours 42 seconds. The transearth injection targeting and separation and the entry guidance were
so precise that the command module landed about 1 1/2 miles from the planned target point. Tbe
crew were retrieved and taken aboard the U.S.S. yopktrun at 17:20 C.m.t. on December 27, 1968.

With only minor problems. all spacecraft systems operated as intended, and all primary mis-
sion objectives were successfully accomplished. Crew performance was admirable throughout the
mission. The navigation techniques developed for trans lunar and l~r orbital flight proved to
be more than adequate to maintain required accuracies {or lunar orbit insertion and transearth
injection. Communications and tracking at lunar distances were excellent in all IlIOdes. Addi-
tional infoIT.llltion on the Apollo 8 mi6s10n is contained In refereoce 2-12.
2-32

2.4.4 Apollo 911ission

The Apollo 9 mission was a lO-day flight in earth orbit to qualify the lunar module for lunar
orbital operations. The crewmen were James A. McDivitt, Commander; David R. Scott, Command Module
Pilot; and Russell L. Schweickart, Lunar ~Iodule Pilot. The primary objectives of the mission were
(1) to demonstrate the performance of the crew, space vehicle, and mission support facilities dur-
ing a manned Saturn V mission using the lunar module and the command and service module; (2) to
demonstrate the ability of the crew to operate the lunar module systems for periods of tir.le com-
parable to those of a lunar landing mission; and (3) to deDOnstrate some of the nominal and backup
lunar landing mission activities, including docking, intravehicular transfer, rendezvous, and ex-
travehicular capability. To meet these objectives, the lunar module vas evaluated during three
separate manning periods that required multiple activation and deactivation of systems, a situa-
tion unique to this mission.

The space vehicle vas launched from Launch COl:lplex J9A at the Kennedy Space Center. The
launch occurred on Harch J, 1969, at 11:00:00 a.m. e.s.t. (16:00:00 G.m.t.)' and the insertion
orbit was 102.3 by 103.9 mUes. After postinsertioll checkout, the cornrnand and service module
was separated from the S-IVB stage, transposed, and docked with the lunar module. At approxi-
mately 4 hours, an ejection mechanism, used for the first time on this mission, ejected the
docked spacecraft from the S-IVB. After a separation maneuver, the S-IVB engine vas fired twice
by remote control, and the final maneuver placed the spent stage into a solar orbit.

Crew activity on the second day was devoted to systems checks and to three service propul-
sion system maneuvers while docked. On the third day, the Comr.mnder and the Lunar Module Pilot
entered the lunar module to activate and check out the systel:ls and to fire the descent engine
with the vehicles still docked. Attitude control with the digital autopilot and manual throt-
tling of the descent engine to full thrust were dCl:lonstrated.

Extravehicular operations were demonstrated on the fourth day of flight. The actual opera-
tions were abbreviated from those of the flight plan because of a minor inflight illness experi-
enced by one crewmember on the preceding day and because of the many activities required for ren-
dezvous preparation. Wearing the extravehicular mobility unit, the Lunar Uodule Pilot egressed
the depressurized lunar module and remained near the hatch for approxilll1ltely 47 minutes. During
this same period, the Co=nd Hodule Pilot, dependent on tILe co=nd and service module systems
for life support, partially exited through the c01Tlr.land module hatch for observation, photography,
and retrieval of thermal samples (fig. 2-13). The Lunar Module Pilot also retrieved thermal sam-
ples from the spacecraft exterior. A planned extravehicular transfer from the lunar module to
the command module was not conducted because of the abbreviated operation.

On the fifth day, the COl:l!ll3nder and the Lunar Nodule !'ilot agnin transferred to the lunar
module, this time to perform a lunar-module-active rendezvous. The lunar module primary guidance
system was used throughout the rendezvous; howev<lr, mirror-image backup maneuver computations
were made in the command module. The lunar module descent propulsion system was used to perform
the phasing and insertion maneuvers, and the ascent engine was used to establish a constant dif-
ferential height after the coelliptic sequence had been initiated. After redocking and crew
transfer back into the command module, the lunar module ascent stage was jettisoned and the as-
cent engine was fired to oxidizer depletion.

The sixth service ptopulsion maneuver, to lower the perigee, was performed successfully dur-
ing the sixth day. In the final 4 days, a series of landm.1rk tracking exercises and a multispec-
tral photography experiment were perfonned .. The service propulsion system was fired for the
seventh time at approximately 169-1/2 hours as a test and for the eighth time at 240-1/2 hours
to deorbit the command and service module. This last ~neuver was performed one revolution later
than planned because of unfavorable weather in the planned recovery area. After a normal entry
using the primary guidance system, the command module landed within 2.7 miles of the target point
in the Atlantic Ocean after 241 hours 54 seconds of flight. The crewmen were recovered by heli-
copter and were aboard the primary recovery ship, the U.S.S. CuadalcanaL. 49 minutes after
landing. Further details of the Apollo 9 mission are given in reference 2-13.
2-33

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2-34

2.4.5 Apollo 10 Mission

Apollo 10 was an 8-day mission to qualify the combined spacecraft in the lunar environment.
Particular primary objectives were to demonstrate the capability for rendezvous and docking in
the lunar gravitational field and to evaluate docked and undocked lunar navigation. The mission
events simulated those for a lunar landing mission. In addition, visual observations and stere-
oscopic strip photography of Apollo Landing l:iite Z, the planned location of the first lunar land-
ing. were accomplished.

The Apollo 10 space vehicle, with crewmen Thomas P. Stafford, Commander; John W. Young, Com-
mand Module Pilot; and Eugene A. Cernan, Lunar Module Pilot: was launched on Hay 18, 1969, from
Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B at 11:49:00 a.m. e.s.t. (16:49:00 C.m.t.). The spacecraft
and S-IVB stage combination was inserted into an earth parking orbit of 102.6 by 99.6 miles. Af-
ter onboard systems were checked, the S-IVB engine was ignited at 2-1/2 hours elapsed time to
place the spacecraft on a translunar trajectory.

At 3 hours after lift-off, the command and service module was separated from the S-IVB stage
and then transposed and docked with the lunar module. The docked spacecraCt were ejected 40 min-
utes later. and a separation maneuver was performed. The S-IVB stage was placed into a solar or-
bit by ground command for propulsive venting of residual propellants.

A preplanned midcourse correction executed at 26-1/2 hours adjusted the trajectory to coin-
cide with a July lunar landing trajectory. The passive thermal control technique was employed
to maintain desired spacecraft temperatures throughout the trans lunar coast except when a spe-
cific attitude was required.

At 76 hours mission elapsed time, the spacecraft was inserted into a lunar orbit of 60 by
171 nautical miles. After two revolutions of tracking and ground updates, a maneuver was per-
formed to circularize the orbit at 60 nautical miles. The Lunar Module Pilot entered the lunar
module, checked all syste~s, and then returned to the command module for the scheduled sleep
period.

ActivatioD of the lunar module systems began at 95 hours, and the spacecraft were undocked
approximately 3 hours later. Figure 2-14 shows the co~nd and service module as viewed from
the lunar module. After stationkeeping, the lunar module was inserted into the descent orbit.
An hour later, the lunar module made a low-level pass over Apollo Landing Site 2. The pass was
highlighted by a test of the landing radar, by the visual observation of lunar lighting, by ster-
eoscopic strip photography, and by the execution of the phasing maneuver using the descent en-
gine. The lowest measured point in the trajectory was 47 400 feet above the lunar surface. Af-
ter one revolution in the phasing orbit of approximately 8 by 194 miles, the lunar module ascent
stage was separated from the descent stage and the ascent engine was used to perform an inser-
tion maneuver. The rendezvous that followed was representative of one that would follow a nor-
mal ascent from tl~ lunar surface. The rendezvous operation commenced with the lunar module co-
elliptic sequence initiation maneuver approximately one-half revolution from insertion, followed
by a small constant differential height maneuver and the terminal phase initiation maneuver.
Docking was complete at 106-1/2 hours, and the'lunar module crew transferred into the command
module. The lunar module ascent stage was jettisoned, and the ascent engine was fired by remote
control to propellant depletion at 109 hours. After a rest period, the crew conducted landmark
tracking and photography exercises. Transearth injection was performed at 137-1/2 hours.

The passive thermal control technique and the navigation procedures used on the translunar
portion of flight were also used during the earth return. Only one mtdcourse correction of ap-
proXimately 2 feet per second was required; this correction was made 3 hours before command mod-
ule/service module separation. The command module entry was normal, and the spacecraft landed
near the primary recovery vessel, the U.S.S. Princeton. after an elapsed flight time of 192
hours 3 minutes and 23 seconds. At daybreak, the crewmen were retrieved by helicopter.

All systems in the command and service module and the lunar module were managed very well.
Although some problems occurred, most were minor and none caused a constraint to completion of
mission objectives. Valuable data concerning lunar gravitation were obtained during the 60 hours
in lunar orbit.
 2-35

Figure 2-14.- Apollo 10 command and service module as viewed

from lunar module after undocking.
 2-36

Spacecraft systems performance was satisfactory. and all mission objectives were accomplished
(ref. 2-14). All detailed test objectives were satisfied with the exception of the lunar IlI)dule
steerable antenna and relay ~odes for voice and telemetry commonications.

2.4.6 Apollo 11 Mission

The Apollo 11 mission accomplished the basic objective of the Apollo program; that is landing
two men on the lunar surface and returning them safely to earth. Crewmembers for this historic
mission were Neil A. Armstrong, Commander; Michael Collins, Co~nd Module Pilot; and Edwin E.
Aldrin, Jr., Lunar ~~dule Pilot.

The Apollo 11 space vehicle was launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A on
July 16,1969, at 08:32:00 a.m. e.s.t. (13:32:00 G.m.t.). The spacecraft and S-IVB stage of the
launch vehicle were inserted into a 100.7- by 99.2-mile earth parking orbit. After a 2-l/2-hour
checkout period, the spacecraft/S-IVB stage combination was injected into the translunar coast
phase of the mission. Trajectory parameters after the translunar injection firing were nearly
perfect. A midcourse correction of 20.9 feet per second was made during the translunar phase.
During the remaining periods of free-attitude flight, passive thermal control was used to main-
tain spacecraft temperatures within desired limits. The ComlllSnder and the Lunar Module Pilot
transferred to the lunar module during the translunar phase to make the initial inspection and
preparations for the systems checks that would be made shortly after lunar-orbit insertion.

The docked spacecraft were inserted into a 60- by l69.7-mile lunar orbit at approximately
76 hours after launch. Four hours later, the lunar-orbit circularization maneuver was performed
to place the combined spacecraft in a 65.7- by 53.8-mile lunar orbit. The Lunar Module Pilot en-
tered the lunar module at approximately 81 hours after launch for initial powerup and systems
checks. After a planned sleep period was completed at 93-1/2 hours elapsed time, the lunar Ib:)d-
ule crewmen transferred to the lunar module and made final preparations for descent to the lunar
surface. The lunar module was undocked from the conmand and service module at a mission time of
approximately 100 hours. The lunar module descent orbit insertion maneuver was performed with
the descent propulsion system at 101-1/2 hours into the mission, and the powered descent initia-
tion occurred 1 hour later. The lunar module was maneuvered manually approximately 1100 feet
down range from the preplanned landing point during the final 2-1/2 minutes of descent.

Han first landed on the moon at 03:17 p.m. e.s.t. on July 20, 1969. 102 hours 45 minutes
39.9 seconds mission elapsed time. The spacecraft landed in Mare Tranquillitatis (Sea of Tran-
quillity) at latitude 0°41'15" N. and longitude 23°26' E. based upon the coordinates of refer-
ence 2-15. After a 2-hour post landing checkout of all lunar module systems, the crew configured
the spacecraft controls for lunar stay and ate their first meal on the lunar surface. A crew
rest period had been planned to precede the extravehicular activity of exploring the lunar sur-
face but was not needed. After donning the back-mounted portable life support and oxygen purge
systems the Commander egressed through the forward hatch and deployed an equipment module from
the descent stage. A camera in the equipment module provided live television coverage of the
Commander as he descended the ladder to the surface. The Commander made first contact at
09:56:15 p.m. e.s.t. on July 20, 1969, or 109 hours 56 minutes 15 seconds into the mission. The
Lunar Module Pilot egressed soon thereafter, and both crewmen used the initial period on the sur-
face to become acclimated to the reduced gravity and the unfamiliar surface conditions. A con-
tingency soil sample was taken from the surface, and the television camera was deployed to in-
clude most of the lunar module in the field of view. Figure 2-15 is a photograph of the Commander
as he stood beside the deployed United States flag during this part of the extravehicular activ-
ity. The crew then activated scientific experiments Wllich included a solar wind detector, a pas-
sive seismometer. and a laser retroreflector. The Lunar Module Pilot evaluated his ability to
operate and move about, and he was able to do so rapidly and confidently. The crew collected
approximately 21 kilograms of lunar surface material for analysis. The surface exploration was
concluded in the allotted time of 2-1/2 hours, and the crewmen reentered the lunar module at a
mission time of 111-1/2 hours.

After a rest period, ascent preparation was conducted and the ascent stage lifted off the
surface at 124-1/4 hours from earth launch. A nominal firing of the ascent engine placed the
vehicle into a 45- by 9-roile orbit. After a rendezvous sequence similar to that perfonned on
Apollo 10, the two spacecraft were docked at the mission time of 128 hours. After transfer of
the crew and samples to the con:rnand and service module, the ascent stage was jettisoned, and the
command and service module was prepared for transearth injection.
 2-37

Figure 2-15.- Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot on the Lunar surface

2-38

The return flight started with a ISO-second firing of the service propulsion engine during
the 31st lunar revolution at 135-1/2 hours into the mission. As in translunar flight, only one
midcourse correction was required, and passive thcIT.Ial control was exercised for roost of the
transearth coast. Because of inclement weather in the planned recovery area, the landing point
was moved 215 miles down range. The service module was separated from the command module 15 min-
utes before reaching the entry interface altitude of 400 000 feet. Following an auto~atic entry
sequence and landing 8yste~ deployment, the co~nd module landed in the Pacific Ocean after a
flight duration of 195 hours 18 minutes 35 seconds. The landing coordinates, as determined from
the spacecraft computer, were latitude 13°19' N. and longitude 169°9' W.

After landing, the crew donned biological isolation garl!lents; they were then retrieved by
helicopter and taken to the primary recovery ship, the U.S.S. lfOl'"llet. The crew and lunar mate-
rial samples were placed in a mobile quarantine facility for transport to the Lunar Receiving
Laboratory in Houston.

All spacecraft systems performed satisfactorily and, with the completion of tl~ Apollo II,
mission, the national objective of landing men on the moon and returning them safely to earth,
before tl~ end of the decade, was acco~plished. Additional information on the Apollo 11 mis-
sion is given in references 2-16 and 2-17.

2.4.7 Apollo 12 Mission

Apollo 12, the second lunar landing mission, demonstrated the capability to land at a pre-
cise point and on a rough lunar surface. The landing location was in the Oceanus Procellarum
(Ocean of Storms) region. The primary objectives assigned were (1) to perform selenological in-
spection, survey, and sampling in a mare area; (2) to deploy the Apollo lunar surface experiments
package; (3) to develop techniques for a point landing capability; (4) to develop further man's
capability to work in the lunar environment; and (5) to obtain photographs of candidate explora-
tion sites.

The space vehicle, with crewmen Charles Conrad, Jr., Co~nder; Richard F. Gordon, Jr., Com-
mand Module Pilot; and Alan L. Bean, Lunar Module Pilot, was launched from Kennedy Space Center
Launch Complex 39A at 11:22:00 a.m. e.s.t. (16:22:00 C.m.t.) on November 14, 1969. The activities
during earth-orbit checkout, translunar injection. and translunar coast were similar to those of
Apollo II, except for the special attention given to verifying all spacecraft systems as a result
of lightning strikes on the space vehicle at 36.5 seconds and again at 52 seconds after launch.
A non-free-return translunar trajectory profile was used for the first time in the Apollo program.

The docked command and service module and lunar module were inserted into a 168.8- by 62.6-
mile lunar orbit at approximately 83-1/2 hours into the mission. Two revolutions later, a second
maneuver was performed to achieve a 66.1- by 54.3-mile orbit. At approximately 104 hours after
launch, the Commander and the Lunar Module Pilot entered the lunar module to prepare for descent
to the lunar surface. About 4 hours later. the two spacecraft were undocked and descent orbit
insertion was performed. A precision landing was accomplished through automatic guidance, with
small manual corrections applied in the final phases of descent. The spacecraft touched down
110 hours 32 minutes 36 seconds into the mission, with landing coordinates of latitude 3°11' 51" S.
and longitude 23°23'8" w. (ref. 2-18). One objective of the Apollo 12 mission was to achieve a
precision landing near the Surveyor III spacecraft, which had landed on April 20, 1967. The
Apollo 12 landing point was 535 feet from the Surveyor Ill.

Three hours after landing, the crewmen began preparations for egress. As the Commander de-
scended the ladder to the lunar surface, he deployed the modularized equipment stowage assembly
which automatically activated a color television camera and permitted his actions to be televised
to earth. The television camera was subsequently damaged. After the Lunar Module Pilot had de-
scended to the surface, he erected a solar wind composition experiment. Both crewmen then de-
ployed the first Apollo lunar surface experiments package. On the return traverse, tile crew col-
lected a core-tube sample and additional surface samples. The first extravehicular activity
period lasted 4 hours.
 2-39

The second extravehicular activity period began after a 7-hour rest period. Documented sam-
ples, core-tube sar.1ples, trench-site samples, and gas-analysis samples were collected on a trav-
erse to the Surveyor III spacecraft. The crew photographed and removed parts from the Surveyor
(fig. 2-16). After the return traverse, the crew retrieved the solar wind composition experiment.
The second extravehicular activity period lasted 3-3/4 hours. Crew mobility and portable life
support system operation, as in Apollo II, were excellent throughout both extravehicular periods.
The Surveyor parts and approximately 34 kilograms of lunar material were returned to earth.

The lunar module ascent stage lifted off tbe lunar surface at a mission elapsed time of 142
hours. After a nor-dnal rendezvous sequence, the two spacecraft were docked at 145-1/2 hours into
the mission. The ascent stage, jettisoned after crew and sample transfer to the command module,
was maneuvered by remote control to impact on the lunar surface; impact occurred at a mission
time of 150 hours approximately 40 miles frOM the Apollo 12 landing site. Extensive landmark
tracking and photography from lunar orbit was then conducted using a SOO-mm long-range lens to
obtain mapping and training data for future missions. At 172-1/2 hours into the mission, trans-
earth injection vas accomplished by using the service propulslon system engine.

Two small midcourse corrections were executed during transearth coast. The entry sequence
was normal, and the co~nd module landed in the Pacific Ocean. The landing coordinates, as de-
termined from the onboard computer, were latitude l5 Q S2' S. and longitude l65 Q lO' W. Duration of
the mission was 244 hours 36 minutes 25 seconds. After landing, biological isolation precautions
similar to those of Apollo 11 were taken. The crew, the lunar material samples, and the space-
craft were subsequently transported to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory.

All spacecraft systems operated satisfactorily, and all priAary mission objectives were ac-
cOT:1plished. Additional information concerning the Apollo n mission is contained in references
2-19 and 2-20.

2.4.8 Apollo 13 Mission

Apollo 13, planned as the third lunar landing mission, was aborted during translunar flight
because of the loss of all the oxygen stored in two tanks in the service module. The primary ob-
jectives assigned to the mission were (1) to perform selenological inspection, survey, and sam-
pling of materials in a preselected region of the Fra !lauro formation: (2) to deploy and activate
an Apollo lunar surface experiments package; (3) to develop further man's capability to work in
the lunar environment: and (4) to obtain photographs of candidate exploration sites.

The launch vehicle and spacecraft were similar to those of Apollo 12; however, the experi-
ment complement was somewhat different. The crewmembers wcre James A. Lovell, Jr., Commander;
Fred W. Haise, Jr., Lunar Module Pilot: and John L. Swigert, Jr., who had been the backup Com-
mand Module Pilot until the day before launch. Because the prime COllTlland Module Pilot had been
exposed to German l:lCasles 8 days before the scheduled launch date and was shown during his pre-
flight physical examination to be susceptible to the disease, the decision was made to replace
him with the backup pilot as a precautionary measure.

The space vehicle was launclled from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A at 02:13:00 p.m.
e.s.t. (19:13:00 G.m.t.) on April 11, 1970. During the launch, the second-stage inboard engine
shut down early because of high-amplitude longitudinal oscillations: however, near-nominal tra-
jectory parameters were achieved at orbital insertion. The earth orbital, trans lunar injection,
and early trans lunar coast phases of flight were no~~l, and operations during these periods were
similar to those of Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 with one exception. On previous lunar missions, the
S-IVB stage had been maneuvered by ground command into a trajectory such that it would pass by
the moon and go into a solar orbit. For Apollo 13, the S-IVB was targeted to hit the moon so
that the vibrations resulting from the impact could be sensed by the Apollo 12 seismic station
and telemetered to earth for study. The S-IVB impacted the lunar surface about 78 hours after
launch, approximately 140 kilometers west-northwest of the Apollo 12 experiment station. The im-
pact point was very close to the desired target.

Photographs of the earth were taken during the early part of translunar coast to support an
analysis of atmospheric winds. After approximately 31 hours of flight, a midcourse correction
lowered the closest point of spacecraft approach to the moon to an altitude of approximately 60
miles. Before this maneuver, the spacecraft had been on a free-return trajectory, that is, one
2-40

"-
t-

Figure 2-16.- Apollo 12 Commander examin~ng Surveyor ill spacecraft

with lunar module in background.
 2-41

on which the spacecraft would have looped around the moon and returned to earth without requir-
ing a major maneuver. At approximately 56 hours. one of the two cryogenic oxygen tanks in the
service module failed. (The cause of the failure is discussed in ref. 2-21.). The irmnediate re-
sult was that the oxygen in the failed tank was abruptly lost. Later. it was discovered that the
panel had been blown off the bay in which the tank was located (fig. 2-17). The oxygen system
with which the second tank was associated also lost pressure, but at a slower rate. These tanks
contained most of the oxygen for breathing in the command IlIOdule and the oxygen for the fuel
cells (the primary source of electrical power). Sufficient oxygen remained in the second tank
to maintain primary electrical power in the command and service module for ap~roximately 2 hours,
which gave the crew time to power up the lunar IIlOdule, align the inertial reference platform, and
shut down the command and service module systems. The docked spacecraft ....ere then maneuvered
back into a free-return trajectory using the lunar module descent engine.

From this point on, all systems in both vehicles were powered down except when absolutely
required. With no further maneuvers, the command IIlOdule could have landed in the Indian Ocean
at 152 hours mission elapsed time, and the lunar IIlOdule systems ....ould have been required to sup-
port the cre.... for about 90 hours. However, because consumables were extremely marginal under
these conditions and because only minimal recovery support existed in the Indian Ocean, a trans-
earth injection maneuver using the lunar module descent propulsion system was executed to speed
up the return to earth after the docked spacecraft had swung around the far side of the moon.
Because of this maneuver, the landing was predicted to occur at about 143 hours mission elapsed
time in the South Pacific, ~lere prinary recovery support was available. Guidance errors during
the transearth injection maneuver necessitated a small transearth midcourse correction at approx-
imately 105 hours to bring the projected entry flight-path angle within the specified limits.
During the transearth coast period. the docked spacecraft were maneuvered into a passive thermal
control mode.

The unprecedented powered-down state of the command module required several new procedures
for entry. The command module was briefly powered up to assess the operational capability of
critical systems. Also, the command module entry batteries were charged through the umbilical
connectors that had supplied any necessary power from the lunar module while the command IIlOdule
was powered down. Approximately 6 hours before entry, the passive thermal control mode was dis-
continued, and a final midcourse correction \oIas made using the lunar module reaction control sys-
tem to refine the flight-path angle slightly.

The service module was separated 4-3/4 hours before entry; the separation affo["ded the crew
an opportunity to observe and photograph the damage caused by the failed oxygen tank. The lunar
module was retained until 70 minutes before entry to minimize usage of command module electrical
power. At undocking, normal tunnel pressure provided the necessary force to serarate the two
spacecraft. From this point, the events were similar to those of previous flights, and the COll'l-
mand module landed approximately I mile f["om the target point. Some pieces of the lunar module
survived entry and projected trajectory data indicated that they impacted in the open sea be-
tween Samoa and New Zealand. The three crewmen were on board the recovery ship, the U.S.S. I~o
Jima, \oIithin 45 minutes of landing. Reference 2-22 contains details of the Apollo 13 mission.

2.4.9 Apollo 14 Mission

.Apollo 14 was the third mission to achieve a lunar landing. The landing site was located
in the Fra Mauro highlands, the same area that was to have been explored on Apollo 13. Although
the primary mission objectives for Apollo 14 were the s~e as those of Apollo 13, provisions were
made for returning a significantly greater quantity of lunar material and scientific data than
had been possible previously. An innovation that allowed an increase in the range of lunar sur-
face exploration and in the amount of material collected \oIas the provision of a collapsible two-
wheeled cart, the modular equipment tran6porter, for carrying tools, cameras, a portable magne-
tometer, and lunar samples (fig. 2-18).

An investigation into the cause of the Apollo 13 cryogenic oxygen tank failure led to three
significant changes in the command and service module cryogenic oxygen storage and electrical
power aystems. The internal construction of the oxygen tanks was modified, a third oxygen tank
was added, and an auxiliary battery was installed. These changes were also incorporated into
all subsequent spacecraft.
2-42

Figure 2-17.- Photograph of damaged service module taken during Apollo 13 mission.
 2-43

Figure 2-18.- Apollo 14 lunar surface extravehicular activity.

2_44

The mission. manned by Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Comnander; Stuart A. Roosa, Command Module
Pilot; and Edgar D. Mitchell, Lunar Module Pilot, was launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch
Complex 39A at 04:03:02 p.m. e.s.t. (21:03:02 G.m.to) on January 31, 1971. Because of weather
conditions which might have triggered lightning, the launch was delayed approximately 40 minutes.
The operations In earth orbit and trans lunar injection were similar to those of previous lunar
missions; however, after translunar injection, several docking attempts were made before the
convnand and service lIOdule was successfully docked with the lunar module.

As on Apollo 13, the S-IVB stage wss targeted to impact the moon within a prescribed area
to supply seismic data. The vehicle struck the lunar surface approximately 160 miles from the
target, within the desired area, at 82:37:52 mission elapsed time. The Apollo 12 seismic sta-
tion, located approximately 94 miles southwest of the i~pact point, recorded th~ event 37 sec-
onds later and responded to vibrations for more than 3 hours.

Translunar activities included star and earth horizon calibration sightings in preparation
for a cislunar navigation exercise to be performed during transearth coast, and dim-light photog-
raphy of the earth. At approximately 61 hours, the lunar module crew spent approximately 2 hours
in the lunar module cabin for housekeeping and systens checkout. While there, the crew photo-
graphed a waste-water dump from the command module to obtain data for a particle contamination
study being conducted for the Skylab program. Two spacecraft translunar midcourse corrections
achieved the traje~tory desired for lunar-orbit insertion.

The joined spacecraft were inserted into a 169- by 58-mile lunar orbit with the service pro-
pulsion system. After two revolutions, the same propulsion system was used to insert the space-
craft into the descent orbit, which brought the docked vehicles to within 10 miles of the lunar
surface. On previous missions, the descent orbit insertion maneuver had been performed with the
lunar module descent propulsion systen. A change was made on this mission to allow a greater mar-
gin of lunar module propellant for landing in a lJI)re rugged area.

The COmr.13nder and Lunar Module Pilot entered the lunar rodule, performed systems checks, and
undocked during the 12th lunar revolution. After vehicle separation and before powered descent,
ground personnel detected the presence of an abort cOlfnand at a COMputer input channel although
the crew had not depressed the abort switch. The failure was isolated to the abort switch, and,
to prevent an unwanted abort. a workaround procedure was developed. The procedure was followed,
and the powered descent was performed successfully. The vehicle touched down 12 minutes 45 sec-
onds after engine ignition and came to rest on a slope of about 7 degrees. Sufficient propellant
remained for approximately 70 additional seconds of engine firing time. The coordinates of the
landing site are latitude 3°40'24" S. and longitude 17°27'55" W. based upon reference 2-23.

After undocking and separation, the command-and-service-module orbit was circularized to an

altitude of approximately 60 miles. While the landing crew was on the lunar surface, the Command
Module Pilot performed tasks to obtain data for scientific analyses and future mission planning.
These tasks included orbital science photography of the lunar surface, photography of the pro-
posed Descartes landing site for site selection studies, photosraphy of the lunar surface under
high-sun-angle lighting conditions for operational planning, photography of low-brightness astro-
nOr.lical light sources, and photography of the Gegenschein and Noulton Point regions.

Preparations for the initial period of lunar surface explorntion began approximately 2 hours
after landing, and the crew egressed about 5-1/2 hours after landing. During the 4-3/4-hour ex-
travehicular period, the crew deployed and loaded the rodular equipment transporter; collected
samples; photographed activities, panoranas, and equipr:lent; and deployed the second Apollo lunar
surface experiments package.

After a rest period of approximately 6-1/2 hours, the crew prepared to travel to the area
of Cone Crater, approximately 1.3 kilor:leters east-northeast of the landing site. Although the
crew experienced difficulties in navigating, they reached a point within approximately 15 meters
of the rim of the crater, and the objectives associated with reaching the vicinity of this crater
were achieved. Various rock and soil samples were collected nenr Cone Crater, and, on the return
to the lunar module, the crew also obtained magnetometer measurenents at two sites along the tra-
verse. This second extravehicular period lasted approxinately 4-1/2 hours for a total extrave-
hicular time of approximately 9-1/4 hours. Approxifi~tely 43 kilograms of lunar samples were col-
lected during the two periods.
 The lunar module ascent stage lifted off after a surface stay time of 33-1/2 hours, and the
vehicle ~as inserted into a 51.7- by 8.5-mile orbit. A direct rendezvous ~as performed (the first
use of a direct rendezvous in the Apollo program), and the cOll'U':lilnd-module-active docking opera-
tions ~ere normal. After cre~ and sample transfer to the cOl:lllland module, the ascent stage ~as
jettisoned and a pre-programmed maneuver caused lunar impact approximately 36 miles west of the
Apollo 14 landing site. On previous lunar missions, lunar surface dust adhering to equipment
being returned to earth had created a problem. Special dust control procedures used on this mis-
sion, ho~ever, effectively decreased the amount of dust in the cabins.

Transearth injection occurred during the 34th lunar revolution. During transearth coast,
one midcourse correction was made usinG the service module reaction control system. In addition,
a special oxygen flow-rate test was performed to evaluate the system for planned extravehicular
activities on subsequent flights, and a navigation exercise simulating a return to earth without
ground control was conducted using only the guidance and navigation system. Inflight demonstra-
tions of electrophoretic separation, liquid transfer, heat flow and convection, and composite
casting under zero-gravity conditions were also perforned and televised to earth.

Entry ~as normal and the command module landed in the Pacific Ocean at 216:01:58 mission
elapsed time. The crewmen were retrieved by helicopter and were aboard the primary recovery ship,
U.S.S. New Or~ean8, approximately 48 minutes after landing.

As ~as the case follo~ing the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 missions, the Apollo 14 cre~ and lunar
samples were isolated and tests conducted to assure that they ~ere not biologically hazardous.
The test protocols showed no evidence of lunar micro-organisms at the three sites explored, and
this was considered to be sufficient justification for discontinuance of the quarantine proce-
dures.

All of the objectives and experiment operations were accomplished satisfactorily except for
some desired photography that could not be obtained. Details of the mission are given in ref-
erence 2-24 and preliminary scientific results in reference 2-25.

2.4.10 Apollo 15 Mission

Apollo 15 was the first of the three J ~issions (appendix B) designed to conduct exploration
of the moon over longer periods, over greater ranges, and ~ith more instruments for scientific
data acquisition than on previous Apollo missions. Major modifications and augmentations to the
basic Apollo hard~are were made. The most significant cl~nge was the installation of a scien-
tific instrument module in one of the service module bays for scientific investigations from
lunar orbit. Other hardware changes consisted of lunar oodule modifications to accomodate a
greater payload and permit a longer stay on the lunar surface, and the provision of a lunar rov-
ing vehicle (fig. 2-19). The landing site chosen for the mission was an area near the foot of
the Montes Apenninus (Apennine Mountains) and adjacent to Hadley Rille. The primary objectives
assigned to the Apollo 15 mission were: (1) to perform selenological inspection, survey, and
sampling of materials and surface features in a preselected area of the lIadley-Apenninus region;
(2) to emplace and activate surface experil:lents; (3) to evaluate the capability of the Apollo
equipment to provide extended lunar surface stay time, increased extravehicular operations, and
surface mobility; and (4) to conduct inflight experilJents and photographic tasks from lunar
orbit •

The space vehicle ~as launched from the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A at 09:34:00.6
a.m. e.d.t. (13:34:00.6 G.m.t.) on July 26, 1971. The spacecraft was manned by David R. Scott,
Commander; Alfred M. Worden, Co~nd Module Pilot; and James B. Irwin, Lunar Module Pilot. The
spacecraft/S-IVB combination was inserted into an earth parking orbit approximately 11 minutes
44 seconds after lift-off. The S-IVB restart for translunar injection was initiated during the
second revolution at approxiJ:Jately 2 hours SO minutes mission elapsed time. The maneuver placed
the spacecraft/S-IVB combination on a translunar trajectory that would allow return to an accep-
table earth-entry corridor using the service module reaction control system engines. Approxi-
mately 27 minutes after injection into the translunar trajectory, the command and service module
was separated from the S-IVB and docked with the lunar module. The lunar module was then ex-
tracted from the spacecraft/launch vehicle adapter. Shortly thereafter, the S-IVB tanks were
vented and the auxiliary propulsion system was fired to target the S-IVB for a lunar impact.
The impact of the S-IVB stage was sensed by the Apollo 12 and 14 lunar surface seismometers.
2-46
 2-47

The docked spacecraft were inserted into a lunar orbit of approximately 170 by 51 miles and
about 4 hours later, injected into a 58- by IO-mile orbit. Lunar module undocking and separation
were performed at approximately 100 hours 39 minutes into the mission. The command and service
module was then placed in a near-circular lunar orbit in preparation for the acquisition of sci-
entific data.

The lunar module touched down on the lunar surface approximately 1800 feet from the planned
target point at 104 hours 42 minutes 29 seconds after 11ft-off. The landing point was latitude
26 0 6'3" N. and longitude 3°39'10" E. based on the coordinates of reference 2-26. Sufficient de-
scent stage propellant remained after lunar touchdown to have prOVided a hover time capability
of about 103 seconds.

Approximately 2 hours after landing, the Commander photographed and described the area sur-
rounding the landing site by standing in the open top hatch. This extravehicular activity period
lasted approximately 33 minutes. The first lunar surface extravehicular activity was initiated
about 12-1/2 hours later. During the surface operations, the crew collected and stowed a contin-
gency sample, deployed the lunar roving vehicle, unstolled the third Apollo lunar surface experi-
ments package and other equipment, and configured the lunar roving vehicle for lunar surface op-
erations. Some problems were experienced in deploying and checking out the lunar roving vehicle,
but these problems were worked out. The crew then drove the vehicle to Elbow Crater where they
collected and documented samples and gave an enthusiastic and informative COMmentary on lunar
features. The Hission Control Center provided television control during various stops. After
obtaining additional samples and photographs near St. George Crater, the crew returned to the
lunar module using the lunar roving vehicle navigation system. The distance driven was approxi-
mately 10.3 kilometers. The crew then proceeded to the selected Apollo lunar surface experiments
package deployment site, approximately 110 meters west-northwest of the lunar module. There, the
experiments were deployed essentially as planned, except that the second heat-flow experiment
probe was not emplaced because drilling was more difficult than expected /lnd the hole was not com-
pleted. The first extravehicular activity lasted approxinately 6 hours 33 minutes.

The crew spent approximately 16 hours in the cabin benleen the first and second extravehic-
ular periods. On egress for the second extravehicular activity, the lunar roving vehicle was
checked out and prepared for the second traverse. The first stage of the l2.5-kilometer round
trip was south to the Apennine front., but east of the first traverse. Stops were made at Spur
Crater and other points along the base of the front., as well as at Dune Crater on the return
trip. The ret.urn route closely followed the outbound route. Documented samples, a core sample,
and a comprehensive sample were collected, and photographs were taken. After reaching the lunar
module, the crew returned to the experiments package site where the Co~nder completed drilling
the second hole for the heat flow experiment and emplaced the probe. During this period, the
Lunar Module Pilot performed soil mechanics tasks. The Cor.unander also drilled to obtain a deep-
core sample but terminated the drilling because of time constraints. The crew then returned to
the lunar module and deployed the Unit.ed States flag. The second extravehicular activity ended
after approximately 7 hours 12 minutes.

The crew spent almost 14 hours in the cabin after the second extravehicular period. The
third extravehicular activity beean later than originally planned to allow additional time for
crew rest. Because of this delay and later delays at the experif.lents package site, the planned
trip to the North Complex was deleted. The first stop was at the experiments package site to
retrieve the deep-core sar.lple. Two core sections were disengaged, but the drill and the remain-
ing four sections could not be separated and were left for later retrieval. The third geologic
traverse took a westerly direction and included stops at Scarp Crater, Rim Crater, and the Ter-
race, an area along the rim of Hadley Rille. Extensive samples and a double-core-tube sample
were obtained. Photographs were taken of the west. wall of Hadley Rille, where exposed layering
was observed. The return trip was east toward the lunar module with a stop at the experiments
package site to retrieve t.he remaining sections of the deep-core sample. One fOOre section was
separated, and the remaining three sections were returned in one piece. After returning to the
lunar module, the lunar roving vehicle was unloaded and parked for ground-controlled television
coverage of the lunar module ascent. A distance of approximately 5.1 kilometers was traveled
during the third extravehicular activity, which last.ed approximat.ely 4 hours 50 minutes. The
total distance traveled with the lunar roving vehicle during the three extravehicular periods
was 27.9 kilometers, and the tot.al weight of lunar samples collected was approximately 77 kilo-
grams. The areas traversed on the lunar surface are illustrated in section 3.2.1
2_48

While the lunar module was on the surface, the Command Module Pilot completed 34 lunar or-
bits conducting scientific instrument module experiments and operating cameras to obtain data
concerning the lunar surface and the lunar environment. Some scientific tasks accomplished dur-
ing this time were photographing the sunlit lunar surface, gathering data needed for mapping the
bulk chemical composition of the lunar surface and for determining the geometry of the moon along
the ground track, visually surveying regions of the moon to assist 1n identifying processes that
formed geologic features, obtaining lunar atmospheric data, and surveying gSlIlr.la-tay and X-ray
sources. High-resolution photographs were obtained with the panoramic and mapping cameras dur-
ing the mission.

The ascent stage lifted off after 66 hours 54 minutes 53 seconds on the lunar surface. The
mission elapsed time of lift-off was 171 hours 37 minutes 23 seconds. A nominal lunar-module-
active rendezvous was performed followed by docking at approxinately 173 hours 36 minutes.

The lunar module ascent stage was jettisoned at approximately 179 hours 30 minutes into the
mission. Jettison had been delayed one revolution later than planned because of some difficulty
with verifying the spacecraft tunnel sealing and astronaut pressure suit integrity. Approximately
1-1/2 hours later, the lunar module was deorbited with lunar impact occurring at latitude 26°21'
N. and longitude 0°15' E. Impact was approximately 23-1/2 kilometers from the planned point and
approximately 93 kilometers west of the Apollo 15 landing site. The impact was recorded by the
Apollo 12, 14, and 15 lunar surface seismic stations.

Before the command and service module was maneuvered from lunar orbit, a subsatellite was
deployed in an orbit of approximately 76 by 55 miles. The subsatellite was instrumented to meas-
ure plasma and energetic-particle fluxes, vector magnetic fields, and subsatellite velocity from
which lunar gravitational anomalies could be deternined. All systems operated as expected. The
transearth injection maneuver was initiated approximately 223 hours 49 minutes into the mission.

At a mission time of approximately 242 hours, a transearth coast extravehicular activity be-
gan. Television coverage was provided for the 39-minute extravehicular period during which the
Co~nd Module Pilot retrieved film cassettes and examined the scientific instrument module for
possible abnormalities. Total extravehicular time during the mission was 19 hours 47 minutes.

A small midcourse correction of 5.6 feet per second was performed at the seventh midcourse
correction opportunity. The command module was separated from the service module as planned, and
a normal entry followed with the spacecraft being observed on the main parachutes from the recov-
ery ship, U.S.S. Okinawa. During the descent, one of the three main parachutes failed, but a
safe landing was made. The best estimate of the landing coordinates was latitude 26°7'48" N. and
longitude 158°8'24" W., approximately 1 mile from the planned landing point. The crew was brought
on board the recovery ship by helicopter about 39 minutes after landing. Duration of the mission
was 295 hours 11 minutes 53 seconds.

The mission accomplished all primary objectives and provided scientists with a large amount
of new information concerning the moon and its characteristics. References 2-27 and 2-28 provide
details on the performance of the systems and the preliminary results of the experiments.

2.4.11 Apollo 16 Mission

Apollo 16 was the second in the series of lunar landing missions designed to optimize the
capability for scientific return. The vehicles and payload were similar to those of Apollo 15.
Primary objectives assigned were (1) to perform selenological inspection, survey. and sampling
of materials and surfsce features in a preselected area of the Descartes region of the moon; (2)
to emplace and activate surface experiments; and (3) to conduct inflight experiments and photo-
graphic tasks.

The space vehicle was launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A at 12:54:00 p.m.
e.s.t. (17:54:00 G.m.t.) on April 16. 1972. The crewmen for the mission were John W. Young.
Commander; Thomas K. Mattingly II, Command Module Pilot; and Charles M. Duke, Jr., Lunar Module
Pilot. The launch was normal. and the spacecraft. the launch vehicle third stage (S-IVB), and
the instrument unit were inserted into earth orbit for systems checkout before the vehicle was
committed to translunar flight. The launch sequence was similar to that described preViously for
a Saturn V launch.
 Translunar injection was initiated during the second revolution in earth orbit. The space-
craft separation, transposition, docking, and ejection operations were performed successfully,
and, on ground command, the S-IVB was maneuvered to reduce the probability of recontact with the
spacecraft. Approximately 20 minutes later, the propulsive force froT.! a liquid-oxygen dump was
used to target the S-IVB for impact on the moon near the Apollo 12 landing site. As on the three
previous missions, S-IVB impact was desired to produce seismic vibrations that could be used to
study the nature of the lunar interior structure. Although launch vehicle systems malfunctions
precluded a planned trajectory refinement, the impact point was within the desired area. How-
ever, loss of S-IVB stage telemetry prevented establishment of the precise time of impact, there-
by making the interpretation of seismic data uncertain.

During translunar coast, a false gimbal lock warning was issued by the command module com-
puter. To prevent the inertial platform fron being caged during critical operations, a procedure
was developed to inhibit the co~puter from responding to the false indications. Activities dur-
ing translunar coast included a navigation exercise, ultraviolet photography, a demonstration of
the effects of zero gravity on the process of electrophoresis, and the first of two sessions to
acquire data to be used in trying to determine the mechanisms involved in the production of light
flashes seen by some crewmen on previous flights.

The crew inserted the docked spacecraft into lunar orbit by firing the service propulsion
system engine in the retrograde direction. The initial 170- by 58-mile orbit was maintained for
two revolutions. The crew then inserted the spacecraft into a descent orbit that took them within
approximately 10 miles of the surface. After three revolutions the lunar module crew undocked
and separated the spacecraft in preparation for the lunar landing. Figure 2-20 shows the lunar
module just after undocking.

As the Command Module Pilot prepared to transfer hia spacecraft to a circular lunar orbit,
oscillations were detected in a secondary system that controlled the direction of thrust of the
service propulsion system engine. The spacecraft was maneuvered to place it close to the lunar
module while the problem was being evaluated. Tests and analyses showed that the system was still
usable and safe; therefore, the vehicles were separated again, and the miSSion continued on a re-
vised time line. The command and service module circularization maneuver was performed success-
fully with the pri~ary system.

After devoting approximately 5-3/4 hours to evaluation of the secondary control system prob-
lem, powered descent of the lunar module was initiated. The lunar module landed approximately
270 meters northwest of the planned landing site. The location of the landing site is latitude
8°59'29" S. and longitude 15°30'52" E. based on the c90rdinates of reference 2-29. Propellant
for approximately 100 seconds of hover time remained at touchdown.

The first extravehicular activity was started after an a-hour rest period. Television cov-
erage of surface activity was delayed until the lunar roving vehicle systems were activated be-
cause the lunar module steerable antenna, used for initial lunar surface television transmission,
remained locked in one axis and could not be used. The fourth lunar aurface experiments package
was deployed, but accidental breakage of the electronics cable rendered the heat flow experiment
inoperative. After completing their activities at the experiments site, the crew drove the lunar
roving vehicle west to Flag Crater where they made visual observations, photographed items of in-
terest, and collected lunar samples. The inbound traverse route was just slightly south of the
outbound route, and the next stop was Spook Crater. The crew then returned by way of the ex-
periment station to the lunar module, at which time they deployed the solar wind composition ex-
periment. The first extravehicular activity lasted approximately 7 hours 11 minutes, and the
crew traveled approximately 4.2 kilometers in the lunar roving vehicle.

The second extravehicular traverse was south-southeast to a mare sampling area near the
Cinco Craters on the north slope of Stone Mountain. The crew then drove in a northwesterly di-
rection, making stops near Stubby and Wreck Craters. The last leg of the traverse was north to
the experiments station and the lunar module. The second extravehicular activity lasted approx-
imately 7 houts 23 minutes, and the crew traveled 11.1 kilometers in the lunar roving vehicle.

Four stations were deleted from the third extravehicular traverse because of time limita-
tions. The crew first drove to the rim of North Ray Crater ~lere photographs were taken and
samples gathered, some from House Rock, the largest single rock seen during the extravehicular
activities. The crew then drove southeast to the second sampling area, Shadow Rock. On comple-
ting activities there, the crew drove the vehicle back to the lunar module retracing the outbound
2-50

Figure 2-20.- Apollo 16 lunar module after undocking.

 2-51

route. The third extravehicular activity lasted approxicately 5 hours 40 ~inutes. and the dis-
tance traveled totaled 11.4 kilometers. The total weight of the lunar s~ple5 collected was
94 kilograms. The areas explored are described in greater detail 1n section 3.2.1.

While the lunar module crew was on the surface. the Command Module Pilot obtained photographs,
measured physical properties of the moon, and made visual observations. Also the Command Module
Pilot made comprehensive deep-space measurements, providing scientific data that could be used
to validate findings from the Apollo 15 mission.

Lunar ascent, initiated after the crew had spent more than 71 hours on the lunar surface, was
followed by normal rendezvous and docking. Attitude control of the lunar module ascent stage was
lost at jettison; consequently, a deorbit maneuver was not possible. Analysis indicated that the
ascent stage impacted the lunar surface before the Apollo 17 mission cOllllllenced; however, no data
were available for substantiation.

A particles and fields subsatellite like that launched from Apollo 15 was launched into
lunar orbit, and systems operation was normal. A planned spacecraft orbit shaping maneuver was
not perforDed before ejection of the subsatellite; therefore, the subsatellite was placed in a
nonoptimulII orbit that resulted in a much shorter lifetime than planned. Loss of all subsatellite
tracking and telemetry data on the 425th revolution (May 29, 1972) indicated that the subsatellite
had impacted the lunar surface.

The mass spectrometer deployment boom stalled during a retract cycle and was, therefore,
jettisoned before transearth injection. The second plane-change maneuver and so.e orbital sci-
ence photography were deleted so that transearth injection could be perfo~ed approximately 24
hours earlier than originally planned.

Activities during the transearth coast phase of the mission included photography for a Sky-
lab program study of the behavior and effects of particles emanating from the spacecraft. and the
second light-flash observation session. During an extravehicular operation. the Command Module
Pilot retrieved film cassettes from the scientific instruaent module caoeras, visually inspected
the equipment, and exposed an experiment to provide data on microbial response to the space envi-
ronment. Two midcourse corrections were made on the return flight to achieve the desired entry
interface conditions.

Entry and landing sequences were no~l. While on the drogue parachutes, the command module
was viewed on television, and continuous coverage was provided through crew recovery. The space-
craft landed in the mid-Pacific near the planned target. Although the vehicle came to rest in
the stable II attitude. it was up righted in approximately 5 minutes. The crew was delivered on
board the primary recovery ship, the u.s.s. Ticonderoga, 37 minutes after landing.

All of the primary mission objectives and most of the detailed objectives were met, even
though the mission was terminated one day earlier than planned. Especially significant scien-
tific data obtained were images and spectra of the earth's atmosphere and geocorona in the wave-
length range below 1600 angstroms. Additional information about the Apollo 16 mission is con-
tained in references 2-30 and 2-31.

2.4.12 Apollo 17 Mission

Apollo 17. the final Apollo mission, was the third in the series of lunar landing missions
designed for maximum scientific return. As such, the spacecraft and launch vehicle were similar
to those for Apollo IS and 16. Some experiments included in the payload, however. were unique
to this mission. The selected landing site was the Taurus-Littrow area.

The apace vehicle was launched fron Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A at 12:33:00 a.m.
e.s.t. (05:33:00 C.m.t.) on December 7, 1972. the only nightti~ launch of an Apollo spacecraft
(flg. 2-21). The crewmen for the flight were Eugene A. Cernan, Connander; Ronald E. Evans, Com-
mand Module Pilot; and Harrison H. Schmitt, Lunar Module Pilot.

The launch countdown had proceeded smoothly until 30 seconds before the scheduled ignition
when a failure in the automatic countdown sequencer occurred and delayed the launch 2 hours 40
--
o
-,
o

""
...J
 2-53

minutes. A successful launch placed the $-IVB!spacecraft co~bination in a circular earth orbit
in preparation for translunar injection. After ejection of the docked spacecraft, the S-lVB
stage was maneuvered for lunar impact, which occurred approximately 84 miles from the planned
point. The impact was recorded by the Apollo 12, 14, 15, and 16 passive seismometers.

Translunar coast time was shortened to compensate for the launch delay. Activities during
trans lunar coast included a heat flow and convection demonstration, a continuation of the series
of light-flash investigations conducted by previous crews, and a midcourse correction to achieve
the desired altitude of closest approach to the lunar surface. The scientific instrument module
door was jettisoned as planned approximately 4-1/2 hours before lunar orbit insertion. The in-
sertion maneuver resulted in a 170- by 53-nile orbit. Approximately 5 hours later, the first of
two descent orbit insertion maneuvers was performed lrn.ering the orbit to 59 by 15 miles. The
command and service module/lunar module combination were retained in this orbit approximately
17 hours before the spacecraft were undocked and separated. After undocking, the command and
service module orbit was circularized; and the second lunar module descent orbit insertion mrllleu-
ver was performed, lowering the pericynthion to approxi~tely 6 miles. Powered descent was ini-
tiated from thia orbit, and the lun.:lr module l.:lnded within 200 meter/;: of the preferred l.:mding
point. The landing site location is latitude 20"9'55" N. and longitude 30"45'57" E. based on
the coordinates of reference 2-32. Approximately 117 seconds of hover tine remained at engine
shutdown .

The first extravehicular activity began 4 hours after landing. The lunar roving vehicle
was off-loaded, equipment was unstowed, and the lunar surface experinents package was deployed
approximately 185 meters west-northwest of the lunar module. At the experiments package deploy-
ment site, the Co~nder drilled two holes for heat-flow experinent probes and one deep-core
hole. The crew sampled two geologic units, deployed two explosive packages, and took seven
traverse gravimeter measurements during the extravehicular activity. The crew also collected
samples weighing approximately 14 kilograms during the 7 hours 12 minutes of extravehicular
activity.

The second extravehicular activity began at approximately 138 hours mission elapsed time.
During the traverse, the extravehicular plan was modified to allow more time at points of geo-
logical interest. Three explosive packages were deployed in support of the lunar seismic pro-
filing experi~ent and seven traverse gravimeter measurements were taken. Approximately 34 kilo-
grams of samples were gathered during the 7 hours 37 minutes of extravehicular activity.

The crew commenced the third extravehicular activity after a l5-l/2-hour period in the lunar
module. Specific sampling objectives were accomplished, and nine traverse gravimeter measurements
were made. The surface electrical properties experiment was teminated because the receiver tem-
perature was increasing to a level which could have affected the data tape. Consequently, the
tape recorder was removed on the way back to the lunar module. Samples weighing approximately
62 kilograms were obtained during the 7-hour IS-minute extravehicular period for a total of ap-
proximately 110 kilograms for the mission. The lunar roving vehicle was driven about 34 kilo-
meters during the three extravehicular activities. The total extravehicular time was 22 hours
4 minutes.

Numerous science activities were conducted in lunar orbit while the surface was being ex-
plored. In addition to the panoramic camera, the mapping camera, and the laser altimeter (which
were used on previous missions), three new experiments were included in the service module. An
ultraviolet spectrometer measured lunar atmospheric density and composition, an infrared radiom-
eter mapped the thermal characteristics of the moon, and a lunar sounder acquired data on subsur-
face structure. The command and service module orbit did not decay as predicted while the lunar
module was on the lunar surface. Consequently, a small orbital trim maneuver was performed to
lower the orbit. In addition, a planned plane-change maneuver was made in preparation for ren-
dezvous.

Lunar aocent wao initiated after a our face stay time of almost 75 hours. Rendezvous and
docking were normal; and, after tranSfer of samples and equipment from the ascent stage to the
command module, the ascent stage was jettisoned and deorbited. The impact point was about 10
kilometers southwest of the Apollo 17 landing site. After spending an additional day in lunar
orbit performing scientific experiments, the crew perfo[T:'led the transearth injection maneuver
at the planned time.
2-54

During transearth coast, the Comnand Module Pilot conducted a I-hour 6-fflinute extravehicular
operation 1n which he retrieved film cassettes fro~ the scientific instrument module bay. The
crew later performed another light-flash experiment, operated the infrared radiometer and ultra-
violet spectrometer, and made a transearth midcourse correction.

Entry and landing sequences were normal with the command module landing in the Pacific Ocean
west of Hawaii, approximately 1 mile from the planned location. Apollo 17 was the longest mission
of the program (301 hours 51 minutes 59 seconds) and brought to a close one of the most ambitious
and successful endeavors of man. The Apollo 17 mission, the most productive and trouble-free
lunar landing mission, represented the culmination of continual advancements in hardware, proce-
dures, and operations. Reference 2-33 contains detailed information on the mission operations
and hardware performance, and reference 2-34 has prelininary science results.

2.5 REFERENCES

2-1. Results of the Ei~hth Saturn 1 Launch Vehicle Test Flight, SA-9. IIASA Harshall Space
Flight Center Report MPR-SAT-FE-66-4, Feb. 28, 1966.

2-2. Results of the Ninth Saturn I Launch VEhicle Test Flight, SA-8. NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center Report MPR-SAT-FE-66-10. June 13, 1966.

2-3. Results of the Tenth Saturn I Launch Vehicle Test Flight, SA-lO. NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center Report MPR-SAT-FE-66-ll, July 14, 1966.

2-4. Postlaunch Report for Mission AS-20l. NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-A-R-66-4,
May 6, 1966.

2-5. Postlaunch Report for Mission AS-202. NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-A-R-66-5,
Oce. 12, 1966.

2-6. Apollo 4 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-PA-R-68-l, Jan. 7, 1968.

2-7. Apollo 5 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-PA-R-68-7, March 27, 1968.

2-8. Apollo 6 Anomaly Report No. 6 - Abnormal Structural Performance. During Launch. NASA
Johnson Space Center Report MSC-PT-R-68-22, April 1969.

2-9. Apollo 6 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-PA-R-68-9, June 1968.

2-10. Report of Apollo 204 Review Board to the Adffiinistrator, National Aeronautics and Space
Administ ration. AprilS, 1967.

2-11. Apollo 7 Mission Report • NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-P,\-R-63-15, De<.:emher 1968.

2-12. Apollo 8 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-PA-R-69-l, February 1969.

2-13. Apollo 9 Mission Report. NAS,\ Johnson Space Center Report MSC-PA-R-69-2, Hay 1969.

2-14. Apollo 10 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report ~L')C-00126, August 1969.

2-15. Map ORll-1l-6 (100) 1:100 000. First ed., prepared for NASA by Army Map Service, Corps
of Engineers, December 1967.

2-16. Apollo 11 Mission Report. NASA SI'-238, 1971.

2-17 • ,\pollo 11 Preliminary Science Report. NASA SI'-214, 1969.

2-18. Surveyor [11 Site Map 1:2 000. First ed., prcp<lred for NASi\ by Army Map Service, Corps
of Engineers, January 1968.

2-19. Apollo 12 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center !leport USC-018S5, Mi,lrch 1970.
 2-55

2-20. Apollo 12 Prell~inary Science Report. NASA 51'-235, 1970.

2-21, Apollo 13 Anomaly Report No.1 - Cryogenic Tank 2 Anonaly. NASA Johnson Space Center
Report MSC-02545, July 1970.

2-22. Apollo 13 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-02680, September 1970.

2-23. Lunar Topographic Photonap of Fra Mauro 1:25 000. Third ed., prepared by Mapping Sciences
Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center. November 1970.

2-24. Apollo 14 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report ~~C-04112. May 1971.

2-25. Apollo 14 Preliminary Science Report. NASA $1'-272, 1971.

2-26. Rima Hadley Lunar Photomap. Orbiter V Site 26.1 1:250 000. First ed., prepared by
U.S. Army Topographic Conmand, April 1970.

2-27. Apollo 15 Mission Report. NASlI Johnson Space Center Report MSC-05161, December 1971.

2-28. Apollo ·15 Preliminary Science Report. NASA SP-2a9, 1972.

2-29. Lunar Topographic Photonap of Descartes 1:25 000. First ed., prepared by U.S. Army
Topographic Command, January 1972.

2-30. Apollo 16 Mission Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report MSC-07230, August 1972.

2-31. Apollo 16 Prel1r:linary Science Report. NASA SP-315, 1972.

2-32. Lunar Topographic Photomap of Taurus-Littrow 1:25 000. First ed., prepared by U.S.
Army Topographic Command, Septel:lber 1972.

2-33. Apollo 17 tUssion Report. NASA Johnson Space Center Report JSC-07904, March 1973.

2-34. Apollo 17 Preliminary Science Report. NASA SP-330, 1973.

2-56
 ~l

3.0 SCIENCE SUMMARY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The reality of, and enthusiasm for, lunar science greatly increased with the safe return of
the Apollo 11 astronauts from man's landing on the moon. Although serious effort in planning,
designing, developing, testing, and training for the scientific aspects of the Apollo program
had been started much earlier by NASA, the greater emphasis had been correctly concentrated on
the accomplishment of the safe lunar landing and return of the crews. Early accomplishment of
the spacecraft operational objectives opened the way for more attention to be focused on the
scientific potential of Apollo missions. The operational and scientific success of each succes-
sive mission stimulated a more vigorous interest in the solar system and established the study
of the moon as a modern interdisciplinary science.

Although a considerable amount of scientific data was obtained during the early Apollo mis-
sions (Apollo 7 through 14), a significantly greater amount of data was obtained as the result
of the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions. For each of the latter missions, a diverse set of exper-
iments was installed in the service module and collected data during lunar orbit. These experi-
ments increa~ed the scientific scope of the missions, and the data obtained complemented the data
from the experiments being operated on the lunar surface. In addition, more extensive first-hand
exploration of the lunar surface was accomplished by the crews on these missions because longer
stay times were allowed, and because the addition of the lunar roving vehicle increased the range
of travel on the lunar surface as well as the load of instr~ents. equipment, and lunar sample
material transported on crew traverses. Also, more science data were provided by the lunar sur-
face complement of experiments operated by the crews during the extravehicular activities and by
the continuing postmission telemetry from the science stations established at each site.

The large amount of data and material collected as the result of the lunar missions will con-
tinue to provide study sources for many years. The crews took thousands of science-quality pho-
tographs on the lunar surface and from lunar orbit. Approximately 380 kilograms of lunar soil
and rocks were brought back to earth in the returning spacecraft. Five long-term science sta-
tions were established on the lunar surface with 22 operating experiments continuing to transmit
science data to the earth. The Apollo 12 crew retrieved selected components of a previously
landed Surveyor spacecraft. Many materials were transported to the moon, exposed in the lunar
environment, and returned for analysis and study.

Findings resulting from the Apollo lunar science program are discussed in the following sec-
tions. Science hardware performance is also discussed in conjunction with each experiment. Much
of the information in these sections was extracted from the Apollo Preliminary Science Report
series. In some cases, publication of results was scheduled by NASA before sufficient data were
available to the principal investigators for comprehensive analyses. Thus, results published in
the early reports were not as complete as in later reports. In these cases, an attempt has been
made to include the latest information. References 3-1, 3-2 and 3-3 provide reviews of the pres-
ent understanding of the moon's composition and history.

3.2 LUNAR SURFACE SCIENCE

During each Apollo lunar landing mission, the crewmen emplaced and activated a lunar geo-
physical observatory to be controlled and monitored from earth, collected samples of lunar soil
and rock, photographically documented the geologic features of the landing area, and performed
other exploration activities. The locations of the Apollo landing sites are shawn in figure 3-1
and the lunar surface science activities (formal experiments and science detailed objectives) are
identified in table 3-1. The Apollo missions during which the activities were accomplished are
also indicated in the table.
3-2

15W o 45E 60E

~
45W _ 30W
30N;.-'.....-. ~'_.t
~.!t:'9•.!!.!:'!!-,00lkI0· I M 8 R

,).}) I
, . l

r) ,-' I
"~
I
,.-- :

-'
U:) . ................ ..,.,
. .
If",""

~ ,.

15N' "'.,-'\. Iobi<>'~

1"., • "'0;.''l!tt..r..LoTllY I. P4'~tf"'.~~
.. __. . " \ 4 . . '1;,;
IT'
1".. _",- .... (
(€tMoriuo •

I.. K......
~
.,.
-p
o-+-t+-le-l I 11fll;':
$
.,f\o.... -

ME~CATO~
.......... '~I ."0......>(" c~..t ""'. ""C•.
LUNAR CHART (LPC-l) PIlOJECTION (."N 10 .5'S)
s.colo 1,10.000.000., :W'N a.d S l.~'"d ••.
"'","'N ""'" 00u",,,"
'"' .,,,e,,o.. "'''1 .,. 'OtC', ."."
'"' ", .." .., .. , 0' OlOlNSI
SCAlE 1:10,000.000
. . -*-'-_.....-
--~""~""""',""
*'-'-0< .......
.,"-,_ _ ._ .,.".

Figure 3-1.- Apollo landing sites and impact locations on the lunar surface.
 3-3

TABLE 3-1.- APOLLO LUNAR SURFACE SCIENCE SUMMARY

Mission
ExperIment/objective Expe rimen t I--,--,--,-.,.---,----j
number
11 12 14 15 16 17

~unar geology investigation 5-059 x X X X X X

Soil mechanics experiment 5-200 X X X X X X
Lunar sample analysis X X X X X X
b
Passive seismic experiment 5-031 X X X X X
b
Active seismic experiment 5-033 X X
b
Sesimic profiling experiment 5-203 X
b
Lunar surface magnetometer experiment 5-034 X X X
Portable magnetometer experiment 5-198 X X
b
Heat flow experiment 5-037 X X X
bLunar surface gravimeter experiment 5-207 X
Traverse gravimeter experiment 5-199 X
Surface electrical properties experiment 5-204 X
Lunar neutron probe experiment 5-299 X
b
Laser ranging retro-reflector 5-078 X X X
b
Charged-particle lunar environment
experiment 5-<l38 X

bSolar wind spectrometer experiment 5-035 X X

Solar wind composition experiment 5-<lSO X X X X X
b
Suprathermal ion detector experiment 5-<l36 X X X
b
Cold cathode gage experiment 5-058 X X X
Cosmic ray detector (sheets) experiment 5-152 X X
bLunar dust derector experiment H-5l5 X X X X
bLunar ejecta and meteorites experiment 5-202 X
bLunar atmospheric composition experiment 5-205 X
5urveyor III analysis X
Long-term lunar surface exposure X
Far ultraviolet camera/spectrograph 5-201 X

aField geology activities included documentary photography, collection of lunar

material samples, and crew observations.
b
Part of an Apollo lunar surface experiments package.
;,-4

As noted in table 3-1, some experiments are part of the geophysical observatories called
Apollo lunar surface experiments packages. Using a long-life self-contained power source (radio-
isotope thermoelectric generator) and communications equipment, each Apollo lunar surface experi-
ments package operates as a remote science station to collect and transmit to earth scientific
and engineering data obtained over extended periods of time. The system was flown on Apollo 12
and all subsequent Apollo missions. The aborted lunar landing of Apollo 13 resulted in the loss
of the package of experiments; however, the overall program objectives were met by rearranging
the experiment assignments of the subsequent flights. A variation of the Apollo lunar surface
experiments package, known as the early Apollo scientific experiments package, was flown on the
Apollo 11 mission. This package was selected to minimize deployment time and to simplify crew
tasks during the first extravehicular activity on the lunar surface.

Rock and soil samples have been collected f["Om roost of the major physiographic or photogeo-
logic units identified on the lunar surface prior to the Apollo missions. This collection has
and will continue to provide a steady flow of data on the history of the moon. The staggering
amount of published material presenting the results of experiments and the analyses of lunar
samples cannot be covered in this document. However, the major findings are briefly summarized.

The moon may have accreted to its present mass 4.6 billion years ago. Early activity may
have included large-scale magmatic differentiation to produce an anorthositic crust. Throughout
early lunar history until about 3.9 billion years ago, the lunar surface was subjected to in-
tense bombardment which produced most of the large ring basins and the deposits of the lunar
highlands. Samples from the highlands indicate a very complex history of shock melting and frac-
turing of the anorthositic crust. Fragments interpreted as plutonic rocks from the crust have
been found in some breccia samples collected at highland sites.

Millions of years after the period of intense bombardment, volcanism along the margins of
the large ring basins, such as Mare Imbrium, began to fill the basins with lava flows. In a
period from about 3.8 to 3.1 billion years ago, these basins were filled with iron- and titanium-
rich basaltic lavas; these are now the flat, dark colored mare plains.

Meteoritic bombardment of the lunar surface has continued to the present, although less vig-
orously than in the past, foming craters and covering the surface with loose debris or regolith.
Studies of soil samples from the regolith sections (cores) reveal an incredibly complex history
of bombardment by meteorites and galactic and solar radiation through time.

The moon is now inactive, having cooled to a state of inactivity more than 3 billion years
ago, the time of formation of the youngest lavas. In contrast with the earth, there is no water
and there are no life forms. The surface is, however, constantly changing due to bombardment by
cosmic debris.

3.2.1 Geology of the Apollo 11 Landing Site

Tranquillity Base, the Apollo 11 landing site, is approximately 20 kilometers south-southwest

of the crater Sabine 0 in the southwestern part of Mare Tranquillitatis (Sea of Tranquillity) and
41.5 kilometers north-northeast of the western promontory of the Kant Plateau, which 1s the near-
est highland region. The Surveyor V spacecraft is approximately 25 kilometers north-northwest
of the Apollo 11 landing site, and the impact crater formed by Ranger VIII is 68 kilometers north-
east of the landing site (ref. 3-4). Figure 3-2 shows the Apollo 11 landing site relative to the
Surveyor V and Ranger VIII locations. Figure 3-3 is a diagram of the lunar surface activity
areas.

The following observations suggest that the mare material is relatively thin.

a. An unusual ridge ring named Lsmont, which occurs in the southwestern part of the mare,
may be localized over the shallowly buried rim of a premare crater.

b. No large positive gravity anomaly, such as those occurring over the deep mare-filled
circular basins, is associated with the Sea of Tranquillity (ref. 3-5).
~

;; 10'
2
Ii r
r:. 1-\\'~~QlL
I
\ I

L'moot
I
Mare T, allqUlllitatis
.
1, ,0._) Ii ,,~
orr \I \
I I

5"~,yo~,\-+=::;-e
Ranger11JlJ ;;sabine E

O' I / /M"'k"Y", G MarelSpumans

i I '1""';;:--------W 0.:- Sabine 0

Apo 110 1l--------..lD.
~ .._ I 7' v \!'\.
...... r
/ 1--- ~~ I
3 ..wilke

Kant Plateau Mare Fecuooitatls

AlfraganusA

~~ 10'\ I Ti" Tyoho

17\
-bkb )/'=J I
, I
\' "
I I I
O' 10' 20' 30' 40' SO' 60' 70° 80°
Longitude, east

Figure 3·2.- Apollo 11 landing location relative to SurveyorJl"and Ranger"SZIJI.

w,
'"
3- 6

\ \

/
..../' - \
"-.
Television
camera

./
.
../.~
.
) I
I

.~)
\. /'rArea from which core
7·.. . ...( sample 2 was taken
I
/
"-"_.,J
Bulk sample
area
52 meters to
33-meter-
diameter crater
--r/
•
--._-_.-----
• Contingency
400 meters to/
est Crate~,L~
/
•
.~
.--,")...
sample area
. <) -
k "'(" '"
'r-.. ....,,~.~~...
"" ~
." .....'<U
... . -y
;.\
t i ",
J '
DOCllnle!1ted
sample area
( ..... •
\ j·../i.·)
/\. · 7 '.. ·····.·/
•\...• 1',;, Television
{ .'"-~.'-< .....c/' ( \. field of view

\. / . ••

•
•• •
0 5 10
I , I

Passive seismic Meters

e)(periment
- - - Very subdued crater
~ - Subdued craler
~I
.......... - .......... Relatively sharp crater
• Rock

Figure 3-3.- Diagram of Apollo 11 lunar surface activity area.

 3-7

The southern part of the Sea of Tranquillity 1s crossed by relatively faint hut distinct
rays trending north-northwest and by prominent secondary craters associated with the crater The-
ophUus, which is located 320 kilometers southeast of the landing site. Approximately 15 kilo-
meters west of the landing site is a fairly prominent ray that trends north-northeast. The crater
with which this ray is associated 1s not definitely knOVll; the ray may be related to the crater
Alfraganus, 160 kilometers southwest of the landing site, or to Tyella, approximately 1500 kilo-
meters southwest of the landing site. Neither the ray that trends north-northeast nor any of the
rays that trend north-northwest cross the landing site; these rays are sufficiently close, how-
ever, so that material from Theophilus, Alfraganus, or Tycho is possibly found near the landing
site. Craters such as Sabine 0 and Sabine E (fig. 3-2), with a diameter greater than 1 kilome-
ter, may have been excavated partly in premare rocks; and premare rock fragments that have been
ejected from these craters may also occur near the lunar module landing site (ref. 3-6).

Based on albedo and crater density, three geologic units can be distinguished in the mare
material near the landing site. The lunar module landed on the most densely cratered unit of
these three geologic units. These units may correspond to lava flows of different ages; if so,
the unit at the landing site is probably the oldest.

The approximately 21 kilograms of lunar material returned by the Apollo 11 crew were charac-
terized by the lunar sample analysis planning team as follows (ref. 3-7): The samples from Tran-
quillity Base consist of basaltic igneous rocks; microbreccias, which are a mixture of rock,
glass and mineral fragments; and lunar soil. The soil is a diverse mixture of crystalline and
glassy fragments with various shapes; the soil also includes fragments of iron, some of which
may be of meceoric origin. Most rock fragments are similar to and apparently derived from the
larger igneous rocks; the rocks in turn were probably once part of the underlying bedrock. A
few of the crystalline fragments are totally different from any of the igneous rocks of the Tran-
quillity site. A strong possibility exists that these fragments represent samples from the
nearby highlands.

Many rock surfaces and individual fragments in the soil show evidence of surface erosion by
hypervelocity impacts. Examination of the surfaces of the glassy fragments, which are themselves
formed by impact processes, shows that these objects contain beautifully preserved microscopic
pits as small as 10 microns in diameter. These pits are the result of high velocity impacts by
tiny particles. There is also evidence that the impact process is accompanied by local melting,
splashing, evaporation, and condensation.

The crystalline rocks, which have typical igneous textures, range from very-fine-grained
vesicular rocks to medium-grained equigranular rocks. The most common minerals are pyroxene
(often highly zoned with iron-rich rims), plagioclase, ilmenite, olivine, and cristobalite. Free
metallic iron and troilite, both of which are extremely rare on earth, are COml:lOn accessory min-
erals in the igneous rocks. All the silicate minerals are unusually transparent and clear because
of the complete absence of hydrothermal alteration. Laboratory experiments with silicate liquids
similar in composition to the lunar liquids show that, at the time of crystallization, the ob-
served phases can have coexisted only in a ver~ dry, highly reducing system; the partial pressure
of oxygen in this system is estimated to be 10 13 atmosphere. This pressure is more than five
orders of magnitude lower than that for typical terrestrial basaltic magmas. The very low abun-
dance of ferric ions in pyroxenes, determined by Mossbauer spectroscopy and electron spin reson-
ance, is further evidence of the low oxidation level of the magmas. The melting experiments also
indicate that 98 percent of the primary igneous liquid crystallized in the temperature range 1480°
to 1330° K, with minor interstitial liquids continuing to crystallize down to temperatures around
1220° K. Microscopic and microprobe examination provides clear-cut evidence for the existence
of an interstitial liquid rich in potassium and aluminum that probably was immiscible with the
main liquid. Further, calculations indicate that the viscosity of the lunar magmas was approxi-
mately an order of magnitude lower than that of terrestrial basaltic magmas. This characteristic
may playa significant role in the explanation of the textural features, the differentiation mech-
anisms that produced the observed chemical composition, and the morphological features of the
lunar seas themselves.

The regolitll consists chiefly of particles less than 1 millimeter in diameter. The regolith
is weak and easily trenched to depths of several centimeters. Surface material was easily dis-
lodged when kicked. The flagpole for the United States flag and the core tubes, when pressed
into the surface, penetrated with ease to a depth of 10 to 12 centimeters. At that depth, the
5- 8

regolith was not sufficiently strong, however, to hold the core tubes upright; a hammer was needed
to drive the core tubes to depths of 15 to 20 centimeters. The tubes, rods, and scoop chat were
pressed into the subsurface at several saJ:lple aires encountered rocks 1n tbe subsurface.

The crewman's boots left prints approximately 3 millimeters to 3 centimeters deep 1n the
fine-grained regolith material. Smooth molds of the boot treads were preserved 1n the bootprints,
and angles of 70° were maintained 1n the walls of the bootprints. The fine-grained surficial ma-
terial tended to break into slabs, cracking as far as 12 to 15 centimeters from the edges of the
footprints.

The finest fraction of the regolith adhered weakly to boots, gloves, space suits, handtools,
and rocks on the lunar surface. on repeated contact, the coating on the boots thickened until
boot color was completely obscured. When the fine particles of the regolith were brushed off,
a stain remained on the space suits.

In places where flne-grained material ",as kicked by the crewmen, the freshly exposed mate-
rial was conspicuously darker than the undisturbed surface. The subsurface material probably
lies at depths no greater than a millimeter from the surface. The existence of a thin surface
layer of lighter colored material at widely scattered localities indicates that sOme wideapread
process of surface material alteration is occurring on the moon.

Fillets (fine-grained material which is banked against the sides of some of the larger rock
fragments) were observed at least as far as 70 meters from the lunar module, and most fillets
are almost certainly natural features of the surface. On sloping surfaces, the crew observed
that the fillets were larger on the uphill sides of rocks than on the downhill sides. The sides
of rocks are ballistic traps, and the fillets have probably been formed by the trapping of 10101-
velocity secondary particles. Asymmetric development of fillets around rocks on slopes may be
caused partly by preferential downhill transport of material by ballistic processes and partly
by downhill creep or flow of the fine-grained material (ref. 3-6).

3.2.2 Geology of the Apollo 12 Landing Site

The Apollo 12 landing site is on the northwestern rim of the 200-meter-diameter crater in
which the Surveyor III spacecraft (fig. 3-4) touched down on April 20, 1967, in the eastern part
of Oceanus Procellarum (Ocean of Storms). approximately 120 kilo~eters southeast of the crater
Lansberg and due north of the center of Mare Cognitum (Known Sea). The landing site is on a
broad ray associated with the crater Copernicus, 370 kilometers to the north. The landing site
is characterized by a distinctive cluster of craters ranging in diameter from 50 to 400 meters.
Two geologic traverses (fig. 3-5) were made on or near the rims of these craters and on deposits
of ejecta from the craters. During the traverses, the crew collected approximately 34 kilograms
of lunar material.

The lunar regolith at the Apollo 12 landing site is composed of fragmental material which
ranges in size from particles too fine to be seen with the naked eye to blocks several meters in
diameter. Along several parts of the traverse made during the second extravehicular activity
period, the crew found fine-grained material of relatively high albedo that in some places was
in the shallow subsurface and in other places lay on the surface. Some of this light-gray mate-
rial may constitute a discontinuous deposit that is observed through telescopes as a ray of
Copernicus.

Darker regolith material that generally overlies the light-gray material is only a few cen-
timeters thick in some places but probably thickens greatly on the rims of some craters. The
darker material varies from place to place in the size, shape, and abundance of its constituent
particles and in the presence or absence of patterned ground. Most local differences are prob-
ably the result of local cratering events.

Hany crew comments concerned the large amount of 81ass contained in the regolith. Irregu-
larly shaped. small fragments of glass and glass beads are abundant both on and within the rego-
lith; glass is also splattered on some blocks of rock at the surface and is found within many
shallow craters.
 3-9

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Figure 3-5. - Apollo 12 traverse diagram.
 3-11

Much of the surface in the area of the geologic traverse made during the second extravehic-
ular activity period 1s patterned by s~ll, linear grooves. These grooves are visible on the re-
turned photographs and W(!;re reported from several localities by the crew. The grooves are similar
in appearance to those which are visible in sone of the photographs from the Apollo 11 mission.
The linear features 113ve been interpreted as being caused by drainage of fine-grained material
into fractures in the underlying bedrock. This interpretation would imply northesst- and north-
west-trending joint sets in the bedrock of the Apollo 11 site and north- and east-trending joint
sets in the Apollo 12 site bedrock.

One notable difference bet\,een the collection of rocks obtained at the Apollo 12 landing
site and the collection obtained at Tranquillity Base is tlle ratio of crystalline rocks to micro-
breccia. At the Apollo 12 site, the rocks collected were predominantly crystalline, whereas, at
Tranquillity Base, approximately half the rocks collected were crystalline and half were micro-
breccia. This difference is probably attributable to the fact that the rocks collected at the
Apollo 12 landing site were primarily on or near crater rims. On the crater rims, the regolith
is thin or only weakly developed, and many rocks observed are probably derived from craters that
have been excavated in bedrock that is well below the regolith. By contrast, Tranquillity Base
is on a thick, mature regolith, where l:Iany observed rock fragments were produced by shock lithi-
fication of regolith material and were ejected from craters too shallow to excavate bedrock
(ref. 3-8).

Analysis of the returned Apollo 12 lunar samples showed the following:

a. Although still old by terrestrial standards, the Apollo 12 rocks are approximately 600
to 700 million years younger than the rocks from the Apollo 11 site.

b. Whereas the Apollo 11 collection contained approximately half vitric breccias, the
Apollo 12 collection contained only two breccias in the 45 rocks collected.

c. The regolith at the Apollo 12 site is approxinately half as thick as the regolith at
the Apollo 11 site. Complex stratification within the regolith is evident.

d. A bright-colored layer of material referred to as KREEP was sampled at varying depths.

It consists of fragments rich in potassium, rare earth elements, and phosphorous. It may have
originated as ejecta from a distant, large crater, perhaps Copernicus_

e. The amount of solar wind material in the Apollo 12 fines is considerably lower than that
in the Apollo 11 fines.

f. The lavas, in contrast to those fron Apollo 11, display a wide range in both modal min-
eralogy and primary texture, indicating a variety of cooling histories.

g. Chemically, the "nonearthly" character of the Apollo 11 samples (high refractory element
concentration and low volatile element concentration) is also noted in the Apollo 12 samples but
to a lesser degree.

The soil at the Apollo 12 site is similar in appearance and behavior to the soils encountered
at the Apollo 11 and the Surveyor equatorial landing sites. However, local variations in soil
texture, color, grain size, compactness, and consistency are evident. No direct correlation be-
tween crater slope angle and consistency of soil cover is apparent. The consistency of the soil
cover depends mainly on the geologic history of lunar terrain features and local environmental
conditions.

3.2.3 Geology of the Apollo 14 Landing Site

The Apollo l4-landing site is in a broad, shallow valley between radial ridges of the Fra
Mauro Formation, approximately 500 kilometers from the edge of Mare Imbrium (Sea of Rains, and
also referred to geologically as the Imbrium Basin), vhich is the largest circular mare on the
moon. The crater Copernicus lies 360 kilometers to the north, and the bright ray material that
emanates from Copernicus covers much of the landing site region. The Fra ~lauro region is an
area of prime scientific interest because this region contains sone of the most clearly exposed
geological formations that are characteristic of the Fra ~lauro Formation.
 3-12

The Fta Mauro Formation is an extensive geological unit that 1s distributed in an approxi-
mately radially symmetric fashion around the Sea of Rains over much of the near side of the moon.
Stratigraphic data indicate that the Fta Mauro Formation is older than the mare at the Apollo 11
and 12 sites. The Formation 110 thought to be part of the ejecta blanket that resulted from the
excavation of the Imbrium Basin. The Apollo 14 landing site thus offered an opportunity to sam-
ple material that had been shocked during one of the major cataclysmic events in the geological
history of the moon and, thereby, to determine the date of tIle event. Furthermore, because of
the size of the Imbrium Basin, the belief was that some material had come from deep (tens of kil-
ometers) within the original lunar crust. Thus, a landing at the Fra ~l.auro Formation, in prin-
ciple, was expected to offer an opportunity to sample the most extensive vertical section avail-
able of the primordial moon (ref. 3-9).

The lunar module landed approximately 1100 meters west of Cone Crater,* which is located on
the ridge of the Fra ~~uro Formation. Cone Crater is a sharp-rimmed, relatively young crater ap-
proximately 340 meters in diameter that ejected blocks of material as much as 15 meters across,
which were derived from beneath the regolith. Sampling and plwtographing of these blocks were
the primary objectives of the mission. Rays of blocky ejecta from Cone Crater extend westward
beyond the landing site. The landing took place on a smooth terrain unit recognized in photo-
graphs previously taken during earlier Lunar Orbiter and Apollo missions. Sampling and describ-
ing this geological unit was another iMportant objective of this mission.

During the first period of extravehicular activity, the crew traversed westward over the
smooth terrain for a round-ttip distance of approximately 550 meters and deployed the Apollo
lunar surface experiments package (fig. 3-6). The crew covered a round-trip distance of approx-
imately 2900 mete~s eastward from the lunar module during the second extravehicular activity
(fig. 3-6). During the traverse, the crew crossed the smooth terrain, the Fra Mauro ridge unit,
and a section through the continuous ejecta blanket of Cone Crater to within 20 meters of the
crater rim crest. Forty-eight rock samples, the locations of which have been determined, were
collected at points along the traverse. The modular equipment transporter (set. 4.8) was used
to transport the samples and the collection tools. Approximately 43 kilograms of lunar material,
including 69 rock samples, were collected during the two periods of extravehicular activity.

Although the soil surface texture and appearance at the Apollo 14 landing site are similar
to those at the Apollo 11 and 12 landing sites, a greater variation exists in the characteristics
of the soil at shallow depths (a few centimeters) in both lateral and vertical directions than
had previously been supposed. The stratigraphy at the trench site showed a dark, fine-grained
material (to a depth of 3 to 5 centimeters) underlain by a very thin glassy layer that, in turn,
is underlain by a material of medium to coarse sand gradation. As had been the case in previous
missions, dust was easily kicked up and tended to adhere to any surface contacted; however, over-
all dust was less of a problem than on previous missions. No difficulty was encountered in "dig-
ging a trench into the lunar surface. Because of unexpectedly low cohesion of the soil at the
trench site, the trench sidewalls caved in at somewhat shallower trench depths than had been pre-
dicted.

The Apollo 14 site is densely covered with craters in all stages of destruction. Some
craters as much as 400 meters across have undergone nearly complete destruction, and the over-
lapping of relatively large, very gentle depressions gives the topography at the site a strongly
undulating aspect. In contrast, the largest craters that have undergone nearly complete destruc-
tion at the Apollo 11 and 12 landing sites are approximately 50 to 100 meters in diameter.

The lunar regolith at Fra ~lauro is thicker than at the mare sites. The surface material is
finer grained in the western portion of the site away from the Cone Crater ejecta blanket than
in the continuous ejecta blanket itself. Rock fragl:lents larger than a few centil:leters in diam-
eter are rare in the western part of the site and become progressively more abundant toward Cone
Crater. The regolith appears to be looser and less cohesive than that developed on the mare ma-
terial; downslope movement of this loose debris has caused the eradication of small craters on
slopes and extensive slumping of crater walls.

Boulders a6 large as 15 meters in diameter are present on the rim of Cone Crater; photo-
graphs of these boulders provided the first dramatic glimpse of relatively large segments de-
rived from lunar bedrock and of detailed rock structures (fig. 3-7). Smaller boulders occur
throughout the Cone Crater ejecta blanket and as isolated occurrences on raylike extensions of
the ejecta blanket.

*Informal designation.
 3-13

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3-14
 All the boulders for which stereophotographs are available appear to be coherent breccias,
some with discrete clasts as much as 150 centimeters in diameter, larger than any returned sam-
ples. Both light and dark clasts are recognizable. Resistance of the breccias to the weathering
effects of the lunar environment varies considerably; some breccias have weathered to smooth, re-
sistant surfaces and others to hackly, rough surfaces that may be rubbly. Significant and strik-
ing features within the boulders are sets of parallel fractures spaced at several millimeters to
approximately 1 centimeter. Several intersecting sets of differently spaced fractures are pres-
ent in some boulders.

Portions of some boulders close to the rim of Cone Crater are crudely layered with very
light material that forms irregular bands from 25 to 40 centimeters thick. The light bands con-
tain both lighter and darker clasts up to 10 centimeters across, and the host rock of the bands
contains light clasts up to 10 centimeters across. Irregular parts of other boulders are also
very light, but a layered relationship is not evident. Boulders containing light layers occur
only near the rim of Cone Crater and, hence, may come from deeper levels in the crater.

Most large blocks have fillets of lunar fines and fragments embanked against the basal edges.
The size of a fillet is commonly proportional to the size, degree of rounding, and apparent fria-
bility of the host rock. Fillets are preferentially developed against outward-sloping rock sur-
faces and contain coarse fragments spalled off the host rock. Burial of rocks is a combined prod-
uct of (1) ejecta blanketing by adjacent impact events of all sizes, particularly on well-rounded
rocks the tops of which are close to the surface, and (2) self-burial by micrometeorite and ther-
mal erosion of the exposed rock surfaces.

Two well-developed sets of surface lineaments have the northwest and northeast trends ob-
served at the Apollo 11 and 12 sites. A secondary set trends north. The large number of very
long, straight lineaments is unique to the Apollo 14 site. These lineaments may be the result
of very small, recent, vertical displacements along fractures or of the sifting of fine-grained
material down into fractures that were propagated to the surface from a more coherent, joint
substrate.

The samples consist almost entirely of complex breccias, displaying shock and thermal ef-
fects that are consistent with their postulated origin as debris from a large cratering event.
The breccias are noritic in bulk composition. Some of the samples are vitric breccias which
may have been formed by welding within the ejecta blanket of a smaller or local cratering event.
Many of the breccia samples contain veins or pods of impact melt. On a larger scale, a plagio-
clase-rich basalt sample collected at the site may have been a lava, but was more likely crystal-
lized in a pool of impact melt.

Radiometric ages for the Apollo 14 site cluster around a value of 3.9 billion years; if the
Fra thuro site is truly ejecta from Imbrium, then the Imbrium event occurred at that time (ref.
3-10).

Apollo 14 soil and breccia are enriched in the siderophile elements (iridium, rhenium, gold,
nickel), relative to soils from mare surfaces. They may be derived from the Imbrium projectile
itself or bodies which impacted the lunar surface to form pre-Imbrium craters.

In summary, the compositions of the Apollo 14 rocks are compatible with their derivation as
an ejecta deposit fro~ the Imbrium Basin. These rock samples are largely fragmental and show pro-
nounced shock effects, and the composition of most samples is distinctly different from that of
basaltic rocks from lunar maria. The crystallinity observed in many fragmental rocks is compat-
ible with a single very large impact event in which annealing took place within a thick, hot
ejecta blanket.

3.2.4 Geology of the Apollo 15 Landing Site

The landing site of Apollo 15 is on a dark mare plain (part of Palus Putredinis, or the
Marsh of Decay) near the sinuous Rima Hadley (Hadley Rille) and the frontal scarp of the Montes
Apenninus (Apennine MOuntains) (fig. 3-8). This scarp is the main boundary of the Imbrium Basin,
which is centered approximately 650 kilometers to the northwest. The largest mountains of the
Apennines are a chain of discontinuous rectilinear massifs 2 to 5 kilometers high that are in-
terpreted as fault blocks uplifted and segmented at the time of the Imbrium impact. Between the
massifs and beyond them outside the basin are hilly areas that merge southeastward with a terrain
3-16

20°30'

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Figure 3-8.- Lunar module landing site on photomap of Hadley Plain. •

 3-17

interpreted as a blanket of ejecta fron the ImbriUl,\ Basin, known as the Fra Naura Formation. The
hills appear to be jostled blocks mantled and subdued by the Imbrium ejecta. The large massifs,
however. are not similarly subdued and so may be composed mainly of pre-Imbrium ejecta. The area
is near the old Mare Serenitseis (Sea of Serenity) basin, which suggests that at least part of
the pre-Imbrium material in the massifs is ejecta from the Sea of Serenity.

The mare material of the Marsh of Decay fills the lowlands at the base of the Apennines and
creates a dark plain. The regional relations to the west show that several events occurred be-
tween the formation of the Imbrium Basin snd the emplacenent of the mare materia!. These events
included the deposition of the premare plains-forming material and the cratering event that formed
the crater Archimedes. The morphologies of the craters on the mare surface at the landing site
indicate that the age of the surface is late Imbrian or early Eratosthenian.

Some hills and mountains in the area are dark like the mare and may be coated by a thin
mantle of dark material. The region contains numerous diffuse light-colored rays and satellitic
clusters of secondary impact craters from the large Copernican craters Autolycus and Aristillus
to the north.

Hadley Rille (fig. 3-8) follows a winding course through the mare and locally abuts premare
massifs. Hadley Rille appears to be one of the freshest sinuous rilles, and rock outcrops are
common along the upper walls. The rille is more than 100 kilometers long, 1500 meters wide, and
~OO meters deep.

The regional relations indicate that the mare rocks may rest on faulted pre-Imbrium rocks,
breccia from the Imbrium impact, and light plains-forming units such as the Apennine Bench Forma-
tion. Whether or not the rille penetrates the premare material is unknown. The mare surface is
covered with regolith approximately 5 ~eters thick.

Two major Apennine massifs, Mons Hadley (Hount Hadley) to the northeast and Hadley Delta
Just south of the landing site (fig. 3-8), tower over the Hadley plain to heights of ~.5 to 3.5
kilometers, respectively. The face of Mount Imdley is steep and high in albedo. The northern
face of Hadley Delta, called the Front during the Apollo 15 mission, rises abruptly above the
younger mare surface, except near Elbow Crater* where the contact is gradational, apparently be-
cause of the accumulation of debris from the slopes. As elsewhere on the moon, the steep slopes
of the massifs are sparsely cratered because the craters are destroyed by the downslope movement
of debris. A prominent exception is St. George,* a subdued crater 2.5 kilometers in diameter
that predates the mare. The scarcity of blocks on both massifs indicates a thick regolith. The
lower slopes of Hadley Delta were visited, and rock sal:lples collected there indicate that the
bedrock beneath the regolith consists of breccias.

The areas traversed by the Apollo 15 crew are shown in figure 3-9. The surface of the mare
in the area visited is generally a plain that slopes slightly downward to the northwest. To the
crew, the surface appeared hummocky or rolling, with subtle ridges and gentle valleys. The sor-
face texture appeared smooth with scattered rocks occupying less than 5 percent of the total
area. Widely separated, locally rough areas occur where recent impacts have left sharp crater
rims and small boulder fields. The visible ridges and valleys are largely the forms of greatly
subdoed large craters, and the smoothness is caused by the destruction of blocks by erosion from
small impacts. A large but indistinct ray shown on premiss ion maps as crossing the mare surface
was not visible to the crew as either a topographic or compositional feature, but the crew did
note patches of lighter-colored Qaterial that may represent re~ants of rays that have been
largely mixed with the mare regolith.

The contact between the mare and the front of Hadley Delta is marked by a change of slope
and a band of soft material with f~~er large craters than are typical of the mare. The soft ma-
terial of the band 1s probably a thickened regolith that includes debris derived from the slope
by both cratering processes and downslope creep. Samples from talus at the base of highlands
terrain (Imdley Delta) consist of breccias rich in fragments of plagioclase-rich basalt and an-
orthosite. They may have been deposited as ejecta by pre-Imbrium events or the Imbrium event.
One of the anorthosite samples had a radiOf.1.etric age of 4.1 billion years, a lower limit, since
this rock has experienced a complex history of brecciation. There is a variety of mare basalt
samples and a clastic rock composed of green glass spheres which may be of volcanic origin. The
basalt (lava) samples are rich in iron and poor in sodium, as are other mare lavas. They have
an age of 3.3 billion years.

*lnformal designations.
>-18

7 ContKl'
SO'
0 1 b. b 2
I I I
Kllometen

Figure 3-9.- Apollo 15 lunar surtace traverse routes.

 3-19

A 2.4-rneter-deep core of the regolith revealed that i t is composed of many soil layers rang-
ing in thickness from a few millimeters to several tens of centimeters. The regolith Is composed
of layers of ejecta from impact craters, which are, in turn, reworked and mixed by micrometeorite
bombardment. The 2.4-meter section at this site has undergone reworking and mixing for about
500 million years.

Soil mechanics analyses (frof:l pene-trone-ter tests, core sampling, and trenching performed by
the astronauts; from photographs; and from other data) for the Apollo 15 site indicate the fol-
lowing:

a. Soil densities range from 1,36 to 2.15 grams per cubic centimeter.

b. No evidence of deep-seated slope failures is apparent, although surficial downslope

movement of soil has occurred and the soil on steep slopes along the Apennine Front is in a near-
failure condition.

3.2.5 Geology of the Apollo 16 Landing Site

The Apollo 16 lunar module landed at the western edge of the Descartes Mountains approxi-
mately 50 kilometers west of the Knnt Plateau, part of the highest topographic surface on the
near side of the moon. The Apollo 16 mission accomplished the first landing in the central lunar
highlands, and the crew successfully explored and sampled a kind of terrain not previously visited.
The landing site was selected as an area characteristic of both terra plains and rugged hilly and
furrowed terra. The consensus of pre~ission photogeologic interpretation was that both units
were of probable volcanic origin. However, surface observations indicated that few or no vol-
canic rocks or landforms existed at the landing site but rather that the area is underlain by a
wide variety of impact-generated breccias (ref. 3-11).

Ray materials derived from North Ray and South Ray Graters (fig. 3-10)'" are the two most ap-
parent sources of surface debris on the Cayley Plains. Ejecta from South Ray Crater also appear
to mantle much of the surface of Stone Mountain near sampling stations 4 and 5 (fig. 3-10), so
that uncertainty still exists as to whether Descartes materials were, in fact, sampled. Size
distribution studies of fragments on the lunar surface suggest th.'lt the ejecta units of these
two craters differ in character. Rock fragments are much less abundant in the North Ray ejecta
blanket, which suggests that the North Ray impact may have excavated more friable material, that
the length of time since the cratering event has been sufficient for subsequent impacts to de-
stroy the smaller blocks, or both. South Ray ejecta, as mapped, include bright and dark areas,
but the only surface differences observed are that the brightest areas have larger block sizes
and a greater abundance of blocks. The mapped interray areas have no lunar surface characteris-
tics that distinguish the~ fror.! adjacent South Ray ejecta; they are, IIDre or less, free of coarser
rock fragments. Both ray and interray areas show a progressive northward decrease in total rock
abundance and in relative abundance of the coarser sizes.

The regolith present on the ejecta blanket of North Ray Crater is only a fe~ centimeters
thick. Where ejecta blankets or ray deposits are not identifiable, the regolith is 10 to 15
meters thick. The surface of the regolith is medium gray, but high-albedo soils are present at
depths of 1 to 2 centimeters in most of the traverse area.

The net weight of returned samples was approximately 94 kilograms. Of tl:t: total sample
weight, almost 75 percent consists of rock fragments larger than 1 centimeter in diameter. nearly
20 percent consists of soil or residue fines, and the remainder consists of core and drive tube
samples. The Apollo 16 rocks may be divided into three broad groups: fine- to coarse-grained,
mostly homogeneous crystalline rocks; rocks composed substantially of glass; and fragmental rocks
(brecc ias). The proportion of fragmental rocks in the returned samples exceeds 75 percent. Of
25 rocks classified as crystalline, 7 appear to be igneous. AltllOugh all the igneous rocks have
been shattered and deformed to some extent, the predeformation textures are substantially intact.
The two largest samples returned are coarse-grained nonvesicular rocks composed largely of pla-
gioclase. These rocks resemble an Apollo 15 anorthosite sample but are probably more severely
shock-deformed. Three are fine-grained, highly feldspathic rocks with crystal-lined vugs. Eight-
een crystalline rocks appear to be metaclastic rocks with generally small proportions of lithic
debris; these are hard, angular rocks characterized by fine-grained sugary textures. Five sam-
ples largely composed of glass were returned. Two of these are spheres, one hollow and one solid.

"'Designations of lunar features shown in figure 3-10 are inforoal.

 3- 2 0

I I I I I I I
Figure 3-10.- Apollo 16 landing area and traverse routes.
o 500 1000
 3-21

-N
Stone Mountain

~hanlom

OO'Jble S~l

Sp~ok

.- Scale: meters
I I I I I I I
o 500 1000

Figure 3-10.- Apollo 16 la~din9 area and traverse roules (concluded>'

3-22

The remaining three glass samples are irregular, coarse, agglutinates with numerous small lithic
inclusions. The fragmental rocks have been divided into five main groups on the basis of pro-
portions of light and dark clasts and matrix color. All five groups are varieties of impact-
generated breccias; none appear to be of volcanic origin. The majority of the rocks are polymic-
tic breccias, but a substantial minority are monomictic. Two types of clasts are clearly domi-
nant: one type is dark, aphanitic to finely crystalline metaclastic rocks; the other is white,
partly t:rushed to powdered feldspathic rocks. Less common clR,st types include light-gray or
white rocks with granoblastic textures, a variety of gabbroic to anorthositic rocks with medium
to coarse grain size, and rare feldspar-poor basaltic rocks. Matrices of the light- and medium-
gray-matrix breccias are, for the most part, friable and not visibly altered by subsequent ther-
mal events, whereas those of dark-matrix breccias are coherent and annealed or fused.

The rock distribution suggests that the section underlying the Cayley Plains is stratified,
with an upper unit of medium-gray breccia and lower units composed mainly of light- and dark-
matrix breccias. The extent of the supposed upper unit is not known but presumably extends at
least between stations 1 and 6; considering the relative scarcity of the medium-gray breccias,
the unit is probably not more than a few meters thick. Evidence derived from the photographs,
crew descriptions, and samples collected at station 11 suggests that light-matrix breccias over-
lie dark-matrix breccias, whereas the color of ejecta on the rims of South Ray snd Baby Ray
Craters suggests that dark-matrix breccias overlie light-matrix breccias near those craters.
Such a stratographic sequence in the South Ray area is consistent with the dominance of dark-
matrix breccias described and photographed in South Ray ejecta between the landing site and
station 8.

The Cayley Formation at the Apollo 16 site is a thick (at least 200 and possibly more than
300 meters), crudely stratified debris unit, the components of which are derived from plutonic
anorthosites and feldspathic gabbros and from metamorphic rocks of similar composition. The for-
mation has an elemental composition similar to that observed over large regions of the lunar high-
lands by the orbital X-ray experiments of the Apollo 15 and 16 missions. The observed textures
and structures of the breccias resemble those of impact breccias. The textures and structures of
the breccias do not resemble those of volcanic rocks nor do the plutonic or metamorphic source
rocks of the breccias have the textures or compositions of terrestrial or most of the previously
sampled lunar volcanic rocks.

The physical and lI"Iechanical properties of the soil at the Apollo 16 landing site are gener-
ally similar to those of the soils encountered at the previous Apollo sites. Data obtained using
the self-recording penetrometer have provided a basis for quantitative study of stratigraphy, den-
sity, and strength characteristics. These results and crew observations, photographs, and soil
samples (particularly the core-tube samples) have been used to develop the following preliminary
conclusions.

a. Soil cover appeared to blanket all areas visited or observed at the Descartes landing
area.

b. Soil properties are variable on r~gional and local (1 meter) scales.

c. Visibility degradation by blowing dust was less during the Apollo 16 lunar module de-
scent than during previous missions, probably because of a faster descent rate and a higher sun
angle rather than a difference in soil conditions.

d. The grain-size distributions of soil samples from the Descartes area are comparable to
those from other areas of the lIK)on, although distributions for most Descartes samples fall toward
the coarser edge of a composite distribution.

••The drive-tube samples indicate that soil density increases with depth, but the overall
range of densities (1.40 to 1.80 grams per cubic centimeter) is slightly less than the range
(1. 36 to 2.15 grams per cubic centimeter) found for Apollo 15 core-tube samples.

f. South Ray crater material appears to cover the station 4 area to depths of 20 to 50 cen-
timeters. Descartes Formation material may have been found at greater depths.

g. Density distributions with depth for the Apollo 16 deep-drill-stem samples are distinctly
different from those of Apollo 15 and suggest that the modes of SDil deposition at the two sites
may have been different.
 3-23

3.2.6 Geology of the Apollo 17 Landing Site

The Apollo 17 landing site was named Taurus-Littrow because of its proxinity to the Montes
Taurus (Taurus Mountains) and the crater Littrow. The lunar module landed on the flat floor of
a deep narrow valley bounded by steep-sided mountain blocks that form part of the mountainous
eastern rin of Mare Serenitatis (Sea of Serenity, referred to geologically as the Serenitatis
Basin). The blocks are thought to be bounded by high-angle faults that are largely radial and
concentric to the Serenitatis Basin. lienee, the valley itself is interpreted as a graben formed
at the time of the Serenitatis impact. Figure 3-11 shows the landing site and the major geolog-
ical features* that were eXUT:lined by tlle Apollo 17 crew. During their stay on the lunar surface,
the Apollo 17 crew traversed a total of about 34 kiloT:leters, collected over 110 kilograms of
rocks and soil, and took more than 2200 phot08raphs. Their traverses span the full width of the
Taurus-Littrow valley, as shown in figure 3-12.* Much of the following discussion was exerpted
from reference 3-12.

The highlands surrounding the valley can be divided on the basis of morphology into (1) high
smooth massifs; (2) Sr.Jaller, closely spaced domical hills referred to as the Sculptured Hills;
and (3) materials of low hills adjacent to the massifs and the Sculptured Hills. Boulders that
had rolled down the slopes of the massifs north and south of the valley provided samples of that
area. These boulders are composed of complex breccias that are generally similar to those ra-
turned from the Apollo 15 and 16 missions.

Materials of the valley fill were sampled at many stations. Ejecta around many craters on
the valley floor consists of 3.8-billion-year-old basalts, showing that the graben was partly
filled by lava flows. A relatively thick layer (approxiT:lately 15 meters) of unconsolidated ma-
terial overlies the sub floor basalt; this debris consists largely of finely comminuted material
typical of the lunar regolith. For the most part, this is impact-generated regolith similar to
that developed on mare basalts elsewhere on the moon. The central cluster ejecta, the light
mantle, and the ejecta of Shorty and Van Serg Craters are discrete deposits recognized within
the regolith.

The young pyroclastic "dark mantle" anticipated before the mission was not recognized in the
traverse area as a discrete surface layer. lrowever, soil consisting of orange glass spheres was
collected. This soil most likely originated fron volcanic fire fountains that acconpanied lava
extrusion to form irregularly shaped layers that are now buried. Strong photogeologic evidence
for the existence of a dark mantle in parts of the highlands still exists. Albedo measurements
show that abnormal surface darkening, consistent with the concept of the introduction of exotic
dark material increases to the east and south in the Taurus-Littrow area. The dark mantle may
have accumulated shortly after the extrusion of the sub floor basalt.

The "light mantle" is an unusual deposit of high-albedo material with fingez:-like projec-
tions that extend 6 kilometers across daz:k plains from the South Massif. Rock fragments col-
lected from the light mantle are similar in lithology to the breccias of the South Uassif. This
similarity supports the hypothesis that the light mantle is an avalanche deposit formed from
loose materials on the face of the South 11<1ssif. A cluster of secondary craters on the top of
the South Massif may record the impact event that initiated the avalanche. Size-frequency dis-
tribution and morphologies of craters on the light mantle suggest that its age is comparable to
that of Tycho Crater, on the order of 100 million years.

Fine-grained soil, darker than the underlying unconsolidated debris, was recognized at the
surface at Shorty Crater, at Van Serg Cratez:, on the light mantle, and on the massif talus. The
soil is thin (e.g., 0.5 centimeter at Shorty, and about 7 centi~ters on the flank of Van Serg)
and probably repz:esents the regolith that has formed on these young ejecta or talus surfaces.
Relatively young structural deformation in the landing area is recorded by the Lee-Linclon Scarp
and by small fresh grabens that trend northwest across the light ~~ntle. The sharp knickpoint at
the base of the massifs may indicate that some fairly recent uplift of the massifs has kept the
talus slopes active.

*The designations of the features shown in figures 3-11 and 3-12 are informal.
3-24

Figure 3-11.- Taurus-Littrow landing area.

 3- 2 6

3.2.7 Geology and Soil tlechanic!:I Equipment

3.2.7.1 Apollo lunar surface handtools.- The Apollo lunar surface handtools consisted of
the items listed in table 3-11 and illustrated in figure 3-13. The tools were continually up-
graded as the lunar landing missions progressed based on the results of preflight and postflight
evaluations and on geology requirements. The more significant chanses are discussed in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.

a. Harraner: The hammer was used during all Apollo lunar surface extravehicular activities.
As experience was gained, the hammer was IOOdlUed as follows.

1. The spray aluminum coating on the head was changed to vacuum-deposited aluminum.

2. The originally pinned handle-to-head connection was changed to·a "magnaformed" head.

3. The head was made heavier and larger to assist in obtaining better drive tube pene-
tration.

4. Room-temperature-vulcanizing material strips were added to the handle to minimize

twisting of the hammer in the hands.

b. Scoop: The scoop originally had a large pan and was nonadjustable. On Apollo 15, the
design was changed to incorporate a smaller pan and an adjustable head. On Apollo 16 and 17. the
adjustable feature was maintained but the pan was enlarged to obtain a larger sample.

c. Extension handle: The extension handle ~as designed to be mated with core tubes, scoops,
haIJw.ler, and rake. Field tests and flight evaluation indicated that the original handle design
should be changed to prevent shearing of the core-tube adapter pins. Also, further evaluations
indicated that a longer handle was desirable. Two handles were carried on the Apollo 16 and 17
missions instead of one.

d. GnomOn: The gnomon consisted of a gimbaled rod and a color chart mounted on a tripod.
The rod indicated the gravitational vector, and the chart provided a standard for color compari-
son in photographic processing. (Before the Apollo 14 mission, a color chart was carried sepa-
rately.) Postflight evaluations following the initial lunar landing missions indicated that the
rod would oscillate for long periods of tine before damping to a fixed position. The cumulative
time in awaiting rod arrestment was severely restrictive to the overall surface activity. There-
fore, a damping change was incorporated for the Apollo 15 through 17 missions. On Apollo 16, the
gimbaled rod separated from the leg assembly while the gnomon was being removed from its stowage
bag. To prevent recurrence on Apollo 17, the gimbal pivot pins were strengthened and additional
lubrication was applied to the pivot/bearing interface.

e. Tongs: The tongs consisted of a set of opposing spring-loaded fingers attached to a

handle and were used for picking up samples. Postflight evaluation of Apollo missions II, 12,
and 14 indicated a need for increased length, larger jaws, and additional closing force. These
changes were incorporated for Apollo missions 15 through 17. Also, to conserve traverse time
and to afford maximum flexibility in obtaining samples. two sets of tongs were carried on the
Apollo 16 and 17 missions.

f. Adjustable trenching tool: The trenching tool was used on only one mission. Apollo 14.
Experience indicated that the adjustable scoop could perform the trenching task on subsequent
missions.

g. Rake: A rake was designed and built for the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions to meet the
requirement of efficiently obtaining a number of small rock samples from the lunar surface or
just below the surface. The rake served its purpose satisfactorily.

h. Core tubes/drive tubes/caps: The core tubes were originally designed to be driven into
the lunar surface with the hammer. Postflight examination of the Apollo 11 samples indicated
that the bit was degrading the samples. Furthermore, additional information on the cohesiveness
of the lunar soil indicated that a "drive tube" with a larger diameter (increased from 2 to 4
centimeters) and an integral bit could be used. Effective with the Apollo 15 mission, drive
tubes were successfully used to obtain samples. The components of a drive tube set consisted of
 3-27

TABLE 3-11.- GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS TOOLS AND EQUIPMKNT

Mission use
I tern
11 12 14
l' 16 17

Apollo lunar surface hand tools:

Hammer 1 1 1 1 1 1
Large scoop 1 1 1
Adjustable scoop 1 1 1
Extension handle 1 1 1 1 2 2
Gnomon 1 1 1 1 1 I
Tongs 1 1 1 1 2 2
Adjustable trenching tool 1
Rake 1 1 1
Core tubes 2 4 6
Core tube caps
Drive tubes (lower)
2 1
, , ,
Drive tubes (upper)
Drive tube cap and bracket assembly
Drive tube tool assembly
4
3 ,
4
,
4

1 1
Spring scale 1 1
Sample scale 1 1 1 1
Tool carrier 1 1
Sample return container 2 2 2 2 2 2
Bags and special containers:
Small samp Ie bags 5
Documented sample bags (IS-bag disp) I 3 1
Documented sample bags (20-bag disp) 6 7 6
Documented sample bags (3S-bag disp) 1 2
Round documented sample bag 48
Protective padded sample bag 2
Documented sample weigh bag 2 4 4
Sample collection bag 2 2 2
Gas analysis sample container 1 1
Special environmental sample container 1 3 3 1 1
Core sample vacuum container 1 1
Solar wind composition bag 2 1 1
Magnetic shield sample container 1
Extra sample collection bags 4 6 6
Organic control sample 1 2 2 2
Lunar surface sampler (Beta cloth) 1
Lunar surface sampler (velvet) 1
Lunar roving vehicle soil sampler 1
Magnetic sample assembly 1
Tether hook 1 1 1
Lunar surface drili 1 1 1
Core stem with bit
Core stems wi thout bit ,1
,
1
,
1

Core stem cap and retainer assembly 2 2 2

Seif-recording penetrometer 1 1
3-28

• •
.8 <;
3 S
•
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•
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0
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U
•e
, • Q
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••u~ 0
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:;;
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~

. ".,
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-e
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 3-29

the drive tube, a drive-tube tool, and a cap dispenser. Deep sa~ples were obtained by joining
tubes in series. The drive-tube tool was used to position a keeper against the core sample to
preserve its integrity. The cap dispensers were mounted on the hand tool carrier and contained
Teflon caps to seal the tubes after sa~ple collection.

1. Sample scale: The sample scale was used on Apollo 14 through 17 to weigh lunar samples
before lift-off to assure that the total weight did not exceed the permitted weight.

3.2.7.2 Tool carriers.- The original Apollo lunar Iw.ndtool carrier was designed to accom-
modate the early tool configurations and to be hand-carried or mounted on the modular equipment
transporter used on the Apollo 14 mission. With the advent of the lunar roving vehicle, a new
tool carrier was needed that could be mounted on that vehicle or. if the vehicle became inopera-
tive. could be removed and hand-carried during walking traverses. The modified tool carrier was
used as a stowage rack for the hammer, gnol!lOn. scoop. and the drive··tube tool assembly; the tool
carrier also accommodated the extension handle and the tongs.

3.2.7.3 Apollo lunar sample return container.- The Apollo lunar sample return container
(fig. 3-14) was designed to provide a vacuum environQent for the return of lunar samples. The
containers and their contents were cleaned at the manufacturing facility to a cleanliness level
of less than 10 nanograms of residue per square centimeter. The containers and their contents
were then shipped to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory for premission conditioning, which consisted
of sterilization to remove earth organisns before sealing under a vacuum (approximately 10- 6 torr).

No major design changes were made throughout the lunar landing flights. However, the fol-
lowing minor changes were incorporated.

a. A York mesh liner was added on Apollo 12 to give better protection to the container and
its contents. and the liner was reduced in thickness to increase the volume of the container.

b. On Apollo 14 and subsequent missions, a skirt was added to prevent debris from getting
into the seal, to facilitate closing. and to ensure maintenance of vacuum.

Two organic samplers (fig. 3-15). each consisting of several rolls of York mesh packing ma-
terial in a Teflon bag, were used to determine the quantity of organic compounds introduced be-
fore and during the translunar portion of a mission. One sampler was analyzed and sealed before
flight. The other was placed in the sample return container. removed for environmental exposure
while on the lunar surface. sealed, and returned to the container.

3.2.7.4 Bags and special containers.- In addition to the actual collection of samples. a
requirement existed to protect, document. and identify the various samples. To perform these
tasks, numerous types of bags and special containers were designed. some of which are described
in the following paragraphs and illustrated in figure 3-16.

a. Documented sample bags: The crewmen used documented sample bags to identify and docu-
ment the individual samples as they were collected. On Apollo 17, a quantity of round sample
bags were supplied. These bags were used in conjunction with the lunar roving vehicle soil sam-
pIer (par. 3.2.7.6).

b. Special environmental sample container: These devices were designed to contain samples
of lunar soil and/or rocks to be used in specific experiments on return to earth. The containers
provided a vacuum environment to protect the samples from contamination in case the Apollo lunar
sampl¥ return container leaked.

c. Core sample vacuum container: The core sample vacuum container was provided as a recep-
tacle for a drive tube so that a pristine subsurface sample could be protected in a vacuum.

d. Protective padded sample bag: The protective padded sample bag was used for returning
a fragile lunar sample so that maximum protection could be afforded to the surface of the sample.
Bags of this type were carried only on the Apollo 16 mission.

e. Documented sample weigh bags/sample collection bags: The weigh bags (Apollo 11. 12. and
14) and the sample collection bags (Apollo IS, 16. and 17) were large bags into which the docu-
mented samples were placed for insertion into the Apollo lunar sample return container for return
3-30

Figure 3-14.- Apollo lunar sample return container.

3-31
 , t,
:, ~ J
~--:\. \
'-J
Special environmental
sample container
Documented sample
bag dispensers

Sample collection bag

Core sample
vacuum container

Figure 3-16.- Sample bags and special containers.

 3-33

to earth. The bags were originally made of Teflon film; however, after postflight evaluation in-
dicated that this material would tear, the design was changed to incorporate a laminated Teflon
fabric/Teflon film, and the name was changed from sample weigh bags to sample collection bags.

3.2.7.5 Lunar surface sampler.- The lunar surface sampler was used with the universal
handling tool. The device, which consisted of a plate assembly that contained either a Beta
cloth or a velvet cloth accumulation surface, was used to obtain undisturbed surface layer lunar
samples. A hinged cover plate protected the sample on the return-co-earth flight.

3.2.7.6 Lunar roving vehicle soil sampler.- The lunar roving vehicle soil sampler was a
device that when mated with the universal handling tool, allowed the lunar surface crewman to ob-
tain soil samples without dismounting from the lunar roving vehicle.

3.2.7.7 Penetrometers.- On the Apollo 14 mission, the active seismic experiment geophone
cable anchor shaft was used as a simple penetrometer to obtain soil mechanics data. The 0.B7-
centimeter-diameter 6B.O-centimeter-long aluminum shaft had a 30° core tip at the bottom and was
attached to the extension handle at the top. Alternating black and white stripes, each 2.0 cen-
timeters long, provided a depth scale reference in photographs of the penetrations achieved. The
crewman pressed the penetrometer into the lunar surface with one hand for a first measurement and
then with two hands for a second measurement. Preflight l/6-earth-gravity tests prOVided a com-
parative calibration for the penetrometer.

A self-recording penetrometer, used on the Apollo 15 and 16 missions (fig. 3-17), provided
for the first time quantitative measurement of forces of interaction between the soil near the
lunar surface and a soil testing device. The instrument prOVided data on soil penetration re-
sistance as a function of depth below the lunar surface. The penetrometer could penetrate the
lunar surface a maximum of 76 centimeters. On the Apollo 15 mission, the penetrometer could
measure a penetration force to a maximum of III newtons. As a result of the Apollo 15 experi-
ence, the force spring was changed to increase the maximum measurement to 215 newtons. On the
later lunar landing missions, the successful functioning of the self-recording penetrometer and
core tubes, as well as the general surface-contact equipment, resulted in data which provided a
basis for the quantitative study of stratigraphy, density, and strength characteristics of the
lunar soil.

3.2.7.8 Apollo lunar surface drill.- The purpose of the Apollo lunar surface drill (fig.
3-18) was to provide two 2.4-meter deep holes for emplacement of probes for the heat flow exper-
iment. The drill was also used to obtain a continuous subsurface core sample that was 2.4 to
3.0 meters long to be returned to earth for laboratory analyses. In addition, on Apollo 17, the
hole produced by the core drilling was used for emplacement of the neutron probe experiment.

The drill was a battery-powered, electric-drive, rotary-percuss ion-type drill which delivered
vertical blows to the rotating spindle, driving carbide-tipped hollow bore stems and core stems.
The boron-fiberglass bore stems and titanium core stems were sectionalized, allowing the desired
penetration into the lunar surface while maintaining the capability for handling and stowage by
the lunar surface crewmen.

Two significant hardware changes resulted from mission experience: bore stem joint redesign
and the incorporation of a deep-core extractor. Both changes were made because of the high den-
sity of the lunar subsurface encountered on Apollo 15. Before that mission, the subsurface den-
sity data had been based on drive-tube core information, which supported Surveyor data that showed
the bulk density of the regolith to be relatively low (90 to 110 pounds per cubic foot). This
soil density was used for drill testing. However, these samples had been taken from a depth of
only 0.6 to 0.9 meter. When the Apollo 15 drill went beyond this depth, the density increased
significantly (to 130 pounds per cubic foot). With this additional knowledge, a new bore stem
design was introduced and tested in simulated soil models compacted to a maximum bulk density.
Other changes included a core-stem extractor that was developed to provide additional capability
for jacking the deep-core sample from the subsurface. The changes were incorporated for the
Apollo 16 mission.

A continuous improvement in drill performance was obtained from one mission to the next. In
each case, the effectiveness of the hardwilre improvements was demonstrated. Time lines for the
drill-associated tasks were nominal for Apollo 16 and 17.
·._4
•

"'"
"0
~
o
"'"t
-
 3-35

Figure 3-18.- Apollo lunar surface drill.

3-36

3.2.8 Apollo Lunar Surface Experl~ents Package/Central Station

As reflected in table 3-1, a number of experiments were deployed or conducted on the lunar
surface during the six lunar landing missions. To minimize weight, volume, and power require-
ments, several experiments were integrated into a single system, the Apollo lunar surface exper-
iments package. The experiments that comprised the package varied from mission to mission, as
shown in table 3-111. The other lunar surface experiments were self-contained.

Figure 3-19 illustrates a typical Apollo lunar surface experiments package (Apollo 15 con-
figuration). Subpackage 1 contained magnetometer, passive seismic, and solar wind spectrometer
experiments. The lower portion of subpackage I housed the central electronics which included
the data handling, radio-frequency up-link and down-link, and power conditioning and distribu-
tion subsystems. In the erected configuration, the electronic and thermal control portions of
subpackage 1 are known as the central station. A helical S-band antenna was also carried on
subpackage 1. The antenna ....as attached to an aioing mechanism and an antenna mast that ....as
locked into the primary structure. Subpackage 2 consisted of a rigid structural pallet on ....hich
were mounted one or two experiments, a radioisotope thermoelectric generator, the antenna aiming
mechanism, special deployment tools, and, on two flights only, the geological handtool carrier.
All equipment was removed from subpackage 2 except the generator. Because the fuel element for
the generator was very hot, the fuel element was carried to the moon in a separate protective
<:ask assembly. The fuel cask assembly and the two subpa<:kages were sto....ed as shown in figure
3-20.

The radioisotope thermoelectric generator developed for the Apollo lunar surfa<:e experiment
package was designated "system for nuclear auxiliary power no. 27" (SNAP-27). Differing in de-
sign and materials from the previously developed SNAP-19 generator (for Nimbus and Pioneer),
SNAP-27 has been the only nuclear power generator developed for manned fueling and has the larg-
est power output of those developed for space use. Although the original design specification
was for a 50-watt generator, the output developed by the actual flight hardware exceeded 70 watts
in the hard vacuum environment - sufficient to handle the Apollo lunar surface experiment pack-
age power requirements whi<:h kept increasing for the growing science program. Initial power
output for Apollo 12 on the lunar surface was 74 watts (66.5 watts after 4 years), for Apollo 14
was 73 watts (68 watts after 3 years), for Apollo 15 ....as 75 watts (69.4 watts after 3 years),
for Apollo 16 was 70.9 watts (69.5 watts after 2 years), and for Apollo 17 was 77.5 watts (76.9
watts after I year). The actual rate of decrease in output (primarily the result of changes in
the lead telluride material from time, temperature, and pressure) for all five flight radioiso-
tope thermoelectric generators has been <:onsiderably less than calculated predictions (about one-
fourth the design specification rate).

The Apollo lunar surface experiments package systems flown on Apollo missions 12 through 16
were designed for a nominal lunar operating period of 1 year. The system flown on Apollo 17 in-
corporated various design improvements to meet a requirement of 2 years of lunar operation and to
eliminate operational problems encountered on earlier systems. These changes can be broadly <:ate-
gorized into: the use of logic elements with improved reliability, added redundancy with refined
techniques for redundant component selection, and design improvements based on lunar operating
experience. Plans were that when the output of the radioisotope thermoelectric generator de-
creased to a level too low to provide enough power for the full complement of experiments in the
worst case condition (lunar sunrise), selected experiments would be commanded off or to a standby
mode for lower power demand. Consequently, on June 14, 1974, three experiments (Apollo 12 lunar
surface magnetometer, and Apollo 15 lunar surface magnetometer and solar ....ind spectrometer, all
of which had been unable to provide science data for an extended period) were terminated so as
to make more power available for other experiments. These were the first experiments in the
Apollo lunar surface experiments pa<:kage program to be terminated by command. The only other
experiment to have its operation on the lunar surface tenninated was the Apollo 12 cold cathode
gage experiment, which turned itself off in November, 1969, because of a circuit failure.

Overall operation of the Apollo lunar surface experiments package central station has been
excellent in all areas of the me<:hanical, thermal, and electrical designs. All central stations
deployed on the lunar surface continue to operate as planned; the Apollo 12 central station has
exceeded its I-year life requirement by more than 3 years. Although no signal processing compo-
nent failure has occurred during lunar operation, numerous operational abnornalities have re-
quired procedural changes. The more signifi<:ant problems and failures occurring during the hard-
....are test phase and lunar operation are summarized in the follo....ing paragraphs.
 TABl.E 3-111.- APOLLO LUNAR SURFACE EXPERIMENTS PACl(ACE ARRAYS ANI> STATUS

Apollo 12 Apollo 13 A-pollo U A-poll0 15 Apollo 16 Apollo 17

Experi_nt
Array A Array 8 Array C Array A-2 Array I> Array E
apasSive setsmic Short-period Z axis ~t deployed. Long-period Z axis Full Of>"ration. Full operation.
has displsyed re- inoperative since
duced sensitivity 3/20/72. Notay data
alnce deployment. on long-period Y axis
since 4/14/73.

Active seislllic Mortar not fired. Three of four gre-

Ceo phone 3 data nades launched.
noisy since 3/26/11. Mortsr pitch senSor
Ceophoo.. 2 data io- off acale after third
valid since 1/3/14. firing on 5/23/72.

l.un"r surface Permanently co=- Permanently co-anded Full operation.

magnetollleter "",nded off 6/14/74. off 6/U/14.

Solar "ind Full operation e,,- Permanently com-

spectrom.. te ... cept rur Intel'1llic- manded off 6/14/74.
tent m<>dulation drop
in t"o proton energy
levels each lunation
since 11/5/11.

Supra thermal Periodically CO/ll- Periodically Com- Periodically com-

ton detector manded off to pre- manded co standby manded ta standby
vent high voltage ope ...ation to avoid operation Co avoid
arcing at elevated mode changes at roode changes at
lunar day tempera- elevated lunar day elevated lunar day
tures since 9/9/72. temperatures since temperatures since
3/29112. 9/13/73.

Ileat flo.. Nat deployed. Probe 2 not Co full Inoperative since Full ope ...ation.
depth intended, but emplacelll<:lIt •
experimenc provides
useful data.

Cold cathode Inoperative. raUed Not deployed. Intel'1llittent science Intel'1llittent science
ioo gage 14 hours after turn- data since 3/29/72. data since 2/22/73.
on 11/20/69.

Lunar ejecta Ther=al control de-

and meteor- sign !lot optl.lllum for
ites A-pollo 17 sHe. ,,-
strument operaced for
about 75 percent of
lunation.

'",
O:J
3-38

•
-
~
<

•
-~
<

--
"•
;

•
""", f 1"•
•
" "
~ -]-
"
"
N

"o <
>]
o. .
·- . •8.-
"" _
-" ! ' •
~ : ... :2 " ..
"" - " " ..."
"....
. .........
~ .
-:-
0" 0 0
< ~
<
. ......... "
."

oJ <>''''' Ii 0
.!lg.,;:;g-~

,, ,•""•
-
j ---,••
-
! -
."
, •
•
 3-39

Dust, thenllal, and radiation

engineering measurements package

Central
station ~~~~~
(deployed) '(
Lunar surface
magnetometer
---_ _ experiment
Sunshield },,~"G:t--. ~--.J,deploved)

::;:~;~'-'~~·t;Q 1/t1~)
~
,"'tMn ~ S,de c"lam ~ Passive seismic
Reflector
Thermal
" -
'l /" Thermal plate
experiment
(deployed)
ba9 (mou.nling centr~1 , Solar wind
. p'" statIOn electronics)
Pr1mary spectrometer
structure Boom attachment assembly experiment
Structure/thermal subsystem components (deployed)

(a) Subpackage 1

Pal let and

/-:~Co Id cathode
gage experiment radiosotope
(deployed) thermoe lectr ic
generator
•
'dPl'l"i~~ (deployed)

Suprathermal ion detector

experiment (deployed)

~J~I-----
, ~HealflOW
::--~Fuel \~ .I~xperlment
Dome~ranSfer tOOI~
~.;,.~. t Antenna ,~~-.
- <,
removal
tool
~ lr-Alltellila mast
~ .. secllons
Structure/thermal almmg ... ~ :=:::. Universal handlmg tools
subsystem components mechanism

(b) Subpackage 2

Figure 3-19.- Apollo 15 lunar surface experiments package.

 3-40

I Lunar module
/ centerline
I I

" :
Fuel caskl
location " /
I
I
J
/
"-..' Com part-
ment 2
'/

Lunar module scientific

equipment bay

Apollo lunar surface experiments package

Figure 3-20. - Stowage of Apollo lunar surface experime"ts package in lunar modu Ie.
 3-41

a. Analog multiplexer - analog/digital connector: The system uses a 90-channel analog

multiplexer the output of which Is digitized to an 8-hit word. Earlier designs used plastic-
encap.sulated fleld~effect tran"i",tor switche" in the multiplexer input; the transistors were sub-
jected to prescribed tests and burn-in to assure reliability. During ground tests, numerous tran-
sistor failures occurred. The faUures were traced to contamination due to the transistors not
being adequately sealed. However, no Apollo 12 and 14 lunar surface experiments package failures
occurred on the lunar surface. The design used on the Apollo 15 experiments package was upgraded
to use a field-effect transistor in a ceramic package. The co~ponents used on the Apollo 16 and
17 experiments packages were completely redesigned I.I1th full redundancy on all 90 analog channels.

b. Unexpected status changes: The demodulator section of the cOllllland decoder proved to be
sensitive to receiver noise output occurring in the absence of an up-link signaL In operation,
however, this condition did not prove to be a major problem. Operational procedures were modi-
fied to assure that the system was illuminated with an up-link signal, rendering the demodulator
section insensitive to noise when the crew was on the surface imnediately following deployment.
On the Apollo 16 package, a new receiver design resulted in a lower noise sensitivity; on the
Apollo 17 system, a new decoder design completely eliminated the problem.

3.2.9 Pa.'-lsive Seismic Exper:lr.lent

The passive seismic experiment was designed to detect vibrations of the lunar surface and
provide data that can be used to determine the internal structure, physical state, and tectonic
activity of the moon. A secondary purpose is to determine the number and mass of meteoroids that
strike the lunar surface. The instrument is also capable of measuring tilts of the lunar surface
(tides) and changes in gravity.

The first; of Cive passive seismometers was emplaced on the lun':H surface during the Apollo
11 mission. This instrument was part of the early Apollo scientific experiments package and was
powered by a solar panel array rather than by the radioisotope thermoelectric generator used on
the later missions. The instrument supplied long-period seismometer data for 20 days during the
first and second lunar days after emplacement (a period of about 1 month). Short-period seis-
mometer data were received for a longer time, with down-link transmissions ending approximately
4-1/2 months after activation.

The four seismic stations emplaced during the Apollo 12, 14, 15, and 16 missions comprise a
network that spans the near side of the moon in an approximate equilateral triangle with 1100-
kilometer spacing between stations. (The Apollo 12 and 14 stations are 181 kilometers apart at
one corner of the triangle.) As shown in figure 3-21, four seismometers are included in the ex-
periment package at each station: three low-frequency components fonning a triaxial set (one
sensitive to vertical motion and two sensitive to horizontal motion), and a high-frequency com-
ponent sensitive to vertical motion. Of the 16 separate seismometers, all but three are pres-
ently operating properly. The high-frequency component at the IIpollo 12 station has failed to
operate since initial activation. One of the low frequency seismometers at the Apollo 14 sta-
tion (Z-axis) became inoperative after 1 year of operation and another ('I-axis) began transmit-
ting noisy data midway through 1974. The frequency ranges of the passive seismic experiment
components are compared to the ranges of other lunar surface seismic instruments in table 3-IV.

Several of the stations have exhibited thennal control problems. For collection of tidal
data, limiting the instrument operating temperature to a band of approximately 1.1 0 K is desir-
able. This limitation was not achieved, partly because of problems with deployment of the ther-
mal shroud. Corrective actions included the addition of weights to the outer edges of the shroud,
the use of a Teflon layer as the outer shroud covering, and stitching of the shroud to prevent
layer separation. Even so, an optimum shroud deployment was not achieved. thus, the heat loss
during lunar night and the solar input incurred during the lunar day have been greater than de-
si red.

The major findings to date are swnmarized (ref. 3-13):

Data from the impacts of lunar module ascent stages and launch vehicle S-IVB stages, com-
bined with data from high-pressure laboratory measurements on returned lunar samples, provide
information on lunar structure to a depth of approximately 150 kilometers. Information on lunar
structure below this depth is derived principally from analysis of signals from deep moonquakes
and distant meteoroid impacts.
 Horizontal IX, Y! sensors Vertical (ll sensor
Y'
.e-
LaCoste spring N

Capacitor
Capacitor plate
plate

Mass---
Mass iH

£Iectromagnet __----~ Wormdriver

for calibration spring adjust.
Bellows
{retract for uncage)- L Caging bellows
'- Long-period seismometers {retract for uncageJ
v -I

Upper delta S~spension rsu~pension

Gnomon rods (3)
w"e~ng~
'~ ~~,
(sun compass!
[
Level sensor'
Magnet assembly
Insulation :% I. S ,~ /. {suspended by
(aluminized Mylar)- delta rods and
long-period suspension spring!
seismometers (3) Short-period
Short-period
seismometer, heater seismometer Coil assembly
and controller (fixed to
electronics - instrument frame)

I 1.52 meter '1

Figure 3-21. - Seismometer elements.

 3-43

TABLE 3-IV.- RESPONSE SPECTRA FOR APOLLO SEISMIC EXPERI}ffiNTS

Frequency
Experiment Sensors Apollo sites range,
Hz

Passive seismic:
a
Short period 1 vertical 12 , 14, IS, 16 0.05 to 20
Long period 2 horizontal 12, 14, 15, 16 0.004 to 3
1 vertical 12, b14 , IS, 16 0.004 to 3

Active seismic 3 vertical °14 , 16 3 to 250

Lunar seismic 4 vertical 17 3 to 20

profiling

Lunar surface 1 vertical 17

gravimeter
d
Seismic 0.05 to 16
Free modes eO.00083 to
0.048

a
Short-period sensor data has displayed reduced sensitivity since
deployment.
bLong-period vertical sensor data invalid since }mrch 20, 1972.
cGeophone 2 data invalid since Jan. 3, 1974.
d
Instrument error restricting frequency range to approximately
0.001 to 2.0 Hz with poor sensitivity.
elnstrument error resulting in invalid data.
)-44

Analysis of the Qanmade impact data has revealed a major discontinuity at a depth of between
55 and 6S k110llleters in the eastern part of the Ocean of StOl"l:l.S. By analogy ..ieh the earth. the
7.one above the discnnt lnuf ty ill called the [Tust and the zone below. the -anele. Below the crust.
a relatively homogeneous zone extending to a depth of approxioately 1000 kilometers 1s suggested
by the nearly constant velocity of seismic waves. Although available data are not sufficient to
derive a detailed seismic velocity model for the deep interior, observations of signals origin-
ating from a large meteoroid that struck the far side of the moon and from far-side moonquakes
can be explained by introducing a "core" with a radius between 600 and 800 kilometers that has
markedly different elastic properties than the Mantle. Current moonquake activity is concentra-
ted near the boundary between these two zones.

Moonquakes have been detected by the low-frequency seismo~ters of each station at average
rates of between 600 and :1000 per year, depending on the station; all the moonquakes are quite
small by terrestrial standards (Richter magnitude 2 or less). Thousands of even smaller moon-
quakes are detected by the high-frequency seismometers. Meteoroid impacts are detected by the
low-frequency seismometers at average rates of between 70 and 150 per year. Although less numer-
ous than lIlOonquakes, mcteorid impacts generate the largest signals detected.

Lack of shallow seismic activity indicates that the moon is neither expanding nor contract-
ing appreciably at the present time. Thus, the rate of heat flow out of the moon must be approx-
imately equal to the rate of internal heat production. The presence of a thick lunar crust sug-
gests early, intense heating of the outer shell of tl~ moon.

3.2.10 Active Seis~ic Experioent

Active seis~ic experiment operations were conducted on the moon during the Apollo 14 and 16
missions. The purpose of the experiment ~as to generate and monitor seismic waves near the lunar
surface. The data are being used to study the internal structure of the moon to a depth of ap-
proximately 460 meters. A secondary objective still in progress is to monitor high-frequency
seismic activity during periodic listening modes.

The active seis~ic experiment equip~ent consisted of a thumper device that contained small
explosive initiators, a ~rtar package that contained high-explosive grenades, geophones, elec-
tronics within the Apollo lunar surface experiments package central station, and interconnecting
cabling. Crewmen operated the thu~pers during lunar surface activities. The mortars were de-
signed to be fired by remote command after crew departure.

The Apollo 14 geophones were deployed as planned, and the thumper part of the experiment was
completed. The thumper produced excellent seismic data although the crewman was able to fire only
13 of the 21 charges. Postflight investigation showed that a malfunction occurred because. lunar
sol1 got into the ann/fire switch mechanism and the initiator selector switch was not properly
seated in the detents. For Apollo 16, the thumper was successfully modified to improve switch
dust seals and to increase the torque required to IOOve the selector switch from one detent to
the next.

The Apollo 14 mortar package was deployed too close to the central station and in a position
where debris would be directed toward the central station if grenades were launched. The off-
nominal deployment was necessitated because of a crater at the optimum mortar package deployment
location. Postflight tests showed that the central station would probably be damaged if the gre-
nades were launched. Therefore, the Apollo 14 station grenades have not been launched.

Three grenades were launched frOl:l the Apollo 16 mortar package, but the mortar pitch sensor
reading varied after the first t~~ firings and became inoperative after the third. Since the
scientific objectives of the experiment had been met, the planned fourth firing was deleted.

Analysis of the seismic signals generated by the thumper during Apollo 14 has revealed im-
portant information concerning the near-surface structure of the moon. Two compressional wave
seismic velocities were measured at the Fra Mauro site. The near-surface ~terial has a seis~ic
wave velocity of 104 meters per second. Underlying this surficial layer at a depth of 8.5 meters,
the lunar material has a velocity of 299 meters per second. The measured thickness of the upper
unconsolidated debris layer is in good agreement with geological estimates of the thickness of
the regolith ~t this site.
 3-45

Combining the seismic refraction results [rom the active seismic experl~nt and the lunar
module ascent seismic data recorded by the Apollo 14 passive seismic experiment allows estimates
of the thickness of the underlying material to be IlI3de. These estimates range £rolll 38 to 76 1Ile-
tet'G and l113y LndLc3te the thickness of the Fr. Mauro Fonnation at this pa.·tlcular .. it" ( ....c. 3-14).

Two compressional wave seismic velocities have been recognized so Car in the Apollo 16 data.
The lunar surface material has a seismic wave velocity of 114 melers per second. Underlying this
surficial material at a depth of 12.2 meters, the lunar rocks have a velocity of 250 meters per
second. The 114-meter-per-second velocity agrees closely with the surface velocity measured at
the Apollo 12, 14, and 15 landing sites, thus indicating that no Ill3jor regional differences exist
in the near-surface acoustical properties of the lIIOon.

The seismic wave velocity of the material underlying the regolith at the Apollo 16 landing
site does not indicate that competent lava flows exist in the Cayley Formation at this location.
Instead, this velocity suggests the presence of brecciated material or impact-derived debris of
currently undetermined thickness.

3.2.11 Lunar Seismic Profiling Experiment

The purpose of the Apollo 17 lunar seismic profiling experiment was to record the vibrations
of the lunar surface as induced by explosive charges, by the thrust of the lunar module ascent
engine, and by the crash of the lunar module ascent stage. Analyses of these seismic data were
planned to detenlline the internal characteristics of the lun.:u crust to a depth of several kilo-
IlIeters. ,\ secondary objective of the e>lperiment was to ""nitol'" lunar se15,1I1e activity during
pel'"iodic listening intervals.

Strong seismic signals were recorded from the detonation of eight explosive charges that
were armed and placed on the lunar surface by the crewmen at various points along the traverses.
Recording of these seismic signals generated traveltime data to a distance of 2.7 kilometers.
The seismic signals received from the lunar module ascent stage i~act provided a valuable
travelt~ datum for dete~ining the variation of seis~ic velocity with depth in approximately
the upper 5 kilometers of the ~n.

The IIIOst significant discovery resulting from the analysis of the data recorded by the lunar
seis,1I1c profiling experiment is that the seismic velocity increases in a III.lrked stepwise IIl3nner
beneath the Apollo 17 landing site. A surface layer with a seismic velocity of 250 meters per
second and a thickness of 248 meters overlies a layer with a seismic velocity of 1200 meters per
second and a thickness of 927 meters. with a sharp increase to approximately 4000 meters per sec-
ond at the base of the lower layer. The seismic velocities for the upper layers are compatible
with those for basaltic lava flows, indicating a total thickness of approximately 1200 meters
for the infilling mare basalts at Taurus-Littrow. ~bjor episodes of deposition or evolution are
implied by the observed abrupt changes in seismiC velocity (ref. 3-15).

3.2.12 Lunar Surface Hagnetometer Experiment

Magnetic field measurements have proved to be one of the most useful tools for detennining
the electromagnetic properties of the earth interior and solar-wind and ionospheric environments.
This method was extended to the .con with the emplace~ent of a three-axis fluxgate magnetometer
on tt~ lunar surface during the Apollo 12 lunar stay. Similar magnetometers were deployed and
activated during the Apollo 15 and 16 lunar stays.

The instrument has a sensor located at the end of each of three orthogonal boolllS. Three
vector field components are measured in the normal mode of operation; however, the sensors lI.3y
be rotated such that they simultaneously align parallel in each of the three boom axes. This
alignment permits the calculation of the vector gradient in the plane of the sensor and permits
an independent measurement of the magnetic field vector at each sensor position. The sensors
and bo~s are located on a central structure which !louses the central electronics and gimbal-flip
unit. An evaluation of the performance of the Apollo 12 instrument resulted in the following
changes to the Apollo 15 and 16 instruments.

a. The measurement range was changed from -100, -200. and -400 gammas to -50. -100, and
t200 gamtnas.

b. A curtain was added over the electronics box to improve thel:'Tl\31 control.
3-46

Intrinsic steady (reoanent) magnetic fields provide a record of the magnetic field environ-
ment that existed 3 to 4 billion years ago when the lunar crustal material cooled below the Curie
temperature. The Apollo 12 lunar surface magnetometer detected a remanent magnetic field of ap-
proximately 38 gammas superimposed on the ge~gnetic tail, transition region, and interplane-
tary fields through which the moon passes during each orbit around the earth (ref. 3-16). The
remanent magnetic field at the Apollo 15 site was calculated to be approximately 6 gammas (small
compared to the fields at the Apollo 12, 14, and 16 sites). Since the Apollo 15 site lies near
the edge of the Hare t~rlum mascon basin, the existence of little or no remanent field at that
site suggests that masc;ons are not highly magnetic; (reL 3-17).

The bulk relative magnetic permeability of the moon has been calculated from measurements
obtained in the geomagnetic-tail region to be u/uo • 1.03 to.13. Electric;al-conductivityand
temperature profiles of the lunar interior have been determined from solar wind magnetic field
step-transient event measurements. The data presented in the following table fit the three-layer
model of the moon shown in figure 3-22 (ref. 3-18). Temperature calculations are based on con-
ductivity as a function of tenperature for pure olivine.

Electrical conductivity,
Region mho/_ Temperature, "K

1 <lO-g <440
2 .....3.5 x 10- 10 890
J .....10- 2 1240

Qualitatively, the inductive eddy-current response at the Apollo 15 site is similar to that
at the Apollo 12 site. Observations show that the solar wind compresses the steady remanent field
at the Apollo 12 site during periods of high solar plasma density (ref. 3-17).

On June 14, 1974, the Apollo 12 and Apollo 15 instruments were permanently commanded off.
The Apollo 12 instrument science and engineering data had been invalid for 1 year and that of
the Apollo 15 instrument for 6 months. Because of decreasing output from the radioisotope ther-
moelectric generators and the criticality of reserve power during lunar night, spurious func-
tional changes could have caused the loss of functional instruments. The Apollo 16 instrument
was operative at the time of publication of this report.

3.2.13 Lunar Portable MagnetOmeter Experiment

Portable magnetometers were used by the Apollo 14 and 16 crews. The objective of the lunar
portable magnetometer measurements was to determine the remanent magnetic field at various lunar
surface locations. The magnetometer actually measured low-frequency (less than 0.05 hertz) compo-
nents of the total magnetic field at the surface, which includes the remanent field, the external
solar field, fields induced in the lunar interior by changing solar fields, and fields caused by
solar wind interactions with the lunar remanent fields. Simultaneous measurements made by the
lunar surface magnetometer of the time-varying components of the field were later subtracted to
give the desired resultant remanent field values caused by magnetized crustal material.

The lunar portable magnetometer consisted of a set of three orthogonal fluxgate sensors
mounted on top of a tripod. The sensor-tripod assembly was connected by a ribbon cable to an
electronics box. On Apollo 14, the electronics box was mounted on the modular equipment trans-
porter; on Apollo 16, the box was mounted on the lunar roving vehicle. After positioning the tri-
pod at the desired location, a crewman turned the power switch on. read the digital displays in
sequenc;e, and verbally relayed the data back to earth.

The Apollo 14 instrument recorded steady magnetic fields of 103 t5 gammas and 43 =6 gammas
at two sites separated by 1120 meters. These measurements showed that the unexpectedly high
(38 gamma) steady field measured at the Apollo 12 site 180 kilometers away was not unique. In-
deed, these measurements snd studies of lunar samples and lunar-orbiting Explorer 35 data indi-
c;ate that much of the lunar surface material was magnetized at a previous time in lunar history
(ref. 3-19). The magnetic; field of 313 gammas measured in the North Ray Crater area during the
Apollo 16 mission to the lunar highlands proved to be the highest ever measured on another body
of planetary size. Other field measurements obtained by the Commander and Lunar Module Pilot at
different sites along the three surface traverses varied from 121 to 313 glUlllllas.
 3-47

I .

Figure 3-22.- Three-layer moon model.

3-48

Magnetic studies of returned samples indicate that they famed in a reasonably strong mag-
netic field (a few thousand gammas), yet there is no such field affecting the moon today. It
is hypothesized that the moon had a reasonably strong magnetic field throughout much of its early
history.

The surface fields provide reference values for extrapolation of subsatellite magnetometer
measurements to the lunar surface. Further analysis should yield information on the geological
nature and origin of lunar remanent fields, including the possibility of an ancient lunar dynamo,
shock-induced magnetization, or another mechanism to account for the strong magnetization found
in lunar surface samples.

3.2.14 Heat Flow Experiment

The purpose of the heat flow experiment is to determine the rate of heat flow from the lunar
interior and the thermal properties of the lunar subsurface, thereby contributing to an under-
standing of the thermal history of the moon. Heat loss is directly related to the internal tem-
perature and the rate of internal heat production; therefore, measurements of these quantities
enable limits to be set on long-lived radioisotopic abundances (the chief source of interior
heating) and the internal temperature.

The experiment hardware consists of two temperature-sensing probes and electronics for con-
trolling and processing the measurements. Two holes, spaced about 9 meters apart, were drilled,
and the probes were inserted into these holes. Sensitive thermometers within the probes accu-
rately measure the vertical temperature gradient over approximately the lower 100 centimeters of
each hole. These readings, over an extended period of time, yield the heat-flux data. Each
probe also contains heating elements. When one of these elements is energized, a known quantity
of heat is generated at a known distance from a temperature sensor. The resulting amount and
rate of temperature change at the sensor are used to detemine the thermal conductivity of the
lunar material near the probe.

Ileat flow 'experiments were successfully deployed and activated on the Apollo 15 and 17 mis-
sions. Deployment of a heat flow experiment was attempted during the Apollo 16 lunar stay; how-
ever, the cable connecting the electronics package with the Apollo lunar surface experiments pack-
age central station was inadvertently broken during experiment package deployment activities,
rendering the heat flow experiment hardware inoperative. The only operational problem with the
emplaced instruments has been the loss of one reference temperature reading on the Apollo 15 heat
flow experiment. Because reference junction temperature measurements are redundant, there has
been no loss of data. No specific failure mechanism was revealed during investigation of the
circuits; therefore, no design changes were made on the Apollo 17 instrument.

The Apollo 15 and 17 measurements were made in similar regional settings, that is, on the
margins of large mascon basins. Though the possibility of regional biases to these measurements
remains, the evidence is strong that a major part of the lunar surface is characterized by heat
flow at the upper limit of that expected from geochemical models and thermal history calculations.
Results to date indicate that the average heat flow from the interior of the moon outward is ap-
proximately 3 microwatts per square centimeter, about half that of the earth (ref. 3-20).

3.2.15 Lunar Surface Gravimeter Experiment

The lunar surface gravimeter was designed to assist in the search for gravitational radia-
tion from cosmic sources. A secondary objective is to measure tidal deformation of the moon.

The lunar surface gravimeter has three basic components: a gravity meter, a structural!
thermal-control package, and an electronics package. The gravity meter uses the LaCoste-Romberg
type of spring-mass suspension to sense changes in the vertical component of local gravity. The
major fraction of the force supporting the sensor mass (beam) against the local gravitational
field is provided by a zero-length spring (one in which the restoring force is directly propor-
tional to the spring length). As shown in figure 3-23, small changes in force tend to displace
the beam up or down. This imbalance was to be adjusted to the null position by repositioning the
spring pivot points with micrometer screws. Incremental masses added by command to the sensor
mass and the position of the coarse and fine micrometer screws I as read out by the shaft encoder
logic, were to provide the gravity measurement.
 3-49

Screw shaft
(to motor)

Zero-length spring ---.t.L

Sensor beam I-HFine

(eag ing mec.h.a::.n~i:.::s:::m:""'_-:7"'" screw
not shown) _

Note:
Scale modified Fixed
for clarity capacitor
Mass- plates
of gravity adding (detector)
mechanism
Spring-~.

-+-- Wire
Sensor
beam Cross section
of mass adding
Cup mechanism

Access holes
for cagi ng
fingers /

Sensor ;
housing --/'
Shaft (to motod

Figure 3-23. - Lunar surface gravimeter mechani sm.

3-50

The instrument was deployed during the Apollo 17 lunar stay; however, following the initial
experiment turn-on, the setup procedure of nulling the sensor beam in the proper stable position
between capacitor plates could not be accomplished. When the command was given to add any or all
of the nulling masses to the sensor beam assembly, the data indicated that the beam would not move
away from the upper capacitor plate. The only way to lower the beam was to cage the beam against
the lower capacitor plate. During the s",cond and third extravehicular activities, the Lunar Mod-
ule Pilot rapped the exposed top plate on the gimbal; rocked the experiment 1n all directions;
releveled the instrument, working the base well against the surface; and verified the sunshade
tilt. These actions were taken to free a mass assembly or a sensor beam that was suspected of
being caught or binding, but no change was apparent. Review of sensor records revealed that an
error in arithmetic resulted in the sensor masses being approximately 2 percent lighter than the
proper nominal weight for l/6-earth-gravity operation of the flight unit. The sensor mechanism
allows a 1;1.5 percent adjustment by ground <..:ommand to <..:orrect mass !n3<..:CUIC3<..:!es.

Several reconfigurations of the instrument have been commanded. The sensor beam has been
centered by applying a load on the beam through the mass support springs by partial caging of
the mass weight assembly. In this configuration, the instrument is supplying some seismic data
(ref. 3-21).

3.2.16 Traverse Gravimeter Experiment

The primary goal of the traverse gravimeter experiment was to make relative gravity measure-
ments at a number of sites in the Apollo 17 landing area and to use these measurements to obtain
information about the geological substructure. A secondary goal was to obtain the value of the
gravity at the landing site relative to an accurately known value on earth. The instrument pack-
ege conteined e vibreting string eccelerometer from which the grevity value& could be determined.
The preliminary gravity profile is based upon the assumption that the material underlying the
valley floor consists of basalt that is 1 kilometer thick and has a positive density contrast of
0.8 grams per cubic centimeter with respect to brecciated highland material on either side. Us-
ing this model, the gravity values at the edges of the valley are 25 milligals lower than at the
lunar module site, and a variation in the central part of the valley floor is within 10 milli-
gals of the value at the lunar module site. These values will be refined based upon more elab-
orate models. A value of g - 162 694.6 ~5 milligals was measured at the lunar module site
(ref. 3-22).

3.2.17 Surface Electrical Properties Experiment

The surface electrical properties experiment was used to explore the subsurface material of
the Apollo 17 landing site by means of electromagnetic radiation. The experiment was designed
to detect electrical layering, discrete scattering bodies, and the possible presence of water.
The experiment data may help others interpret many observations already made with both earth-
based and lunar orbital bistatic radar. In addition, the experiment provides data needed to in-
terpret observations made with the lunar sounder (sec. 3.3.1.5), and the results are expected to
help define the stratigraphy of the Apollo 17 landing site.

The crewmen deployed a small, low-power transmitter and laid on the surface two crossed di-
pole antennas that were 70 meters long tip to tip. A receiver and receiving antennas were mounted
on the lunar roving vehicle. Inside the receiver, there was a tape recorder which recorded the
data on magnetic tape. In addition to the surface electrical properties experiment data. in-
formation on the location of the lunar roving vehicle. obtained from the lunar roving vehicle
navigation system, was also recorded on the tape.

The basic principle of the experiment is the interference of two or more waves to produce
an interference pattern. Electromagnetic energy radiated from a transmitting antenna travels at
different velocities through different media. Thus, distinctive patterns were recorded as the
lunar roving vehicle moved along the surface. Values of the electrical properties of the sub-
surface material (dielectric constant and loss tangent) were obtained from analysis of the data.

Two quite different structural models of the Apollo 17 site have been developed to account
for the observations. Although neither is based on rigorous theory, the experiment team believes
that each is correct in the essential features. The first model, preferred by most members of
 3-51

the team, is one 1n which the dielectric constant increases with depth from a value of 2.5 to 3
near the surface to approximately 5 at a depth of 50 to 60 meters. A discontinuity is present
at SO to 60 meters, where the dielectric constant increases to a value of 6 to 6.5. On the basis
of a low value of the loss tangent, water is probably not present at the Apollo 17 site.

In the alternate structural model, the cause of the apparent change of dielectric constant
with depth is assigned to a sloping interface between a thin upper layer and a thick lower layer.
The upper layer is, perhaps, 20 meters thick beneath the experiment site and thins to 15 meters
at station 2 (fig. 3-12). In addition, there is a hint of a discontinuity in the dielectric
constant at a depth of approximately 300 meters.

Additional theoretical and scale model work is being done to determine which model is more
nearly correct (ref. 3-23).

3.2.18 Lunar Neutron Probe Experiment

The lunar neutron probe experiment, one of the Apollo 17 surface experiments, was designed
to measure the rates of low-energy neutron capture as a function of depth in the lunar regolith.

Various studies of the lunar samples, particularly those involving isotopic variations in
gadolinium and samarium, have documented the effects of long-term exposure of lunar materials to
neutrons and have shown how such data can be used to calculate regolith accumulation and mixing
rates and ages for stratigraphic layers in lunar core sanples. Comparison of a neutron capture
product with a spallation product in lunar rocks can also be used to infer average irradiation
depths that are required to obtain accurate exposure ages. In addition, the Apollo 15 orbital
gamma ray experiment has detected gamma rays from neutron capture on such elements as iron and
titanium, from which the relative chemical abundances of these elements could be inferred. In
all these cases, the strength of the conclusions has been necessarily limited by the lack of ex-
perimental values for the relevant rates of neutron capture. The neutron probe experiment was
proposed to obtain these data.

The experiment used two particle track detection sy~tems. A cellulose triacetate plastic
detector was used in conjunction with boron-lO targets to record the alpha particles emitted with
the neutron capture on boron-lO. For the second system, mica detectors were used to detect the
fission fragments from neutron-induced fission in uranium-235 targets.

The lunar neutron probe experiment was assembled, activated, and deployed in the hole formed
by the drilling and extraction of the deep-core sample. The probe was deployed during the first
extravehicular activity and retrieved at the end of the third extravehicular activity for a total
activated exposure period of 49 hours.

When the probe was disassembled, the targets and detectors were all in excellent condition,
and indicators show that the probe temperature never exceeded 335° K. The possibility that the
probe would reach higher temperatures was a serious concern before the mission, because thennal
annealing of the particle tracks in the plastic could occur.

Although only the mica detectors had been analyzed at the time of publication of reference
3-24, it appears that good agreement exists between the results of the experiment and theoretical
calculations of neutron capture rates and the equilibrium neutron energy spectrum. If this agree-
ment is confirmed, interpretations of lunar sample data to determine regolith mixing rates and
depths, depths of irradiation for lunar rocks, and accumulation rates and deposition times can
be verified.

3.2.19 Laser Ranging Retroreflector

Arrays of optical reflectors were emplaced on the lunar surface during the Apollo II, 14,
and 15 missions. Each of the arrays consisted of a compact assembly of solid fused silica corner
reflectors, 3.8 centimeters in diameter, mounted in an aluminum panel. Fused silica was used be-
cause of its known radiation resistance, thermal stability, high transparency to most wavelengths
in solar radiation, long life, and operation in lunar day and lunar night. Each reflector was
recessed 1.9 centimeters in the panel mounting socket to minimize temperature gradients.
3-52

Accurately timed pulses of light from a ruby laser at a ground station observatory are di-
rected through a telescope aimed at one of the reflector packages. The light is reflected back
on a path parallel to the incident beam, collected by the telescope, and detected by special
receiving equipment. The time required for a pulse of light to reach the reflector and be re-
turned is used to establish the distance from the earth ground station to the reflector site
on the lunar surface at that time. Even though the illuminated spot on the moon (the reflector)
is small, the fact that each corner reflector sends the light back in almost the same direction
it came from causes the return signal at the earth from the reflector panel to be 10 to 100 times
larger than the reflected intensity from the lunar surface.

The overall design for the Apollo 14 and 15 reflector arrays was similar to that for Apollo
11 except the half-angle taper of the reflector cavities was increased so as to increase the ar-
ray optical efficiency 20 to 30 percent for off-axis earth positions. The number of reflectors
in the array was increased from 100 for Apollo 11 and 14 to 300 for Apollo 15 to permit regular
observations with simpler ground equipment, especially for groups mainly interested in obtaining
geophysical information from observing only one reflector. The increase also allowed the use of
a number of permanent stations on different continents for the determination of polar motion
and earth rotation with high accuracy, as well as the use of movable lunar ranging stations to
monitor movements of a large number of points on the earth's surface.

Ground stations obtaining successful measurements from the Apollo arrays include the
McDonald Observatory in Texas, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory's Lunar Ranging Observa-
tory in Arizona, Lick Observatory, Pic du Midi Observatory in France, Tokyo Astronomical Obser-
vatory in Japan, Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in the Soviet Union, and the Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory.

The three Apollo reflector sites form an almost equilateral triangle with sides 1250, lIDO,
and 970 kilometers, and are almost centered on the near side of the moon. The complex angular
motions of the moon about its center of mass thus can be separated with high accuracy from the
range changes due to center-of-mass motion by differential range measurements to different re-
flector locations.

The accuracy already achieved in lunar laser ranging represents a hundredfold improvement
over any previously available knowledge of the distance to points on the lunar surface. Extremely
complex structure has been observed in the lunar rotation, and significant improvement has been
achieved in the lunar orbit. The selenocentric coordinates of the retroreflectors give improved
reference points for use in lunar mapping, and new information on the lunar mass distribution
has been obtained.

Full use of the Apollo arrays will require an observing program continuing many years and
using ground stations arouno the world. No evidence of degredation with time in the return sig-
nals from any of the Apollo reflectors has been observed so far, and thus an operational lifetime
of at least 10 years may be expected for these passive retroflector arrays.

Further information is contained in reference 3-25.

3.2.20 Charged-Particle Lunar Environment Experiment

The charged-particle lunar environment experiment was deployed at Fra Mauro as part of the
Apollo 14 experiments package system. The instrument was designed to measure the fluxes of elec-
trons and protons with energies ranging from 40 to 70 000 electron volts and their angular dis-
tribution and time variations.

The basic instrument of the experiment consists of two detector packages (analyzers A and B)
oriented in different directions for minimum exposure to the ecliptic path of the sun. Each de-
tector package has six particle detectors; five provide information about particle energy distri-
bution, and the sixth provides high sensitivity at low particle fluxes. Particles entering the
detector package are deflected by an electrical field into one of the six detectors, depending on
the energy and polarity of the particles.
 3-53

On April 8, 1971, the analyzer B detector voltage failed. Subsequent playback of the data
from various remote sites revealed that the anomalous condition occurred abruptly. As a result,
analyzer B is not providing any scientific data. The analyzer A detector voltage decreased sig-
nificantly on June 6, 1971. The charged-particle lunar environment experiment continued to oper-
ate until June 16, 1971, when, after another significant analyzer A voltage decrease, the exper-
iment was commanded to the standby mode. Since then, the instrument has been operated under a
revised procedure to avoid further degradation.

The data have application to investigations of various particle phenomena, including solar
wind, the magnetosphere, and low-energy solar cosmic rays. Preliminary data analyses have shown
the presence of a lunar photoelectron layer; an indication of modulation or acceleration of 10w-
energy electrons near the moon; penetration of auroral particles to lunar distances in the magnet-
ospheric tail; and electron fluxes in the magnetospheric tail, possibly associated with the neu-
tral sheet (ref. 3-26).

3.2.21 Solar Wind Spectrometer Experiment

Two solar wind spectrometers were deployed and activated on the lunar surface - one during
the Apollo 12 mission and the other during the Apollo 15 mission. The two instruments, separated
by approximately 1100 kilometers, provided the first opportunity to measure the properties of the
solar plasma simultaneously at two locations a fixed distance apart. The instruments were de-
signed to measure the velocity, density, and angular distribution of the solar wind plasma strik-
ing the lunar surface. Thus, the interaction of the solar wind with the moon may be studied and
inferences made about the physical properties of the moon. the nature of the magnetospheric tail
of the earth, and general solar wind properties.

To be sensitive to solar wind plasma from any direction (above the horizon of the moon) and
to ascertain its angular distribution, the solar wind spectrometer has an array of seven Faraday
cups. Because the cups are identical, an isotropic flux of particles produces equal currents in
each cup~ For a flux that is not isotropic, analysis of the relative amounts of current in the
seven collectors determines the mean direction of plasma flow and is a measure of the anisotropy.

Indications of anomalous behavior of the Apollo 12 instrument were traced to August 1971 af-
ter initial discovery in November 1971. Subsequent investigation revealed that the anomaly has
occurred intermittently since June 13, 1971. The periods of abnormality always occur when the
sun is between 120 0 and 135 0 from the dawn horizon, and their duration increases steadily month
after month. The effect of this anomaly is simply to restrict the range of energy over which
positive ions can be detected, reducing the upper limit by a factor of 2. The instrument was
designed to go as high as 9600 electron volts per unit charge to accommodate the helium component
of the solar wind at the highest velocities that had ever been observed. In the high-gain mode,
detectable currents of hydrogen ions are never found in the two highest energy levels, and helium
ions are detectable in these levels only rarely. Thus, the absence of these two levels in the
high-gain mode does not seriously compromise the validity and usefulness of the data. In the
low-gain mode, hydrogen ion energies still do not extend into these levels, but data on helium
ions will be lost more frequently. Thus, the occurrence of this anomalous performance necessi-
tates operation of the solar wind spectrometer in the high-gain mode if possible.

The Apollo 15 solar wind spectrometer telemetry data became invalid coincident with a cen-
tral station reserve power decrease of approximately 7 watts on June 3D, 1972. The power de-
crease indicated that the experiment which is current limited was drawing approximately 13 watts
of power. During real-time support periods, the experiment was cycled from the standby mode to
the operate mode, and verification that the instrument was demanding excess power from the cen-
tral station was obtained. The instrument was permanently commanded off June 14, 1974.

Preliminary results from the data analyzed include indications that the solar plasma at the
lunar surface is superficially indistinguishable from that at a distance from the moon, both when
the moon is ahead of and behind the bow shock of the earth. No detectable plasma appears to ex-
ist in the magnetospheric tail of the earth or in the shadow of the moon (ref. 3-27).
 3.2.22 Solar Wind Composition Experiment

The purpose of the solar wind composition experiment is to determine the elemental and iso-
topic composition of the noble gases and other selected elements in the solar wind by measurement
of particle entrapment on exposed sheets of foil.

The average isotopic compositions of the solar wind are of significant importance because
comparisons can be made with ancient compositions derived from solar wind gases trapped in lunar
soil and rocks. Because solar activity varies with time, the isotopic abundances in the solar
wind are expected to vary also. Therefore, to obtain accurate average abundances which exist
during this age of the solar system, this experiment was performed numerous times, separated in
time and with extended foil exposure times.

The experiment was deployed on five missions (Apollo 11, 12.14, IS, and 16). On each mis-
sion, the experiment consisted of an aluminum foil sheet on a reel and a staff to which the foil
and reel were attached. The apollo 16 experiment differed from those of the previous missions in
that pieces of platinum foil were attached to the aluminum foil. This change was made to deter-
mine whether or not the platinum foil pieces could be cleaned with fluoridic acid to remove lunar
dust contamination without destroying rare gas isotopes of solar wind origin up to the mass of
krypton. The foil was positioned by a crewman perpendicular to the solar rays, left exposed to
the solar wind, retrieved, and brought back to earth for analysis. Exposure times for each de-
ployment were as follows.

Exposure time,
Mission hr:min

Apollo 11 01:17
Apollo 12 18:42
Apollo 14 21:00
Apollo 15 41:08
Apollo 16 45:05

The relative elemental and isotopic abundances of helium and neon measured for the Apollo 12,
14, IS, and 16 exposure times are quite similar but differ from those obtained during the Apollo
11 mission. Particularly noteworthy is the absence of any indication of electromagnetic separa-
tion effects that might have been expected at the Apollo 16 landing site because of the relatively
strong local magnetic field. Weighted averages of ion abundances in the solar wind for the five
foil exposure periods are given in table 3-V. The errors cited are an estimate of the uncertainty
of the averages for the indicated period. The errors are based on the variability of the observed
abundances obtained from the four long exposure times (ref. 3-28).

3.2.23 Suprathermal Ion Detector and Cold-Cathode Gage Experiments

The suprathermal ion detector and cold-cathode gage experiments are conveniently discussed
together because the data processing system is common to both experiments and because the elec-
tronics for the cold-cathode gage are contained in the suprathermal ion detector package. These
two experiments were part of the 'Apollo 12, 14, and 15 lunar surface experiments packages.

The supra thermal ion detector experiments measure the energy and mass spectra of positive
ions near the lunar surface. A low-energy detector counts ions in the velocity range from 4 x 10~
to 9.35 x 10& centimeters per second with energies from 0.2 to 48.6 electron volts, enabling the
determination of the distribution of ion masses as large as 120 atomic mass units. A higher-
energy detector counts ions in selected energy intervals between 1 and 3500 electron volts. The
ions generated on the moon are of interest because possible sources are sporadic outgassing from
volcanic or seismic activity, gases from a residual primordial atmosphere of heavy gases, and
evaporation of solar wind gases accreted on the lunar surface. Ions that arrive from sources
beyond the near-moon environment are also being studied. For example, the motions of ions in the
magnetosphere can be investigated during those periods when the moon passes through the magneto-
spheric tail of the earth.
 TABLE 3-V.- COMPARISON OF WEIGHTED AVERAGES OF SOLAR WIND ION ABUNDANCES a

b 4 3 4 2O 2O 22 Ne 22 /Ne 21 2O 36
Sources He /He He /Ne Ne /Ne Ne /Ar

Solar wind (average from 2350 ±120 570 ±70 13.7 ±0.3 30 ±4 28 ±9
solar wind composition
experiments)

Lunar fines 10084 2550 ±250 96 ±18 12.65 ±0.2 31.0 ±1.2 7 ±2

Ilmenite from 10084 2720 ±100 218 ±8 12.85 ±0.1 31.1 ±0.8 27 ±4

Ilmenite from 12001 2700 ±80 253 ±10 12.9 ±0.1 32.0 ±0.4 27 ±5

Ilmenite from breccia 10046 3060 ±150 231 ±13 12.65 ±0.15 31.4 ±0.4 (e)

Terrestrial atmosphere 7 X 105 0.3 9.80 ±0.08 34.5 ±1.0 0.5

a
Obtained from the solar wind composition experiments with abundances in surface-
correlated gases of lunar fines and a breccia, and in the earth's atmosphere.
b
Data for surface-correlated gases in lunar materials are from references 3-29 and
3-30.
e
Variable.

W
I
'"
'"
3-56

The cold-cathode gages measure the density of neutral atoms comprising the ambient lunar
atmosphere. The range of the instruments corresponds to atmospheric pressures of 10- 12 to 10- 6
torr. Neutral atoms entering the sensor become ionized and result in a minute current flow that
is proportional to the atmospheric density. These instruments were included in the experiments
packages to evaluate the aJrounc of gas present on the lunar surface. The gage indications can be
expressed as a concentration of particles per unit volume or as pressure, which depends on the
ambient temperature in addition to the concentration. The amount of gas observed can be compared
with the expectation associated with the solar wind source to obtain an indication of the presence
of other gas sources.

The Apollo 12 suprathermal ion detector and cold-cathode gage were commanded on after exper-
iments package deployment and functioned satisfactorily for approximately 14 hours. At that time,
the 3500-volt power supply for the supra thermal ion detector and the 4500-volt power supply for
the cold-cathode gage were turned off automatically. Analysis indicates that arcing resulted
from the outgassing of the electronics potting material and that the arcing protection provisions
turned off the power supplies.

The 4500-volt power supply was immediately commanded on several times unsuccessfully. All
attempts to command the 4500-volt power supply on have been unsuccessful because of damage in-
curred by the arcing. After a waiting period for gases to dissipate, the 3500-volt power supply
was commanded on successfully, and the Apollo 12 supra thermal ion detector has been able to func-
tion since that time.

The Apollo 14 and 15 suprathermal ion detectors have experienced numerous arcing anomalies
since lunar deployment and initial activation; however, these instruments continue to function.
The Apollo 14 experiment also has experienced an anomaly in the positive analog-to-digital con-
verter, causing a loss of all engineering data processed through that converter. This anomaly
has had no adverse effect on the scientific outputs of the experiments.

The suprathermal ion detectors have detected numerous single-site ion events. Multiple-site
observations of ion events that possibly correlate with seismic events of an impact character
(recorded at the seismic stations) have resulted in information about the apparent motions of the
ion clouds. The 500- to lOOO-electron-volt ions streaming down the magnetosheath have also been
observed simultaneously by all three instruments (ref. 3-31).

On March 7, 1971, the Apollo 14 suprathermal ion detector recorded 14 hours of data that ap-
pears to be primarily a result of clouds of water vapor. Studies of all possible sources of
such an event leads to the conclusion that the water is of lunar origin (ref. 3-32). In view of
the almost total lack of water in returned samples, this is an unexpected result.

Before the Apollo program, optical and radio observations had been used to set lower limits
on the density of the lunar atmosphere; apart from that, nothing was known. The Apollo program
has demonstrated that the contemporary moon has a tenuous atmosphere although by earth standards
the lunar atmosphere is a hard vacuum. The cold-cathode gage experiment measured the concentra-
tions of neutral atoms at the lunar surface to be approximately 2 x lOS atoms per cubic centi-
meter. This measurement corresponds to a pressure between 10- 12 and 10- 11 torr (a vacuum not
achievable in earth laboratories).

3.2.24 Cosmic Ray Detector Experiment

The relative abundances and energy spectra of heavy solar and cosmic ray particles convey
much information about the sun and other galactic particle sources and about the acceleration
and propagation of the particles. In particular, the lowest energy range, from a few million
electron volts per nuclear mass unit (nucleon) to 1000 electron volts per nucleon (a solar wind
energy), is largely unexplored. The cosmic ray experiment contained various detectors designed
to examine this energy range.

The experiment was carried on the Apollo 16 and 17 missions and was the outgrowth of ear-
lier cosmic ray experiments on the Apollo 8 and 12 missions. The early experiments consisted
basically of a detector affixed to crewmen's helmets to assess the amount of cosmic ray radia-
tion to which the crewmen were subjected in space. The purposes of and the hardware for the
Apollo 16 and 17 experiments were considerably more exotic and complex.
 The detection basis of nearly all the cosmic ray experiments is that particles passing
through solids can form trails of damage, revealable by preferential chemical attack, which al-
lows the particles to be counted and identified. The Apollo 16 detector hardware consisted of
a foldable four-panel array (fig. 3-24). The panels were mounted on the outside of the lunar
module descent stage so as to directly expose three panels to cosmic ray and solar wind parti-
cles after the spacecraft/lunar module adapter had been jettisoned. During the first extrave-
hicular activity on the lunar surface, a crewman pulled a lanyard to expose the hidden surfaces
of panel 4 to the lunar surface cosmic rays and the solar wind. Exposure ended just before the
termination of the third extravehicular activity, at which time the four-panel array was pulled
out of its frame and folded into a compact package for return to earth. Because the folding
and stowing of the device ended the period of useful exposure of the detectors, provision was
made to distinguish particles detected during the useful period from particles that subsequently
penetrated the spacecraft and entered the detectors.

The full planned exposure of the four panels was not obtained on Apollo 16 because the sched-
uled sequence of events did not occur completely as planned.

a. Panel 4 contained a shifting mechanism that activated several experiments, most notably
the neutron experiment, on the lunar surface. Because of a mistake in the final assembly, the
shifting was only partially successful. This circumstance caused degradation of the information
that can be obtained from the neutron experiment and made it difficult to obtain information on
the time variation of light solar wind nuclei.

b. A temperature rise in the package exceeded design specifications. Although this temper-
ature rise has rendered the anlaysis of the experiment difficult, the effects of the temperature
rise can be taken into account.

c. At some time during the mission, panel 1 became covered with a thin, dull film that
seriously degraded the performance of panel 1.

d. During the translunar phase of the mission on April 18, 1972, a medium-sized solar flare
occurred. Detectors exposed to the solar flare showed that the flare contained approximately 10 8
protons per square centimeter with energies greater than 5 million electron volts.

The Apollo 17 hardware (fig. 3-25) consisted of a thin aluminum box with a sliding removable
cover. Four particle-detector sheets were attached to the interior wall of the box, and three
were attached to the inside surface of the cover. Opening was accomplished by two opposing rings,
one mounted on the cover and the second mounted on the box. During the first extravehicular ac-
tivity, a crewman removed the experiment from the lunar module and pulled the cover portion off
the box. The cover was hung on the lunar module structure in the shade, with the detector sur-
faces oriented away from the sun and facing the dark sky. The open box was then hung by a Velcro
strap on a lunar module strut in the sun, with the detector surfaces perpendicular to the sun.
The detectors were exposed to the lunar environment for 45-1/2 hours. The experiment was re-
trieved at the beginning of the third extravehicular activity, earlier than planned, because of
an apparent increase in the flux of low-energy particles caused by a visually active sunspot that
was present during the entire mission.

Three teams of investigators are using data from the cosmic ray detector experiment. The
preliminary findings from the Apollo 16 data are given in reference 3-33. Included are the ob-
servations that the differential energy spectrum of nuclei with Z > 6 falls by seven orders of
magnitude over the interval from 0.1 to 20 million electron volts per nucleon. then remains al-
most flat up to approximately 100 million electron volts per nucleon. The two parts correspond
to contributions from the sun and from galactic cosmic rays.

3.2.25 Lunar Ejecta and Meteorites Experiment

This experiment, emplaced on the lunar surface during the Apollo 17 mission, measures im-
pacts of primary cosmic dust particles (10- 9 grams or less) and lunar ejecta emanating from the
sites of meteorite impacts on the moon. Specific objectives are to (1) determine the background
and long-term variations in cosmic dust influx rates, (2) determine the extent and nature of
lunar ejecta produced by meteorite impacts on the lunar surface, and (3) determine the relative
contributions of comets and asteroids to earth meteoroids.
3-58

Figure 3-24.- Cos·

mlc ray detector expe rlment.
.
3-59

o
&
<
 3-60

The experiment consists of an array of sensors that detect micrometeorites and yeild data
throughout the lifetime of the Apollo 17 lunar surface experiments package. The follow1ng parti-
cle parameters can be derived.

a. Speed (within ~5 percent): 1 to 75 kilometers per second range

b. Kinetic energy for particles having energies of 1 to 1000 ergs

c. Flight path (within ~26~)

d. Particle momentum: 2.5 x 10- 5 to 7 x lO-~ dyne-seconds

e. Mass and diameter for assumed particle densities

The thermal control provisions for the lunar ejecta and meteorites experiment do not maintain
the operating temperature below the qualification test maximum level during the lunar day because
the thermal conditions at the Apollo 17 site are different than those of the design site (level
plain at equator). However, the current thermal profile permits experiment operation during 100
percent of each lunar night and approximately 30 percent of each lunar day. Since the experiment
components are rated higher than the maximum qualification test temperature, the allowable maxi-
mum temperature of operation has been increased in small increments each lunation.

Meaningful results from the experiment can only be derived from a long-term statistical and
correlative study between primary particle events and ejecta events. In view of the relatively
short-term measurement of primary particles as of the time of publication of reference 3-34, no
results were reported.

3.2.26 Lunar Atmospheric Composition Experiment

The lunar atmospheric composition experiment is a three-channel, magnetic-deflection-type

mass spectrometer. The spectrometer was deployed as part of the Apollo 17 lunar surface experi-
ments package. The purposes of the experiment are to obtain data on the composition of the lunar
ambient atmosphere in the mass range of 1 to 110 atomic mass units and to detect transient changes
in composition caused by the venting of gases from the lunar surface or other sources.

This experiment augments data from the lunar orbital mass spectrometer experiments conducted
during the Apollo 15 and 16 missions, and the far ultraviolet spectrometer experiment of Apollo 17.

From the data obtained during the first three lunations after deployment of the lunar atmos-
pheric composition experiment instrument, three gases - helium, neon, and argon - have been iden-
tified as being native to the lunar atmosphere. A summary of the measured concentrations of
these gases compared with several predictions is presented in table 3-Vl. The helium concentra-
tions and the diurnal ratio are in excellent agreement with predictions based on the solar wind
as a source, indicating that the basic tenets of the theory of a noncondensable gas are correct.
However, the neon measured concentration is a factor of 20 below predictions, indicating possibly
some adsorption or retention on the night side of the moon. If true, this phenomenon is unex-
pected because of the very low freezing temperature (27 0 K) of neon. The Apollo 16 lunar orbital
mass spectrometer experiment did detect neon on the night side near the sunset terminator at a
concentration approximately I x lOS molecules per cubic centimeter. This is approximately a
factor of less than 2 higher than the present value and is within the experimental errors of the
measurements. This discrepancy between theory and measurement for neon is a serious problem and
Is one of the major tasks to be considered in the future.

Argon appears to be adsorbed on the late night (coldest) part of the lunar surface as none
of its isotopes are detected at this time. A significant predawn enhancement of argon-40 indi-
cates a release of the gas from the warm approaching terminator region. The total nighttime gas
density of 4.6 x 10 5 molecules per cubic centimeter is a factor of 2 higher than the measured
values from the Apollo 14 and 15 cold cathode gage experiments. This is not surprising (notwith-
standing errors in calibration of both instruments) because the mass spectrometer ion source is
warmer than the cold discharge source of the gage and therefore would have a higher outgassing
rate. However, the residual being measured by both instruments is clearly not entirely neon but
a multitude of gases, including helium (ref. 3-36).
 TABLE 3-VI.- CONCENTRATIONS OF GASES DETERHWED FRON CURRENT LUNAR HASS
SPECTROMETER DATA, COLD CATHODE GAGE DATA, AND PREDICTIONS

~mss spectrometer data, Cold cathode gage data, Predicted data,

Gas molecules/cm 3 TilOlecules/cm 3 molecules/cm 3

Day Night Day Night Day Night

Hydrogen 1 x 10 8 1 x 10 5 83 . 6 x 10 3 a Z . 3 x lOll

Helium 2 x 10 3 4 x 10 4 { b J x 10 3
a1.7 x 10 3 a 4 . l x 10 1,
Neon c 7 x 10 4 bS X 10 4 br.3 x lOG

Argon-36 c2. x 10 3 b 3 x 10 2 b a x 10 3

Argon-40 C z x 10 3
d
Total 4 x 10 8 4.6 x lOS 1 x 10 7 2 x lOS

apredicted by R. R. Hodges, Jr., in unpublished data.

b
Reference 3-35.
cUpper limit; argon freezes out at ni8ht.
dTotal gas concentrations from mass spectrometer during second lunar day and third lunar
night after deployment; from cold cathode gage after 10 lunations.

'"g;,
 3-62

The multiplier high voltage power supply of the instrument apparently failed on October 17.
1973, resulting in the loss of science data. Periodic checks are being made to assess the per-
formance of the instrument, but no significant improvement has been obtained since that date.

3.2.27 Lunar Dust Detector

Dust detectors were included with the Apollo II, 12, 14, and 15 experiment complements. The
detectors were mounted on the Apollo lunar surface experiments package sunshields. The Apollo
II, 14. and 15 detectors were designed to obtain data for assessing dust accretion, lunar radi-
ation, and lunar surface brightness temperature. The Apollo 12 detector was designed only for
assessing dust accretion and measuring thermal surface degradation.

All dust detectors have shown no measurable dust degradation effects caused by lunar module
lift-off debris. A cell degradation rate of from 3 to 4 percent per year has been measured for
the solar cells having 0.006-inch protective glass covers and about 7 to 8 percent per year for
unprotected cells. Thesc degradation ratcs arc very close to the expected cell damage during a
year due to the high energy cosmic and solar radiation received at the lunar surface. Most of
the degradation of the cells can therefore be attributed to radiation since a dust accretion
process would cause both bare and cover-glass-protected cells to decay at the same rates.

Yearly cyclic variations in the cell temperature of as much as 6° K have been measured.
These variations are due to the difference in distance from the sun during the lunar "winter"
aphelion (July) and lunar "sUllllller" perihelion (December). Similarly, the cell output voltages
show a yearly cyclic variation of approximately 8 percent because of the difference in received
solar radiation through the year.

3.2.28 Surveyor III Analysis

Several pieces of hardware were removed from the Surveyor III spacecraft by the Apollo 12
astronauts and returned to earth for analysis. The Surveyor III spacecraft had landed on the
lunar surface in the Ocean of Storms 2 1/2 years earlier and had been exposed to the lunar par-
ticle environment during that timc.

Traces of induced radioactivity and meteoroid impact craters ranging from 0.025 to 0.25
millimeter in diameter were found in the recovered Surveyor hardware. Crater sizes and the in-
dicated flux were compatible with predicted values.

An unexpected discovery in the study of solar flare particles occurred when the relative
abundances of very heavy nuclei were determined from a sample of Surveyor III glass. The discov-
ery (now confirmed by independent satellite measurements) was that the lowest energy solar cosmic
rays are highly enriched in very heavy nuclei compared to normal solar material. This discovery
is the first demonstration of the preferential heavy-ion acceleration by a natural particle ac-
celerator. This discovery also casts an entirely new light on two decades of solar and cosmic
ray research during which a basic assumption has been the absence of such preferential accelera-
tion processes.

3.2.29 Particle Implantation Studies

The flux of particle fields and solar radiation and of meteorites on the lunar surface has
left evidence of the history of the solar system implanted on the surface materials.

a. Solar wind particles: Although the solar wind has been studied for years using unmanned
satellites, the Apollo program has contributed the following important new information.

1. From solar wind ions captured in aluminum foils and subsequently analyzed in the lab-
oratory (sec. 3.2.22), isotopic information on heavy rare gases has been obtained for the first
time. This information 1s fundamental to the understanding of the evolution of the earth atmos-
phere.
 3-63

2. Lunar samples give a wealth of information about directly implanted atoms origina-
ting from the sun. This information 1s basic to an understanding of the sun and all other solar
system objects. The elements krypton and xenon show isotopic differences, still unexplained. be-
tween the earth atmosphere and meteorites. Therefore, studies of surface implanted ions of kryp-
ton and xenon have been particularly important. Deuterium has been shown to have a very low
abundance with respect to hydrogen abundance.

3. The abundance of argoo-40 1s greatly in excess of what was expected; the most likely
interpretation 1s that the 8r800-40 was originally emitted by the moon and was then reimplanted
by interaction with the solar wind.

4. Amorphous surface films, very likely produced by solar wind bombardment. are ob-
served on many lunar grains. Artificial irradiation produced similar films, the thicknesses of
which vary with bombarding energy. Theae observations indicate that the lunar soil will be use-
ful in studying the ancient solar wind and its energy fluctuations.

5. The concentrations of hydrocarbons (mainly methAne And ethane) ~nrr~late with the
solar wind irradiation of different lunar soils. These compounds are possibly formed in the
superficial layers of individual dust grains that have been heavily irradiated with solar wind
ions. Since interstellar space contains both dust clouds and sources of energetic particles,
these processes may be important for organic synthesis in the galaxy as a whole. Some effects
may also be due to local melting resulting from meteorite impacts and subsequent redeposition.

6. Related studies in lunar soils on the light, stable isotopes of carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, silicon, and sulphur show significant departures from terrestrial and meteoritic values;
values are also different from those of the lunar basalts themselves and are apparently produced
by the unique irradiation and bombardment history of the soil. Nitrides, cyanide, and phosphides,
as well as benzene, also are present, and their production may be due to similar processes.

b. Solar-flare particles: For the first time, information about the solar-flare activity
on the sun over geologic times has been obtained. This information is contained in the induced
radioactivities and nuclear-particle tracks produced in the outer layers of lunar surface mate-
rial. One important conclusion is that the average solar-flare activity has not changed appreci-
ably over the past few million years. It has also been shown that solar flares were active at
least 0.5 billion years ago and probably date back to the original formation of the lunar surface.
The observed constancy of solar flares suggests that major climatic changes during the last mil-
lion years have not been associated with large-scale changes in solar activity as had previously
been postulated.

3.2.30 Long-Term Lunar Surface Exposure

Selected hardware was photographically documented and left on the moon during the Apollo 17
mission. Samples of similar material were set aside for long-term storage on earth. The purpose
is to allow comparison of the materials at some future time. The long-term effect of the lunar
environment on the materials thus can be evaluated if the Apollo 17 lunar site is revisited.

3.2.31 Far-Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph

A far-ultraviolet camera/spectrograph experiment (fig. 3-26) was operated on the lunar sur-
face during the Apollo 16 mission. Among the data obtained were images and spectra of the ter-
restrial atmosphere snd geocorona in the wavelength range below 1600 angstroms. These data gave
the spatial distributions and relative intensities of emissions due to atomic hydrogen, atomic
oxygen, molecular nitrogen, and other elements - some observed spectrographically for the first
time. A more detailed account of the findings of this experiment can be found in reference 3-37.
3-64

-.,-~(
- '".....- .,...-:r ~
l."\o\·"d~
.... I. •• ~ .;,.","'. .
. •.•:.. ",
• • 4"04.. • '...
.'
'.. •j"
••
.' .
• •
Figure 3-26.- Far ultraviolet camera/spectrograph experimenl.
 3-65

3.3 LUNAR ORBITAL SCIENCE

The results of scientific experiments and detailed objectives performed while in lunar or-
bit and, in some cases, during flight to and from the moon are summarized in this section. Table
3-VII lists these experiments and objectives and identifies the missions to which they were as-
signed. Many of the experiments complement each other, and some complement experiments placed
on the lunar surface or flown on other programs. Some also support more than one science dis-
cipline.

Through the Apollo 14 ~881on, the science-related activities were limited almost entirely
to those that could be accomplished through crew photography or visual observations, to lunar
surface experiments, and to ground-based investigations that utilized spacecraft systems. The
principal portion of the lunar orbital science program was accomplished on the final three
(J-series) misaions. A scientific instrument module was installed in a section of the service
module 8S shown in figures 3-27 and 3-28.

As described in paragraph 4.4.4.6, mechanical deployment devices were developed for the
Apollo 15, 16, and 17 scientific instrument modules so that certain instruments could be moved
away from X-ray secondary radiation and the contamination cloud that surrounded the spacecraft,
or so that the desired photographic angles could be obtained. These devices and the instruments
themselves were remotely controlled by the crew from the command module. In addition, provisions
were made for the Apollo 15 and 16 crews to launch particles-and-fields subsatellites into lunar
orbit by means of remotely controlled deployment mechanisms located in the scientific instrument
module bays (fig. 3-29). The subsatellites contained charged particle detectors, a biaxial flux-
gate magnetometer, an optical solsr aspect system (for attitude determination), a data storage
unit, a power system; a command decoder, and an S-band communications system.

Experiment design and allocation were constrained by the usual spacecraft limitations of
weight, volume, and power. The total weight of the scientific instrument module experiments was
limited to approximately 700 pounds per mission. In addition, there were other constraints and
requirements that were unique to theae instruments. For example, individual, deployable covers
were required for most of the instruments to protect them from the effects of service module re-
action control system plume heating and contamination and from possible contamination from space-
craft effluents (waste water dumps, urine dumps, and fuel cell purges). During the missions,
when these protective covers were open for data acquisition, it was necessary to inhibit the fir-
ing of four of the reaction control system thrusters - the two that fired across the scientific
instrument module bay and the two that fired downward, alongside the scientific instrument module
bay. Additionally, whenever the covers were open, the spacecraft attitude had to be constrained
to prevent entrance of direct sunlight into several of the instruments' fields of view; otherwise,
data degradation or permanent instrument damage would have occurred. Until several hours prior
to lunar orbit insertion, the instruments were protected by a panel that enclosed the entire
scientific module bay. This panel was cut and jettisoned by pyrotechnic devices.

About 30 000 photographs of the lunar surface were obtained from lunar orbit on the Apollo
missions. Approximately 15 000 of these were taken by hand-held 70-millimeter electric cameras
during Apollo missions 8 through 17; 10 000 by mapping cameras during the Apollo 15, 16, and 17
missions; and 5000 by panoramic cameras during the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions. Only a frac-
tion of the large number of photographs obtained have been studied in detail. Most of the com-
pleted analyses have been used to support mission operations and science objectives of many ex-
periments and detailed objectives.

3.3.1 Bistatic Radar

The bistatic radar experiment was conducted on the Apollo 14, 15, and 16 missions, and uti-
lized existing command and service module S-band and VHF radio communication systems. Its pur-
pose was to determine the principal electromagnetic and structural properties of the lunar sur-
face from observations of S-band and VHF signals which were transmitted from the command and
service module in lunar orbit, reflected from the moon, and monitored on earth. The S-band
(13-centimeter-wavelength) transmissions were received by the 64-meter-diameter antenna located
at Goldstone, California, and the VHF (116-centirneter-wavelength) transmissions by the 46-meter-
diameter antenna erected on the Stanford University campus at Palo Alto, California.
3-66

TABLE 3-VII.- APOLLO ORBITAL SCIENCE SUMMARY

Hinion
Experiment/objective
Experiment
number
8 , I. 11 12 I' 15
l' 17

Biat.tlc radar experiment 5-170 X X X

S-band tranlponder experiment 5-164
CSK/LH X X X X
S\,Ib.atellire X X
Infrared leanning radio_tet
expert_nr 5-171 X
Lunar lounder expertClenr 5-209 X
'Particle ah,dows/boundary
layer experiment 5-173 X X
~gnetollll!ter experiment 5-174 X X
eo,mit 'fay detector (helmets) 5-151 X X
Apollo ~ndow meteoroid 5-176 X X X X
Gamma-ray spectrometer
expefiment 5-160 X X X
X-ray fluorescence experiment 5-161 X X
Alpha-particle spectrometer
experiment 5-162 X X

~I' spectrometer experiment 5-165 X X

Far ultraviolet spectrometer
experiment 5-169 X
Lunar 1Il18sion photography
from the command and
service lDOdule -- X
Lunar multispectral photography 5-158 X
Candidate exploration sites
photography -- X X
SelenodetiC reference point
update -- X X
Transearth lunar photography -- X
b5ervlce IIlOdule orbital
photographic tasks -- X X X
Command IIlOdule orbital
science photography -- X
Viaual observations from
lunar orbit -- X X X
Cegenschein [rom lunar orbit
experiment 5-178 X X X
Ultraviolet photography -
earth and moon 5-177 X X
Dim light photography -- X
Command module photographic
taaks -- X X X

·Part tcles and [telds subsatellite expertlllents.

blncluded panoramic camera photography, ~pptng camera photography and laser
sltbletry. Also supported geology objectives.
+

+ +

Figure 3-27.- Scientific instrument module bay viewed tram the lunar module.
 ,
co

Mapping camera

laser altimeter~
Mapp'o, "m", ~~
. ~:2
! ;1
~
jp ,_
0, ,~.r
Mapping camera
litm cassette

Mapping camera
laser altimeter
Ii 1m cassette
Multiple operations module~

Extravehicular activity
fj~ Gaseous nitrogen
Extravehicular activity foot restraint~ controt
loot restraint
Gaseous nitrogen
control .,',

-'.
---.!

Particles and
.
Panoramic camera
~ -
Coherent
synthetic apertu::mr;;'-
radar _
Panoramic camera

fields subsatellite V=f1~,'" Ounar sounder)

~p,o",m""m."
V .' .',.' _HIm cassette
g~. 'Panoramic camera
~ ~
:::Iilm cassette ~ i' __ : ''::--''Removable
cover

"

Note:
- _~I.J~:- .> ~~sspe<:trometer

~:~~~~:{er :~~r:~:t:;r~:using
---- - wee I
Ultraviolet spectrometerI
\J ~ ~
\'Infrared scanning
radiometer
Optical recorder
/lunar sounder!

Mass spe<:tromeler and gamma-ray spectrometer are shown partially deployed.

Some protective COiers are not shown. (b) Apollo 17 configuration

(al AJXlllo 15 and 16 configuration

Figure 3-28. - Scientific instrument module configurations.

 3-69

Deployable booms

Launch mechanism
S-band
antenna

Subsatellite

(a) Subsatellite predepJoyment configuration

r:J--- S-band antenna

. l~l:'"
, 1::.. I
,10'
::I;,::t ,
Solar cells
!iiii2 I

Magnetometer

(b) Deployed subsalellite

Figure 3-29.- Subsatellite.

 ~70

On the Apollo 14 mission, observations were conducted using the S-band and VHF systems
simultaneously on nearly one-third of a near-side pass, and with the VHF system alone during four
complete near-aide passes. Good data were obtained during all observational periods. Echoes re-
ceived at antennas of the earth monitoring stations were of predicted strength with signal fre-
quency, phase, polarization, and amplitude being recorded. Comparison of the received echoes
with the known characteristics of the transmitted signal yielded quantitative information about
lunar crustal properties such as dielectric constant, average slope and slope probability, and
small-scale surface roughness. Effects of bulk surface electrical properties such as the Brew-
ster angle were clearly visible at both the S-band and VHF frequencies. Comparisons of radar
experiment results with interpretive geologie maps and quantitative topographic work using, pri-
marily, photogrammetric techniques showed excellent agreement.

The radar experiment configuration for the Apollo 15 mission differed from that of the Apollo
14 mission in that the S-band high-gain antenna was used instead of the S-band omnidirectional
antenna aystem. This change resulted in a significant improvement in the quality of both S-band
and VHF data. Simultaneous S-band and VHF observations were successfully conducted during one
complete near-side pass, and VHF data were obtained during four complete near-side passes. Excel-
lent data were received during these five observation periods, representing nearly an order-of-
magnitude improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio with respect to the Apollo 14 experiment. For
the first time, bistatic radar data were received from significant lunar features which included
the Sea of Serenity, the Apennine Mountains, the middle portion of the Ocean of Storms, and the
Marius Hills. The S-band data analysis indicated that the area surveyed during the Apollo 15
mission is largely homogeneous and very similar to the regions sampled at lower altitudes during
the Apollo 14 mission. Although distinct variations in centimeter-to-meter-length slopes exist,
the vertical structure of the surface appeared remarkably uniform.

The Apollo 16 experiment configuration was the same as that for Apollo 15. Simultaneous
S-band and VHF observations were conducted during one complete near-side pass, and VHF data ob-
servations were made on four complete near-side passes. Although the S-band data received were
of excellent quality, the VHF echoes were weak due either to a command and service module atti-
tude problem or to an inflight equipment malfunction. Another problem was interference from NASA
satellite TETR-D, originally launched for Apollo communication system testing and training exer-
cises.

Results of data reduction and analyses for all three missions reveal that the oblique geom-
etry scattering properties of the moon's surface are wavelength-dependent in the decimeter-to-
meter range, that the scattering law is highly dependent on local topogrsphy, and that systematic
differences exist in the average scattering properties of mare and highland units. At 13 centi-
meters, the reflectivity of mare surfaces is remarkably uniform except for local deviations asso-
ciated with specific features; the 116-centimeter results are frequently in sharp contraat with
those at the shorter wavelength. The highlands ejecta south of Mare Crisium (Sea of Crises) ex-
hibit a dielectric constant of about 2.8 at the l16-centimeter wavelength and a lower value at
the 13-centimeter wavelength. In the Apennines and centrsl highlands, both wavelengths show a
reduced reflectivity consistent with a dielectric constant decrease from 3.1 to 2.8.

The l16-centimeter variations that do not correlate with the 13-centimeter data cannot be
caused by surface effects because such effects would also be observed at the shorter wavelength.
Explanation of the differential behavior, in some cases, requires layering or an inversion of
density with depth such as might be produced by a flow over older regolith.

Apollo 14 observations suggest that the upper S to 50 centimeters of the crust must be ex-
tremely uniform over the surface of the moon or that the change with depth must be gradual.
Surface-modifying processes have apparently acted to these depths along the major portion of the
radar groundtracks. Further, the l16-centimeter data suggest that there must be large variations
(on the order of 2 to 1) in impedance contrast within 1 to 10 meters of the surface. Variation
in depth of a thin regolith or covering blanket is one obvious candidate to model this effect.

The root-mean-square slopes deduced from the Apollo 14 and 15 spectra exhibit very system-
atic behavior with respect to maria, highlands, and discrete features such as craters. Typical
highland slopes are in the range of S to 7 degrees at both wavelengths suggesting that, on the
scale lengths of 30 to 300 meters, the surface has equal roughness. Within the maria, the
l3-centimeter slopes are typically within 2 to 4 degrees, but those obtained at 116 centimeters
are only half as large (ref. 3-38).
 3-71

3.3.2 S-Band Transponder

The S-band transponder experiment was successfully conducted during the Apollo 14, 15, 16,
and 17 missions. On all four missions, experiment data were derived from the lunar-orbiting
command and service module and lunar module. In addition, the experiment was supported during
the Apollo 15 and 16 missions by an S-band transponder mounted in the subsateilltes that were
launched fro~ the command and service modules into lunar orbit. The purpose of the experiment
was to measure the lunar gravitational field which, in turn, provided information on the dis-
tribution of lunar mass and its correlation with surface features such as craters, mountains,
and maria.

No instruments were required on the command and service modules and lunar modules other than
the existing S-band communications systems. A transponder system designed specifically for the
experiment was contained in the two subsatellites. These systems operated in conjunction with
the earth-based radio tracking system. Experiment data consisted of variations in spacecraft
speed as measured by the tracking system. However, these line-of-sight velocity measurements
could be obtained only while the spacecraft were in view of the earth. Information about the
far side gravity field must therefore be indirectly inferred from spacecraft conditions imme-
diately after lunar occultation and over many revolutions.

Good command and service module and lunar module data were obtained despite some degradation
resulting from a high-gain antenna problem during the Apollo 14 mission and spacecraft attitude
instability during the Apollo 15 and 16 missions due to reaction control system thruster atti-
tude control firings. Both the Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 subsatellites provided excellent quality
tracking data until May 29, 1972, when the Apollo 16 subsatellite crashed on the moon; the
Apollo 15 subsatellite continued to provide tracking data until August 23, 1973.

In general, comparison of tracking data from the three spacecraft and from lunar areas over-
flown on more than one mission shows close agreement in the results. The following general con-
clusions have been drawn from reduced data (refs. 3-39 and 3-40).

a. All unfilled craters and those having diameters less than 200 kilometers are negative
anomalies (negative gravity regions); Ptolemaeus Crater is an example of the latter type.

b. Filled craters and circular seas with diameters greater than about 200 kilometers are
positive anomalies (positive gravity regions), or are mascons. The smallest of this type is the
crater Grimaldi, which has a diameter of 150 kilometers; an exception is the unique Sinus Iridum
(Bay of Rainbows).

o. The largest mascons detected are in the region of the Sea of Nectar, the Sea of Seren-
ity, and the Sea of Crises. Part of. the central highlands appears as a positive anomaly, and
mountain ranges observed thus far (Marius Hills and Apennine Mountains) are positive anomalies.

3.3.3 Infrared Scanning Radiometer

Accomplished successfully during the Apollo 17 mission, the infrared scanning radiometer
experiment obtained thermal emission measurements of the lunar surface for use in developing a
high-resolution temperature map of the lunar surface. The experiment instrument, located in the
scientific instrument module, operated normally throughout the mission, and all mission objec-
tives were achieved.

Infrared radiometer data were obtained for 100 hours in lunar orbit during which time about
30 percent of the lunar surface was scanned. Approximately 100 million temperature measurements
were obtained over the full lunar temperature range of 80· to 400· K. Temperature resolution
was 1· K with a precision of about !2° K; spatial resolution was approximately 2 kilometers over
most of the horizon-to-horizon scan. The experiment was also operated for 10.5 hours during
transearth coast to support a study of the contamination environment in the vicinity of the
spacecraft.
 ~-72

Data analyses disclose that the nighttime cooling behavior of the moon varies. The Ocean
of Storms shows a substantial number of thermal structure variations, ranging from large crater
anomalies to small-scale features below the instrument resolution of less than 2 kilometers.
Far fewer thermal features are evident in other aress along the spacecraft lunar surface ground-
track; in particular, only a few anomalies are revealed by nighttime scans of the lunar far side.
Although cold anomalies are evident throughout the data, they are usually small features which
may represent indigenous activity geologically recent In time. Additional information may be
found In reference 3-41.

3.3.4 Lunar Sounder

The lunar sounder experiment, flown on the Apollo 17 mission, obtained electromagnetic
soundings of the moon for use in developing a selenological three-dimensional model to a depth
of about 1.3 kilometers. The equipment was installed in the service module and consisted of a
coherent synthetic aperture radar, the associated antennas. and an optical recorder. The radar
system operated in the two HF bands of 5 megahertz (HF 1) and 15 megahertz (HF 2), or in the VHF
band of 150 megahertz, and transmitted a series of swept frequency pulses. A small part of the
pulse energy was reflected from the lunar surface and subsurface features and subsequently was
detected by a receiver on the spacecraft. The radar video output from the receiver was recorded
by the optical recorder on film, and the film cassette was retrieved during transearth extrave-
hicular activity.

Experiment data were obtained in lunar orbit for 10 hours. The HF I, HF 2, and VHF data
vere collected during six complete revolutions (two for each frequency band) and from specific
lunar targets. The instrument was operated in the receive-only mode on both the lunar near side
and far side, and near the landing site with and without transmission of signals by the surface
electrical properties experiment deployed on the lunar surface. The experiment was also oper-
ated in the receive-only mode for 24 hours during transearth coast to determine sources of ter-
restrial noise.

Several experiment hardware anomalies occurred during the mission. The most serious was
failure of the VHF echo tracker to keep the leading edge of the return signal on film; as a re-
sult, nadir return from both mare and highlands (and thus, sounding capability) was lost up to
50 percent of the time. Sounding data were also limited because the HF 2 channel energy was
down 10 to 20 decibels relative to the HF 1 channel, as compared to premission values of 7 to
8 decibels. In addition, operational delays were caused by a faulty antenna extension/retrac-
tion mechanism and talkback indicator (attributed to low temperatures); however, neither data
quantity nor quality was lost.

The VHF images produced by optical processing were of excellent quality and the VHF profile,
where available, was quite satisfactory for addressing local selenomorphological problems. Ten-
tative subsurface returns have been identified in both the HF 1 and VHF channels. Based on pre-
liminary analyses, the data appear to have satisfied experiment requirements. Telemetry monitor-
ing of average reflected power indicated that the mare and highlands exhibited markedly different
reflectivity for both HF and VHF radar frequencies. Data were consistent with distinct layering
in the mare as would be expected were the mare flooded by successive layers of lava; predicted
topographic signatures over features such as craters and mare ridges have been confirmed in prin-
ciple. A preliminary scan of a limited length of film indicates that both the radar images of
lunar surface at the ~IF frequency and the echoes delayed in time relative to the surface echo
at the HF frequencies have been imprinted on film.

Preliminary data analyses also reveal that the power levels of VHF- and HF-reflected sig-
nals were very close to those predicted from premiss ion system analyses and the known dielectric
constant of the lunar surface. Electromagnetic radiation from earth in the HF 2 mode is much
stronger than expected but does not appear to have degraded the active radar sounding of the
lunar near side. Earth radiation is occulted by the moon and can be minimized by proper orien-
tation of the radar antenna. Additional preliminary results are given in reference 3-42.
 3.3.5 Particle Shadows/Boundary Layer

The instruments for the particle shadows/boundary layer experiment were installed in the
subsatellites launched into lunar orbit during the Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 missions. The instru-
ments in each subsatellite consisted of two silicon nuclear particle telescope detectors and four
spherical electrostatic analyzer detectors. The objectives of the experiment were to describe
the various plasma regimes in which the moon moves, to determine haw the moon interacts with the
plasma and magnetic fields in the environment, and to determine certain features of the structure
and dynamics of the earth magnetosphere.

Shortly after launch of the Apollo 15 subsatellite in lunar orbit, an inconsistency was
noted in the particle experiment count data. This was traced to a design error. The data were
not lost, but data reduction was more complex. The design error was corrected in the Apollo 16
subsatellite. Failures of the Apollo 15 subsatellite on February 3 and February 29, 1972, re-
sulted in the loss of most operational and experiment data. As noted in section 3.3.7, the
Apollo 16 subsate1lite impacted the lunar surface after orbiting for approximately 1 month.
During its lifetime, however, it provided excellent quality data.

Data were obtained as the subsatellites encountered four distinct regions of magnetized
plasma (fig. 3-30): the solar wind; the baw shock, which appears on the sunward side of the earth
magnetospherej the magnetosheath, which lies between the bow shock and the earth magnetospherej
and the magnetotai1. In addition to the plasma and energetic particle characteristics of these
regions, particles from the sun also appear after chromospheric flares occur or active centers
pass across the solar disk. Results from the Apollo 15 and 16 experiments essentially agree
(refs. 3-43 and 3-44). The findings are summarized as follows.

a. A wide variety of particle shadows has been measured; the shadow shapes agree well with
the theory that has been developed and verify that the magneto tail magnetic field lines are gen-
erally "open" in the sense that they connect directly from the earth polar caps to the interplan-
etary magnetic field.

b. The cavity formed in the solar wind by the moon has been observed in the fast-electron
component of the solar wind. When the interplanetary magnetic field is aligned approximately
along the solar wind flow, the electrons are almost completely excluded from the cavity. When
the magnetic field is aligned more nearly perpendicular to the solar wind flow, the solar wind
shadow structure (as defined by the fast-electron component) becomes extremely complex. The
shadow structure becomes much broader than the lunar diameter and may become very shallow.

c. A weak flux of electrons in the energy range of 25 000 to 300 000 electron volts was
able to move predominantly in a sunward direction for a period of several days while the moon
was upstream from the earth in interplanetary space. No determination has been made as to
whether these particles have a solar or terrestrial origin.

d. Flux of solar electrons was measured after two important solar flares occurred. An
electron spectrum for the energy range of 6000 to 300 000 electron volts was determined from
Apollo 15 measurements of the first flare that occurred on September I, 1971. After a major
hydromagnetic shock wave that was generated on May 15, 1972, the Apollo 16 experiment measure-
ments indicated that fluxes of electrons at energies above approximately 2000 electron volts
increased by more than an order of magnitude above background levels; energetic proton fluxes
throughout the event were typically higher than electron fluxes at the same energy by a factor
of 10.

e. Magnetotail electric fields have been determined from particle shadow boundary displace-
ments. Their magnitude ranges from zero to more than I volt per kilometer, typically, 0.2 to
0.3 volts per kilometer, oriented in a generally east-to-west direction, indicative of solar
wind induction driven convection toward a magnetic neutral line merging region in the center of
the magnetotall.

f. Low energy electron fluxes characteristic of the plasma sheet observed by satellites
passing through the magnetotail nearer the earth are also frequently observed from lunar orbit.
The location of plasma sheet encounters appears to be less closely confined to regions near the
magnetic neutral sheet (field reversal region) than is observed closer to the earth.
 ,
u.>

1-

Bow shock

Plasma I " ,
flow

Solar magnetic field

Geomagnetic cavity
if To Sun

20 40 60 80 100 120 RE

Note: Dot adjacent to

lunar surface shows
approximate location
of Apollo 12 lunar
surface maynetometer.

R = Earth radii. Not to scale

E

Figure 3-30.- Near-earth space traversed by moon.

 3-75

g. Areas are observed to exist where 15 ODO-electron-volt electrons are reflected back to
the spacecraft from the direction of the moon, probably by regions of remanent surface magnetism
of sufficient magnitude to exceed the "llI.1rrorlng" value for electrons.

3.3.6 Magnetometer

A biaxial flux-gate magnetometer was also included in the Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 subsatel-
lites to calculate the interior electrical conductivity of the moon, to survey the remanent mag-
netization of the lunar surface, and to study the interaction of the moon with its plasma envi-
ronment. The magnetometer was boom-deployed from the subsatellite and measured the magnitude
and polarity of two mutually orthogonal vector components, one parallel and the other perpendic-
ular to the spin axis of the subsatellite. Experiment results (refs. 3-45 and 3-46) are sum-
marized in the following paragraphs.

Data obtained in the magnetotail by the Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 experiments show that lunar
remanent magnetism can be mapped froD a single orbiting vehicle. However. high-resolution maps
of magnetic features can be achieved only with dual magnetometer surveys in order to separate
temporal and spatial changes in the fields, or with low-altitude data below 70 kilometers. The
latter data are available from the Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 missions only for limited areas. Al-
though the character of the magnetic features observed tends to follow the character of the lunar
topography beneath the subsatellite. there is no one~to-one correlation of magnetic signature
with surface features.

The approximate nature of this correlation was shown by constructing a high-resolution con-
tour map of lunar contribution to the solar-directed component of the magnetic field as measured
on the Apollo 15 subsatellite at an altitude of 67 kilometers in the Van de Graaff region. The
map shows a well-defined feature with a 4.5 gamma peak-to-valley variation. This feature is
clearly not centered over Aitken or Van de Graaff, which suggests that these magnetic features
are not necessarily associated with crater formation (ref. 3-46).

The subsatellite data obtained in the solar wind indicate that diamagnetic enhancement and
rarefaction dips discovered by Explorer 35 magnetometers are also Jistinctly present at the much
lower altitude of apptoximately 100 kilometers. The phenomenon of large increases in the field
external to the rarefaction dips is also clearly observed and appears to be stronge~ at the sub-
satellite altitude.

3.3.7 Subsatellite Performance

The two particles and fields subsatellites were launched from the Apollo 15 and 16 conmand
and service modules and were to be operated in lunar orbit for a I-year period.

3.3.7.1 Apollo 15.- Th~ Apollo 15 llubsat~llittl Wall laUlu.;hed inlu lumu orbil AUgUliL 4, i97l,
and performed satisfactorily in all modes of operation until February 3, 1972. Data were lost
from about one-third of its measurements beginning on February 3. 1972. during its 2203rd lunar
revolution. Data from additional measurements were lost beginning February 29, 1972. during its
2520th lunar revolution.

Analysis of the data indicated the data loss was the result of multiple failures within a
single integrated circuit flat pack in the bilevel. main-frame. and drivers board of the digital
electronics unit. The cause of the integrated circuit failure is not known. Following the fail-
ure. the subsatellite continued operation with the remaining particles experiment measurements.
but primarily as an S-band transponder lunar gravity experiment.

The last tracking pass for the subsatellite was on August 23. 1973, on its 9046th lunar rev-
olution. One of the requirements for the silver-cadmium battery was for a cell life for a 365-
day space mission with 5000 charge/discharge cycles. The flight battery was activated in August
1971. and accumulated over 8000 charge/discharge cycles by April 1973 when it began showing charg-
ing problems and data became intermittent. This performance was in agreement with battery life
predictions based on the results from the Pioneer spacecraft battery life tests. It ceased charg-
ing in August 1973 after approximately 9400 cycles.
3-76

3.3.7.2 Apollo 16.- The Apollo 16 subsatellire was launched into lunar orbit April 24, 1972,
.nd performed satisfactorily in all modes of operation until impacting the lunar surface on May
29. 1972.
The executioll of a co=nd and service module orbit shaping maneuver had been planned before
launching the subsatell1te so as to place it in an orbit which would insure I-year operation.
However, the orbit-shaping lMneUVer ....as deleted because of a cotrr.land and service module IlllIlfunc-
tion, and the subsatellite was placed in an orbit which wus different from the one planned. The
orbit into which the subsatellite was launched resulted in a short orbital life with an early im-
pact of the subsatellite on the lunar surface.

3.3.8 Cosmic Ray Detector (Helmets)

Five hell:lets were used as heavy-particle dosir.1eters in the cosmic ray detector experiment:
one worn during the Apollo 8 mission (December 21 to 27, 1968), three worn during the Apollo 12
mission (Novel'lbcr 14 to 24, 1969); and a control helr.1et that was exposed to cosmic rays at a bal-
loon altitude of 41 kilometers (July 11 and 12, 1970). After exposure, the helmets were chemi-
cally etched to reveal tracks caused by heavy cosmic ray nuclei.

Track observations show that the integrated flux of heavily ionizing cosmic rays striking
Apollo 12 helmets was 3.1 times greater than that of the Apollo 8 helmet. The track formation
rate for Apollo 12 helmets was 2.0 times higher than that of the Apollo 8 helmet, even when al-
lowances were made for the differences in mission duration; the rate for the control helmet was
3.1 times higher than that of the Apollo 8 helmet and about 1.45 times higher than that of the
Apollo 12 helmets. Helmet locations in the spacecraft and variations in spacecraft shielding
produced no meaningful statistical differences between the track densities of the Apollo 12 hel-
met exposed only in the command and service module and those exposed in the lunar module and on
the lunar surface. Instead, doses at the helmet depended primarily on the intensity of solar ac-
tivity during the mission.

3.3.9 Apollo Window Meteoroid

The Apollo window meteoroid experiment utilizes heat shield windows from the recovered com-
mand module spacecraft (1) to obtain information about the flux of meteoroids with masses of
10- 7 gram and less, (2) to examine the residue and morphology of the craters produced by these
meteoroids for information regarding the dynamic and physical properties of the meteoroids, (3)
to discover possible correlations with lunar-rock-craters studies, and (4) to obtain information
on meteoroid composition and mass density.

The Apollo window meteoroid experiment was officially assigned to Apollo missions 14, IS,
16, and 17. With the exception of Apollo II, however, the windows of all Apollo command modules
have been examined for contamination and for meteoroid impact craters having diameters of 40 mi-
crometers and larger. Contamination by hard chemical deposits was observed on the outer sur-
faces of all returned windows. Chemical analyses show that the contamination sources were the
Mylar coating on the heat shield surface, reaction control system thruster nozzle residue, and
charred heat shield material (ref. 3-47). A high percentage of sodium was produced by the
thruster nozzles and heat shield char, of magnesium by thruster nozzles, and of titanium and
silicon by the Mylar coating. A number of other surface effects from low-velocity particles
has also been found after many of the missions, probably originating from the reaction control
system thrusters and the jettison rocket of the command module launch escape system.

Approximately 3.5 square meters of Apollo window surfaces have been scanned at a general
level of 20x magnification. Ten meteoroid impact craters have been found: five of these were on
the Apollo 7 windows, one each on the Apollo 8, 9, and 13 windows, two on the Apollo 14 windows,
and none on the Apollo IS, 16, and 17 windows. Data for craters ranging from 1 to 40 micrometers
indicate that the meteoroid mass limit at the detection threshold for the 20x scan is about 10- 11
gram. Combining these test data with previous hypervelocity data in glass targets indicates that
several crater regimes exist for craters ranging from 250 micrometers to 4 centimeters: Initi-
ally, there is a hemispherical crater, typical of those in soft metal, with a lip extending
around the target surface; a space zone then forms at a higher energy, removing the lip; and,
 3-77

at still higher energy levels, outer space zones appear and the original hemispherical crater
is ejected, leaving a conical residual crater with conchoidal ridges. The mass limit of 10- 11
gram for the 20x scan represents a meteoroid of approximately 4 micrometers in diameter at the
average meteoroid velocity of 20 kilometers per second and mass density of 2 grams per cubic
centimeter.

Experiment results indicate that the flux represented by the number of observed impacts and
area-time exposure is compatible with the flux estimates obtained from the results of penetration
sensors mounted on the Pegasus I, 2, and 3 satellites and on the Explorer 16 and 23 satellites;
from Surveyor III data; and from a near-earth environment model. Although the extent of window
contamination leaves some doubt that meteoroid composition can be positively distinguished from
residue associated Iorith each crater, the capability of this experiment to detect meteoritic resi-
due cannot be discounted.

3.3.10 Ga~-Ray Spectrometer

Gamma-ray spectrometer instruments "'ere flown on the Apollo 15 and 16 missions. The exper-
iment was conducted while in lunar orbit to obtain data on the degree of chemical differentiation
that the moon has undergone and the composition of the lunar surface. The equipment was also
operated during transearth coast to provide calibration data on spacecraft and space background
fluxes, and to provide data on galactic gamma-ray flux. A ga~~~-ray detector, capable of meas-
uring gamma radiation in the energy range from 200 000 to 10 mUlion electron volts, was mounted
on an extendable boom located in the scientific instrument module. The boom could be extended
25 feet, extended to two intermediate positions, retracted, or jettisoned by the crew by using
controls in the cormnand module crew station. Controls were also provided to activate or Jeac-
tivate the spectrometer, incrementally alter the sensitivity (gain) of the detector, and select
either of two detector counting modes.

On the Apollo 17 mission, a sodiul:! iodide crystal identical to those used as the detector
scintillator on the Apollo 15 and 16 missions was flown as a calibration reference for interpre-
tation of Apollo 15 and 16 data.

On the Apollo 15 and 16 missions, data were collected in lunar orbit and during transearth
coast for 215.2 and 109.5 hours, respectively. Of the lunar orbital data hours, 111.8 were prime
data obtained after lunar module separation from the command anci service module and 103.4 were de-
graded by the Apollo lunar surface experiments package fuel capsule (att<lched to the lunar mod-
ule) when the spacecraft were docked. All science objectives were satisfied on both missions
in spite of the following minor anomalies: During the Apollo 15 mission, the spectrometer ex-
perienced a gain shift of approximately 30 percent. Compensation for the shift was l!l3de opera-
tionally and, by the end of the mission, the spectrometer was operating in a relatively stable
state near the end of its adjustment. After transearth injection, a temporary zero-reference
shift occurred, causing the first eight channels of data to be grouped into one reportlng channel;
however, there was no loss of experiment data. This anomaly was determined to be a one-time fail-
ure of a component and no corrective action was required for the Apollo 16 instrument. Tests con-
ducted with the qualification unit verified that the earlier problem was caused by aging of the
photomultiplier tube in the gamma-ray detector assembly as a result of high cosmic ray flux rates
in lunar operation. To correct for this, the Apollo 16 flight unit was subjected to high levels
of radiation, thereby aging the detector photomultiplier tube. During the Apollo 16 mission,
the instrument boom mechanism stalled and would not retract fully on three of five retractions.
No corrective action was taken since this mechanism was not scheduled for further use.

Analyses of the experiment data frOM the Apollo 15 and 16 misSions relating to radioactiv-
ity levels of specific lunar surface areas are in agreement. The results of these analyses
(refs. 3-48 and 3-49) are summarized as follows.

a. Regions of highest activity are the western maria, followed by the Sea of Tranquillity
and the Sea of Serenity. Detailed structure exists within high-radioactivity regions. High ac-
tivity observed in the Fra Mauro area during the Apollo 16 mission is at approximately the same
levels as those observed around Aristarchus Crater and south of Archimedes Crater during the
Apollo 15 missions. These levels are also comparable to that of the soil returned from the
Apollo 14 mission.
3-78

b. Radioactivity 1s lower and more variable in the eastern maria. Considerably lower ac-
tivity is found 1n the far-side highlands with the eastern portion containing gamma-ray activity
lower than that found 1n the Ocean of Storms and the Sea of Rains by an order of magnitude. The
Descartes area appears to have undergone some admixing of radioactive material.

c. Preliminary data show intensity peaks that correspond to the characteristic energies of
the isotopes of iron, aluminum, uranium, potassium, and thorium.

d. Discrete, celestial gamma-ray sources were detected. These sources include 'h. Crab
Nebula, Sagittarius, local clusters of galaxies, and the super cluster that contains tho Virgo
cluster.

3.3.11 X-Ray Fluorescence

Identical X-ray fluorescence experiments flown on the Apollo 15 and 16 missions were used
principally for orbital mapping of the composition of the moon and, secondarily, for X-ray gal-
actic observations during transearth coast. Lunar surface measurements involved observations
of the intensity and characteristic energy distribution of the secondary or fluorescent X-rays
produced by the interaction of solar X-rays with the lunar surface; astronomical observations
consisted of relatively long periods of X-ray measurements of preselected galactic sources such
as Cyg X-I, Sco X-I, and the galactic poles.

The X-ray fluorescence experiment equipment consisted of an X-ray detector assembly capable
of detecting X-rays in the energy range from 1000 to 7000 electron volts, a solar monitor, and an
X-ray processor assembly. The X-ray detector assembly, located in the scientific instrument mod-
ule, detected X-rays reflected from the lunar surface or emitted by galactic X-ray sources. The
solar monitor, mounted in sector IV of the service module (displaced 180° from the X-ray detector
assembly), measured solar X-ray flux. The measurement of fluorescent X-ray flux from the lunar
surface and the direct solar X-ray flux that produces the fluorescence yielded information on the
nature of the lunar surface material.

X-ray fluorescence data were collected for totals of 186.1 hours in lunar orbit (143.9 hours
of prime data and 42.2 hours of degraded data) and 52.5 hours during transearth coast. Except
for minor noise problems which did not adversely affect experiment data, no equipment anomalies
occurred during the two missions.

Data were collected from slightly more than 20 percent of the total lunar surface, all
within a band between 30° north to 30° south latitude which included some area of overlap on the
two missions. Results of Apollo 15 and 16 data analyses agree closely. Confirmation of these
results by analyses of lunar surface samples indicate that the X-ray method is reliable for geo-
chemical mapping and that it can be used to determine both the major and more subtle composi-
tional differences between lunar maria and highland areas. The following summary results of the
two experiments were obtained from references 3-50 and 3-51.

a. Apollo 15 and 16 overlap regions were located between 50° to 60° east longitude, and
covered such areas as the Sea of Fertility, Smyth's Sea, Langrenus Crater, and the highlands west
of Smyth's Sea (fig. 3-1). Aluminum/silicon and magnesium/silicon concentration ratios in these
areas, determined from Apollo 15 and 16 data, agree within 10 percent or better. Aluminum/sili-
con concentration ratios range from about 0.36 to 0.60 for Apollo 15 and 0.41 to 0.61 for Apollo
16; magnesium/silicon concentration ratios range from about 0.25 to 0.21 for Apollo 15 and 0.26
to 0.20 for Apollo 16.

b. The Apollo 16 data show that for areas between 9° and 141° east longitude, aluminum/
silicon concentration ratios ranged from about 0.38 to 0.71, and those for magnesium/silicon from
about 0.40 to 0.16. Aluminum concentrations in the mare regions are 2 to 3 times lower than in
the terra and highland regions; magnesium concentrations in the mare regions are 1.5 to 2 times
higher than in the terra regions.

c. Aluminum/silicon and magnesium/silicon ratios indicate that the highlands have a wide-
spread differentiated crust having a materials composition that varies between anorthositic gab-
bro and gabbroic anorthosite, with probable occurrences of anorthosite, felsite and KREEP (a ma-
terial rich in potassium, rare-earth elements, and phosphorous).
 3-79

d. Th. aluminum/silicon ratios and optical albedo values correspond closely, thus estab-
1ishing that the albedo 1s a good guide to highland composition, specifically the plagioclase
content.

e. During transearth coast, X-ray data were obtained on several discrete X-ray sources and
other targets dominated by diffuse X-ray flux. The behavior of pulsating X-ray stars eyg X-I and
Seo X-I may be characterized by quiet periods and activity periods with durations up to a day.
Ten to thirty percent changes in X-ray intensity occur 1n a few minutes; the intensity of eyg X-I
can double within a day or so. This increase occurs in the three energy levels measured: 1000
to 3000 electron volts, 3000 electron volts, and 7000 electron volts.

3.3.12 Alpha-Particle Spectrometer

Identical alpha-particle spectrometer experiments flown on the Apollo 15 and 16 missions

were designed to map differences in uranium and thorium concentrations across the lunar surface.
These differences were identified by measuring the alpha-particle emission of two gaseous daugh-
ter products of uranium and thorium, radon-222 and radon-220, respectively. Because radon it-
self is the product of the decay of uranium and thorium, mapping of the concentrations of these
two elements can be accomplished by identifyin~ regions of high radon activity.

The experiment equipment consisted of an alpha particle sensing assembly that could detect
alpha particles in the energy range from 4.7 million to 9.1 million electron volts, supporting
electronics, and temperature monitors housed in the same enclosure as the X-ray fluorescence ex-
periment assembly. Controls were provided in the command module crew station to deploy a shield
protecting the experiment detectors from spacecraft contamination sources and to activate and de-
activate the experiment.

Experiment data were collected for 211.6 hours in lunar orbit (160.4 hours of prime data and
51.2 hours of degraded data) and 110.3 hours during transearth coast. No equipment anomalies oc-
curred that required remedial action; although two of the ten detectors in the Apollo 15 instru-
ment were noisy intermittently, data validity was not affected. The following summary of results
of the experiments was obtained from reference 3-52.

a. Radon emanation from the moon was positively detected although the average level is
about three orders of magnitude below terrestrial levels.

b. Several interesting characteristics in the spatial and temporal distribution of lunar

radon were observed. An area of relatively high radon emanation includes Aristarchus Crater,
Schroter's Valley, and Cobra Head.*

c. The most conspicuous localized feature is Aristarchus Crater where the counting rate of
radon-222 alpha particles is at least four times the lunar average. Grimaldi Crater appears to
be the site of another localized concentration, and the edges of the great maria basins are also
sites of increased activity.

d. Transient radon emanation from the moon also occurs, based on detection of large amounts
of polonium-2l0 (a daughter product of radon-222 and a decay product of lead-2l0). Polonium-2l0
was detected in a broad area extending from west of the Sea of Crises to the Van de Graaff-Orlov
Crater region; polonium-2lD levels of concentrations were much higher than required to be in
equilibrium with radon-222. An area having even higher concentrations of polonium-2ID is located
approximately 40 6 east longitude and centered around the Sea of Fertility.

3.3.13 Mass Spectrometer

Objectives of the mass spectrometer experiment, flown on the Apollo 15 and 16 missions, were
to measure the composition of the lunar atmosphere and to search for active volcanism on the lunar
surface. These data are important to understanding the evolution of the moon and the gas trans-
port mechanisms in other more complete planetary exospheres. Lateral transport can be observed
in an idealized form in the lunar atmosphere because gas molecules do not collide with each
other but, instead, travel in ballistic trajectories to form a nearly classical exosphere after
encounters with the lunar surface.

~Informal designations.
 3-80

The experiment assembly consisted of the mass spectrometer and its electronic components
mounted on a boom which was extended 24 fOElt from the scientific instrument module. The instru-
ment was capable of measuring the abundance of particles in the 12- to 66-atomic-mass-unit range.
A shelf-lllOunted shield to protect the spectrometer from spacecraft contamination sources when 1n
its stowed position opened and closed automatically when the boom was extended and retracted. In
addition to acquiring data while in lunar orbit, the spectrometer was operated at various inter-
mediate boom positions for specified periods during transearth coast to determine the concentra-
tion of constituents forming the so-called contamInation cloud from the cormnand and service mod-
ule. Command module crew station controls were provided to extend, retract, and jettison the
boom; activate and deactivate the spectrometer; select high and low spectrometer discrimination
modes and multiplier gains; and control ion source heaters and filaments.

Experiment data were collected for 134 hours in lunar orbit (127 hours of prime data and 7
hours of degraded data) for both missions, and 48 hours during the transearth portion of the
Apollo 15 mission. Boom retraction anomalies occurred on both missions. On the Apollo 15 mis-
sion, the bl,lom did not fully retract on 5 of 12 occasions. On the Apollo 16 mission, the boom
never fully retracted and then stalled at the two-thirds position during final retraction (or the
transearth injection maneuver. Because the maneuver could not be performed with the boom extended,
it was jettisoned, thereby preventing collection of data during transearth coast. In the absence
of specific evidence, tl~ incomplete retractions were assumed to have been caused by jamming of
the cable in the boom housing because of stiffenlng during periods of cold soak. The repeated
and prolonged stalling of the motors on the Apollo 16 mission caused the final failure of the
boom in mid-stroke. Results of data analyses (refs. )-53 and 3-54) are summarized as follows.

Large quantities of gas wer:e observed in lunar orbit that could neither have orginated in
lunar orbit nor resulted from spacecraft direct outgassing. The plausible source of these gases
Is the waste liquids periodicall)' dumped from the spacecraft. These liquids quickly freeze,
forming gases into solid particles that co-orbit the moon with the spacecraft. Subsequent evap-
oration produced many of the gases obscrved.

Data were obtained on the partial pressure of neon-20. At the 100-kilometer orbital alti-
tude, the concentration is (8.3 :t5) x 10 3 atoms per cubic centimeter. ThIs value transiated into
the nighttime surface concentration becomes (4.5 13) x lOS atoms per cubic centimeter. The valuc
is lower than previous estimates by approximately a (actor of 3 but is in fair agreement with the
data fr:om the Apollo 14 and 15 cold cathode ionization gages operating on the lunar surface.

3.3.14 Far Ultraviolet Spectrometer

The ultraviolet spectrometer was a scientific instrumcnt module experiment flown only on
the Apollo 17 mission. The purpose of this experiment was to measure the density, composition,
and temperature of the lunar atmosphere. The instrument developed for this purpose was a large
and highly sensitive far ultraviolet spectrometer which scanned the spectral region of 1180 to
1680 angstroms every 12 seconds with a spectral resolution of 10 angstroms. The experiment in-
strument was sensitive to all possible atmospheric species except argon, helium, and neon.

The most definitive information previously obtained about the density of the lunar atmos-
phere was with cold cathode ion gages deployed on the lunar surface on the Apollo 14 and 15 mis-
sions. Data obtained by these gages indicated that the lunar surface is an exosphere, with the
lunar surface defining the exobase and, therefore, controlling the "temperature" of the atmos-
phere. More specifically, the data showed that there are no collisions between the atmospheric
molecules or atoms and that the sources of the lunar atmosphere are the solar wind, lunar degas-
sing, and radiogenic gases (argon and radon) formed by lunar radioactivity.

The ultraviolet spectrometer experiment was designed to optimize the observation of atomic
hydrogen and xenon by spending about 45 percent of each spectral cycle scanning the resonant emis-
sions of these two species. Optimization for xenon detection at 1470 angstroms was planned on the
basis that this heaviest of the naturally occurring gases would probably be the most resilient to
the loss processes that had reduced the primordial lunar atmosphere density to at least 10- 12 of
the density at the surface of the earth.
 3-81

Far ultraviolet spectr.:ll data were collected for 80 hours in lunar orbit and for approxi-
lIlately 60 hours during transearth coast, a solar atmospheric observation ....as added In real time.
All planned observations ~,Iere accomplished, including those of lunar atlllClsphere cOl:lpositlon and
tlensity; lunar ultravioLet albedo; solar systetl L)"IlIlln-alpha (l216 angstroms); ultraviolet lodia-
cal light; and ultraviolet spectra of the earth, several stars, and extragalactic sources. Equip-
ment performance was nominal with t ....o minor exceptions - failure of internal tel:lperature sensing
clrcuJts and an unexpected high background count rate attributed to cos~lc background. These
problems did not impair collection of data or degrade its quality. Experiment results based on
preliminary analyses are su.~arlzed as follows (reC. 3-SS).

a. The present results indicate that tl~ lunar surface concentration of atomic hydrogen
is less than 10 atollls per cubic centimeter, alQOst three orders of nragnltude less than predicted.
This is consistent ""ith the hypothesis that the solar Iorind protons are completely converted into
hydrogen 1l101ecules at the lunar surface. The fact that xenon IIlUst be at best a minor component
of the lunar atlllOsphere, despite its large mass, indicates that the l:QCchanism of photoionization
loss followed by acceleration in the solar wind electrJc field dominates over Jean's evaporative
escape, at least for the heavy gases. The soall concentrations of hydrogen, carbon nitrogen,
oxygen, and carbon ~noxide, which are photodissociation products of .any gases of volcanic or-
igin, also place severe restrIctions all. present levels of lunar volcanism.

b. tunar albedo I:le3surel:lents confim those made on lunar s3lllples frolll the Apollo II, 12
and 14 missions.

c. Information was obtained on ultraviolet zodiacal light ClIlissions from the inner solar
atflWsphere. These data generally support the ultraviolet zodiacal light observations by Orbiting
Astronomical Observatory 2.

d. During transearth coast, data were collected on stellar and extragalactic sources, and
a general ultraviolet survey of the sky was conducted. Preliminary analysis of the spectra of
isolated bright stars demonstrates that significant data were obtained. The observed ultravio-
let spectral distributions agree Yith previous observations and provide the most precise measure-
ment of the absolute ultraviolet brightness obtained to date.

3.3.15 Lunar Mission Photography From the Command and Service Module

Photographs of the lunar surface were taken from the cOl:lllland module on the Apollo 8 mission
primarily for geodetic and operational purposes. The principal objectives were to obtain over-
lapping or stereoscopic-strip photographs, to photograph specific targets of opportunity, and to
photograph a potential landing site through the sextant.

Approximately 90 percent of the objectives were met despite curtailment of photographic ac-
tivities toward the end of the lunar orbit period because of crew fatigue and spacecraft opera-
tional requirements. The results were as follows:

a. Excellent coverage was obtained of selected areas on the far side of the moon complemen-
ting near-side photographs taken during the Lunar Orbiter series. Photographs were taken through
the entire range of sun angles, and revealed albedo variations not previously detected as ""ell
ae many bright-rayed craters ringed with high-albedo materiel.

b. Vertical and oblique stereoscopic photographs between terminators were obtained with the
70-millimeter camera from about ISO° west longitude to 60 0 east longitude. Sufficient detail was
available to permit photographic reconstruction of the lunar surface.

c. Of 51 planned targets of opportunity using the 70-millirneter electric camera, time per-
mitted photography of only 31. The targets were selected to enhance knowledge of specific fea-
tures or to provide broad coverage of areas not adequately covered by Lunar Orbiter photographs.

d. Photography using the l6-millimeter data acquisition camera in conjunction with the sex-
tant was performed over the proposed first lunar landing site and three control points. This pho-
tography indicated that landmark identification and tracking could readily be performed on lunar
landing _iss ions.

An analysis of the Apollo 8 photography is given in reference 3-56.

 3-82

3.3.16 Lunar Multispectral Photography

The multispectral photography experiment was sucesssfully accomplished on the Apollo 12 mis-
sion. Its purpose was to obtain lunar vertical strip photographs in the blue, red, and infrared
portions of the optical spectrum. Equipment consisted of an srray of four lO-millimeter electric
cameras with aD-millimeter lenses. three to satisfy experiment objectives and a fourth, with
green filter, for operational purposes.

In addition to photographs of three planned targets of opportunity. continuous vertical strip

photographs were obtained over the lunar surface from 118 0 east to 14° west longitude. The num-
ber of photographs obtained by each of the red-. green-. and blue-filtered cameras totaled 142,
and the number of photographs taken by the infrared camera was 105. These photographs provided
the firat high-resolution (about 30 meters) look at subtle color variations on the lunar surface
and the first study of color behavior at and near the point directly opposite the sun (zero phase).
The experiment demonstrated the feasibility of multispectral photogrsphy and methods used to
display color contrast (ref. 3-57).

3.3.17 Candidate Exploration Sites Photography

This detailed objective was accomplished on the Apollo 12 and Apollo 14 missions. Photo-
graphic tasks were intended to provide data for evaluating potential sites for follow-on lunar
landing missions. Primary targets on Apollo 12 were three potential landing sites: Fra Mauro,
Descartes, and Lalande. Although a malfunctioning film magazine prevented accomplishment of all
desired photography, mandatory requirements were satisfied. These included the following:
terminator-to-terminator stereoscopic coverage over three sites using the 70-millimeter electric
camera with an gO-millimeter lens, and concurrent landmark tracking with the 16-millimeter data
acquisition camera through the command and service module sextant; high-resolution photography
of the three sites with the 70-millimeter electric camera with a SOO-millimeter lens; and medium-
resolution photography of other interesting areas such as Davy Rille with the 70-millimeter elec-
tric camera and 2S0-millimeter lens.

The primary photographic target for Apollo 14 was the area of Descartes Crater, the tenta-
tive landing site for Apollo 16. A main objective was to obtain high-resolution photographs of
Descartes at both high and low altitudes using the lunar topogrsphic camera. This objective was
not completely satisfied becsuse of improper operation of the lunar topographic camera. As a
contingency measure, the 70-millimeter camera with a SOO-millimeter lens was used to obtain high-
resolution photographs of the Descartes area. Stereoscopic coverage of the area was also accom-
plished, although no camera shutter-open telemetry data were obtained because the S-band high-
gain antenna did not operate properly.

3.3.18 Selenodetic Reference Point Update

The detailed objective of obtaining landmark tracking photographs for use in updating selen-
odetic reference points was successfully accomplished on the Apollo 12 and Apollo 14 missions.
Lunar landmark tracking targets included the crater Lansberg A on the Apollo 12 mission and 11
landmarks on the Apollo 14 mission, ranging from 141 0 east longitude to 40 0 west longitude; major
landmarks were the craters Daguerre 66, Dollond E, Mosting A, Enke E, and Ansgarius N. Landmark
photographs were taken through the command and service module sextant using the 16-millimeter
data acquisition camera; supporting photographs were taken with the 70-millimeter electric cam-
era with an aO-millimeter lens.

3.3.19 Transearth Lunar Photography

Assigned to the Apollo 14 mission, the transearth lunar photogrsphy detailed objective was
intended to provide photographic coverage of large areas on the far side and eastern limb of the
moon. These photographs were to be obtained for use in extending selenodetic control and improv-
ing lunar maps. Both the 70-millimeter electric camera and the lunar topographic camera were
scheduled for use; however, the lunar topographic camera malfunctioned in lunar orbit as dis-
cussed in section 3.3.17, and only the 70-millimeter camera was used. Both the 80- and 2S0-
millimeter lenses were used with the 70-mill1meter camera to photograph the visible disk of the
moon after transearth injection. Features shown at high latitudes in these photographs were then
related to features at lower latitudes which appeared in landmark tracking and stereoscopic pho-
tographs.
 3-83

3.3.20 Service Module Orbital Photographic Tasks

Service module orbital photographic tasks were accomplished on the final three Apollo mis-
sions. The objectives of these tasks were to provide a data package consisting of tracking data,
terrain photography, stellar photography, and altimetry. Tracking data essentially relate the
spacecraft to an earth coordinate system. Terrain photography gives the relationship of the
lunar surface to the spacecraft. In turn, the relationships between the lunar surface, lunar
coordinate system, and earth coordinate system can be determined, yielding refined information
about the lunar ephemeris with respect to the earth coordinate system. Terrain photography is
also used in triangulation, an operation in which the geometry of all photographs taken on one
or more missions can be integrated into a single unified coordinate system with a precision of
about 20 meters in all three axes. Stellar photography, synchronized with metric photography
of the lunar surface, relates the lunar and celestial coordinate systems and gives refined in-
formation about the lunar rotation rates, the orientation of its axis with respect to the celes-
tial coordinate system, and its physical librations. Stellar photographs also permit the atti-
tude of each terrain photograph to be determined independently so that lunar surface photographs
can be related more precisely. Altimetry data, obtained from the command and service module in
lunar orbit, gives a profile of the subtrack on the lunar surface as well as distance measure-
ments of lunar surface features appearing in stereoscopic photographs; the altitude data allow
photographs to be tied together rigidly.

Service module orbital photographic tasks involved operation of a panoramic camera, a map-
ping camera, and a laser altimeter. Instrument operation, anomalies, and the results of photo-
graphic tasks are summarized in the following paragraphs.

a. Panoramic camera photography. The panoramic camera was an adaptation of a military

panoramic reconnaissance camera designed for high-altitude applications. From an altitude of 60
nautical miles, the camera covered a swath about 300 kilometers wide on the lunar surface, and
provided photographs with a resolution of 1 to 2 meters. Panoramic photographs, in conjunction
with 70-millimeter still camera photographs, were used for detailed photointerpretive studies.
After rectification, panoramic photographs were also used for the production of large-scale top-
ographic maps of landing sites and special features such as rilles, domes, and craters. Figures
3-9, 3-10 and 3-12 are examples of photographs taken with the panoramic camera.

The panoramic camera was flown successfully on the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions and pro-
duced outstanding photography of lunar features of very high resolution in bot~ stereo graphic and
monographic modes. On each of these missions, the lunar module could be seen in photographs of
the landing areas and, in some instances, soil disturbances caused by the lunar roving vehicle
and foot traffic could be seen. A total of 4697 photographs was recorded from these three mis-
sions. The areas of coverage are identified in references 3-58, 3-59, and 3-60.

The areas photographed on Apollo 15 included the Hadley Rille landing site, several areas
being considered as the Apollo 17 landing site, the Apollo 15 lunar module ascent stage impact
point, near-terminator areas, and other areas of general coverage. About 12 percent of the lunar
surface was photographed. Anomalous operation of the velocity/altitude sensor was indicated on
the first Apollo 15 panoramic camera pass on revolution 4 and on subsequent pass~s; however, good
photographs were obtained over all critical areas and less than 1 percent of the total film ex-
posed was seriously degraded by the sensor malfunction.

The velocity/altitude sensor measured the angular rate of travel of the spacecraft relative
to the lunar surface. The sensor output was used to control the cycling rate of the camera, the
forward motion compensation, and the exposure. The sensor normally operated in the range of 45
to 80 miles altitude. If, at any time, the indicated velocity/altitude was out of this range,
the sensor automatically reset to the nominal value of 60 miles. The sensor operated properly
for brief periods of time, but would drift off-scale high (saturate) and then reset to the nomi-
nal value corresponding to a 60-mile altitude. The results of tests, coupled with analyses of
the basic sensor design, indicated that the problem was related to the optical signal-to-noise
ratio. The remaining flight hardware was modified to improve this ratio.

Apollo 16 panoramic camera photography increased lunar surface coverage to about 15 percent,
and included the Descartes landing area and prime targets at King Crater and in the Fra Mauro re-
gion. In addition, photographs of the lunar surface were obtained after transearth injection.
During the mission, camera operation was stopped when an abnormal bus voltage condition was ob-
served; subsequent inspection revealed that the condition was due to the spacecraft configuration
 3-84

and not to a camera problem. Photography was rescheduled to obtain photographs lost while the
camera was stopped. In addition to this anomaly, the camera exposure sensor consistently read
lower light levels than were present. Postflight analysis indicated that frames taken about 25°
away from the terminator were overexposed by 1-1/2 to 2 f-stops. To prevent recurrence of the
anomaly on the Apollo 17 mission, sensor output voltage limits were added to preflight test pro-
cedures. A special process used to develop overexposed portions of film rolls compensated for
the sensor problem. Task objectives were satisfied by the excellent quality photographs that
were obtained.

Panoramic camera photographs obtained on the Apollo 17 mission increased total coverage of
the lunar surface to approximately 20 percent. Nultiple high-resolution photographs were obtained
of the Taurus-Littrow landing site and of regions east and west of the areas photographed during
the Apollo 15 and 16 missions. Photographs of the moon were also taken after transearth injec-
tion. The camera operated satisfactorily throughout the mission until the stereo drive motor
failed just before the final photographic pass in lunar orbit; although some stereoscopic photog-
raphy was lost and resulting monographic photography was degraded, mandatory photographic require-
ments were met.

b. Mapping camera photography. The mapping camera was designed to obtain high-quality met-
ric photographs of the lunar surface from lunar orbit combined with time-correlated stellar pho-
tography for selenodetic/cartographic control. The camera received altitude information from a
laser altimeter (discussed in the next subsection) once per frame in serial form. Timing signals
were provided to the laser to permit the altitude to be obtained within 3 milliseconds of the
center of exposure of the mapping camera.

Cartographic-quality photographs of all sunlit lunar surface areas overflown by the space-
craft as well as oblique photographs of large areas north and south of the groundtracks were ob-
tained on the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions. Areas of coverage are identified in references
3-58, 3-59, and 3-60.

On the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions, the times required to extend and retract the mapping
camera were considerably longer than those of preflight tests. Several corrective actions were
taken, but the problem was not resolved. Although the mapping camera was left in the extended
position for longer periods than planned, neither the quantity nor quality of photographic cover-
age was adversely affected.

Two other anomalies that occurred during the Apollo 16 mission concerned stellar camera glare
shield jamming and metal chips in the film cassettes. During the extravehicular activity for film
retrieval, the stellar camera lens glare shield was found in the extended position and was jammed
against the service lIIOdule handrail. Photographs taken from the lunar lIIOdule indicated that the
glare shield was properly retracted at rendezvous. As a result of this problem on the Apollo 16
mission, the Apollo 17 mapping camera drive rack was carefully realigned for proper pinion gear
engagement when the camera assembly was fully deployed. The aforementioned metal chips were
found during the reprocessing inspection of the Apollo 16 returned f11m. The chips were removed
at the start of processing and caused no loss of data on the film.

Despite the problems described, photographic requirements were satisfied on all three mis-
sions.

c. Laser altimetry. The laser altimeter marked the first use of a solid-state laser in a
spacecraft application. It was flown on each of the J-series missions: Apollo 15, Apollo 16,
and Apollo 17.

The purposes of the laser altimeter operations were to provide a measurement of the distapce
from the spacecraft to the lunar surface in synchronization with each mapping camera exposure,
and to provide topographic profiles for correlation with gravity anomalies obtained from track-
ing data.

During the first operating period on the Apollo 15 mission, the orbit was highly eccentric,
causing the spacecraft to be below the laser altimeter minimum range of 40 nautical miles approx-
imately half the time. Whenever the altitude was within the design range of the altimeter, valid
data were obtained. In the second and third operating periods, the laser output began to degrade,
 3-85

accompanied by a gradual decrease 1n the number of valid altitude measurements. A subsequent

failure in the high-voltage section caused total loss of receiver sensitivity. No data were ob-
tained during the last half of lunar orbital flight. The cause of the decreased laser output was
thought to be contamination of the optical surfaces 1n the laser module. As a result. more strin-
gent cleaning and assembly procedures were implemented, and a control circuit was added to sense
the output and to increase the input voltage to the laser if the output decreased. The source
of the high-voltage problem was verified by duplication in the laboratory. High-voltage break-
down 1n a vacuum relay was generating electromagnetic interference which was picked up by the
receiver automatic gain control circuit. The automatic gain control circuit held the receiver
at its minimum sensitivity, thereby causing loss of the return signal. The problem was cOrrected
by removal of the relay from subsequent units.

On the Apollo 16 mission, the laser altimeter was operated for seven periods in accordance
with the flight plan, as revised during the mission to accommodate a delay in the lunar module
landing. The laser output again began to degrade during the second operating period but was com-
pensated for by the control circuit ~lich had been added after the Apollo 15 mission. During the
seventh operating period, the control circuit had reached the limit of its compensation capabil-
ity, and the percentage of valid data showed a marked decrease. Of the total quantity of data
obtained on the illuminated side of the moon, approximately 70 percent was valid. Because re-
duced laser output had less effect on operation over nonilluminated areas, approximately 80 per-
cent of the dark-side measurements was valid. The decrease in laser output during this mission
was a repeat of that experienced during the Apollo 15 mission, except that the added control cir-
cuit did prolong the effective life of the altimeter. The cause of the problem was found to be
contamination of the laser module optics by bearing lubricant and a decrease in flash lamp energy
due to solarization of the quartz envelope. The bearings in the Q-switch rotor were changed to
a type having the lubricant vacuum-impregnated into the ball retainer. The flashlamp envelope
material was changed to a higher purity grade of quartz to eliminate solarization. In addition,
the control circuit was modified so that its compensation was added in smaller increments.

The effectiveness of the changes implemented in the laser altimeter hardware as a result of
the previously mentioned problems can be seen by performance of the instrument on the Apollo 17
mission. The number of operations that produced valid data exceeded 99 percent. No altimeter
anomalies occurred during the Apollo 17 mission.

Apollo program laser altimeter data reveal that the mean radius of the nnon is approximately
1738 kilometers. The data also show that the center of figure is offset from the center of mass
by 2 to 4 \dIameters along the earth-moon line. Additional details of the laser altimeter
studies are given in references 3-61, 3-62 and 3-63.

3.3.21 Command Module Orbital Science Photography

The command module orbital science photography detailed objective was conducted during the
Apollo 14 mission. The purpose was to obtain photographs of lunar surface areas of prime sci-
entific interest and of specific segments of the lunar surface in earthshine and in low-level
light near the terminators*.

The lunar topographic camera with an 18-inch lens was provided to obtain high-resolution
(2 meters) stereoscopic photographs (with 60 percent overlap) of four lunar surface targets; the
target having the highest priority was an area north of Descartes Crater, a candidate landing site
for the Apollo 16 lunar module. Operation of the camera was noisy on the first of three scheduled
passes, indicating a camera malfunction. An extensive postmission film development plan insti-
tuted for analysis of the two exposed 5-inch film rolls resulted in the recovery of 193 usable
photographs. These photographs covered a segment of the central lunar highlands from the eastern
rim of Theophilus Crater to a point northwest of Kant Crater. Two major units were included:
Theophilus Crater ejecta and Kant Plateau materials.

High-resolution photographs of eight lunar surface targets were scheduled to be obtained

with a 70-millimeter electric camera: three with a SOO-millimeter lens, and five with a 2S0-
millimeter lens. The SOO-millimeter targets were photographed successfully, but only two of
the 2S0-mUlimeter targets were obtained; photographs of the other three targets were deleted
because of operational considerations. The 70-millimeter camera was also used to photograph a
number of targets that had been scheduled to be photographed with the lunar topographic camera.

*Oividing line between illuminated and unilluminated lunar surface.

 3-86

A sequence of photographs showing the lunar surface in earthshine and in low light levels
near the terminator was accomplished successfully. A 70-millimeter electric camera with an 80-
millimeter lens and a 16-millimeter data acquisition camera with an 18-millimeter lens were used.
The photographic sequence started just before the command and service module crossed the sunrise
terminator and continued past the terminator. Photographs covered the area located 1n the south-
central portion of the Ocean of Storms 1n the vicinity of Kunowsky Crater and approximately 210
kilometers southeast of Kepler Crater. Details of the orbital science photography conducted on
the Apollo 14 mission are given in reference 3-64.

3.3.22 Visual ObSQrvations from Lunar Orbit

Visual observations were an integral part of lunar exploration because the dynamic range
and color sensitivity of the human eye cannot be matched by anyone film type or sensing instru-
ment and because, in special cases, on-the-scene interpretation of observed features or phenom-
ena was needed. Visual observations were intended to complement photographic and other remotely
sensed data obtained from lunar orbit. This detailed objective was successfully accomplished on
the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions. The locations of many of the areas referred to in the fol-
lowing paragraphs may be found in figure 3-1.

The extraordinary success of the visual observations on the Apollo 15 mission proved the
outstanding capabilities of man and his use in space flight. All 13 scheduled targets were ob-
served and crew comments were relayed to earth. Targets were the craters Tsiolkovsky, Picard,
Proclus, Cauchy, Littrow, Dawes, and Sulpicius Gallus; Hadley Rille; Imbrium Basin flows; the
Harbinger Mountains; the Aristarchus Plateau; and areas to be observed after transearth injec-
tion. The following significant observations were made during this mission (ref. 3-65).

a. Fields of possible cinder cones were discovered on the southeast rim of rhe Sea of
Serenity (Littrow Crater area) and on the southwest rim of the same mare basin (Sulpicius Gallus
Crater area).

b. The lineated segment of the northwestern rim of Tsiolkovsky Crater on the lunar far side
was interpreted as a landslide.

c. An excluded zone in the ray pattern around Proclus Crater on the west rim of the Sea of
Crises was interpreted as caused by a fault system at the west rim of the crater.

d. Recognition of layering along crater walls (as opposed to terracing by faults and mass
wasting by downward movement of materials along the walls) was achieved for the first time. This
recognition gives a new dimension to thinking relative to the nature of the upper layers of the
lunar crust.

Targets scheduled for visual observation on Apollo 16 were the farside highlands; the cra-
ters Mendeleev, King, Goddard, and Kapteyn; the Colombo highlands; the craters Isodorus-Capella;
the Descartes landing site; and Alphonsus Crater. All but one of the targets were successfully
observed; the Goddard target area was deleted because of time constraints. Items used to aid in
observations were site graphic materials, a pair of lO-power binoculars, and a reference color
wheel. The following significant observations were made (ref. 3-66).

a. The crew's first impression of the moon from lunar orbit was that of a brilliant, heav-
ily battered, and uniformly colored body. Toward the end of lunar orbit, they felt that the de-
tailed characteristics of units commonly mapped on the lunar near and far sides were surprisingly
similar.

b. Fine scarps, generally irregular and somewhat subdued, were observed on the far side,
but none wss seen in the near-side highlands.

c. The Cayley Formation generally had the same appearance as large basin fill, as small
patches in the bottom of the steep-sided craters, and as valley filling in the hummocky far-side
highlands.

d. Mare surfaces provided the setting for the most obvious color contrasts.
 3-87

e. Numerous terrace-like rims were detected along highland hills in the Sea of Clouds, the
Known Sea, and the Ocean of Storms, these are interpreted as "high-water marks," representing
the maximum depth of filling by mare lavas.

Nine lunar surface targets were scheduled for visual observation on Apollo 17. They were
the craters Aitken, Arabia, and Copernicus; the Seas of Crises and Serenity; D-Caldera; the
Taurus-Littrow landing site; Smyth's Sea; Reiner Gamma Crater; and Tsiolkovsky Crater. Four ad-
ditional targets observed were Euler Hills, and the craters Gagarin, Korolev. and Pasteur. Crew
aids were onboard graphic materials, a pair of IO-power binoculars, and a reference color wheel.
All aids were useful except the color wheel which apparently did not include a color range com-
parable to actual lunar colors.

Because the Apollo 17 groundtracks repeated approximately 80 percent of the lunar surface
area previously overflown on Apollo IS, much was already known about the features 1n question.
For this reason, emphasis was placed on color tones of geologic units and details of small-scale
features. Detailed descriptions of the observations are given in reference 3-67.

3.3.23 Gegenschein from Lunar Orbit

The Gegenschein from lunar orbit experiment was performed on the Apollo 14, 15 and 16 mis-
sions. Its purpose was to determine if a detectable accumulation of dust exists at the Moulton
point of the sun-earth system and, thus, to establish whether sunlight reflected from dust par-
ticles at this location contributes significantly to the Gegenschein phenomenon. The l6-milli-
meter data acquisition camera with an 18-millimeter lens was used on the Apollo 14 mission, and
a 35-millimeter camera with a 55-millimeter lens was used on the Apollo 15 and 16 missions.

On the Apollo 14 mission, three sets of photographs were required to meet experiment objec-
tives. Each set consisted of two 20-second exposures and one S-second exposure in quick succes-
sion. For the first set the camera was pointed near the antisolar direction; for the second set
the camera was pointed midway between the antisolar direction and the computed direction of the
Moulton point, as viewed from the moon; and for the last set the camera was pointed near the di-
rection of the Moulton point. All requirements were satisfied. Both aiming and filming were
excellent. and the experiment demonstrated that long exposures were practicable.

As planned for the Apollo 15 mission, photography of the Gegenschein and Moulton point was
performed twice, and at least six exposures were obtained during each sequence. All photographs
were unusable because of incorrect spacecraft attitudes resulting from errors incurred during
analytical transformation of target coordinates to spacecraft attitudes. However, the opera-
tional performance of the 35-millimeter camera system, used for the first time on the Apollo 15
mission. demonstrated its feasibility for Gegenschein photography.

The Apollo 16 experiment objectives were the same as those for the Apollo 14 and 15 missions,
and were accomplished satisfactorily. Ten desired exposures were obtained, five with I-minute
durations and five with 3-minute durations. Pointing accuracy and spacecraft stability were
within specified limits. Photographic quality was good, and the solar radiation caused less deg-
radation of the Apollo 16 film than that of the Apollo 14 and 15 film. Analysis of the photo-
graphs shows that the sky is definitely brighter in the antisolar direction than in the direc-
tion of the Moulton region and that much less than half the light seen on earth as the Gegen-
schein comes from particles lingering in the Moulton region.

3.3.24 Ultraviolet Photography - Earth and Moon

This photography experiment was conducted on the Apollo 15 and 16 missions. Its purpose
was to obtain imagery of the earth and the lOOon at a series of wavelength int